Leakage Detection and Management

A comprehensive guide to technology and practice in the water supply industry

Written by

David Butler BSc MSc CEng MICE

Published by

Palmer Environmental
2000

David Butler David Butler has over 25 years experience in the UK water industry, specialising in analysis, appraisal, auditing, policy development and training in water distribution leakage management and control strategies. Internationally, he has experience of leakage policy development in major cities in India, Germany and the Netherlands. He has provided leakage management training courses in Hong Kong and Portugal, and has addressed and chaired international water engineering conferences on the subject.

Palmer Environmental Palmer Environmental is the worlds largest designer and manufacturer of specialised water leak detection equipment, with over 40 company years experience of meeting customers leak detection needs. Palmer Environmental supplies products for all aspects of leak detection, including the widest range of leak noise correlators, acoustic products, market leading noise loggers and the first economically justifiable, permanently installed leak detection system. Palmers design and manufacturing facility in Cwmbran, UK produces the worlds most advanced, innovative and easy-to-use water leak detection equipment. This is backed up by an international distributor network providing comprehensive service, support and training.

Published by Palmer Environmental Ty Coch House Llantarnam Park Way Cwmbran NP44 3AW Tel: +44 (0) 1633 489479 Fax: +44(0) 1633 877857 email: info@palmer.co.uk website: www.palmer.co.uk

ISBN 0-9538014-0-3

CONTENTS
Page 1. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 INTRODUCTION TO LEAKAGE DETECTION The Importance of Leakage Reduction ........................................................................................................ 7 Leakage and Usage ...................................................................................................................................... 8 Sources of Leakage .................................................................................................................................... 11 Factors Influencing Leakage ...................................................................................................................... 13 Basic Leakage Growth and Active Control ..................................................................................................15 Leakage Control Strategies ..........................................................................................................................16 Consumer Reported Leakage........................................................................................................................19 Future Considerations ..................................................................................................................................20

2. 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

HYDRAULICS AND NETWORK ANALYSIS FOR LEAKAGE DETECTION Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................27 Energy Principles ..........................................................................................................................................27 Head Loss in Pipelines..................................................................................................................................29 The Hydraulic Gradient ................................................................................................................................30 Pipe Flow Formulae......................................................................................................................................30 Pipe Friction Diagrams ................................................................................................................................32 Network Analysis..........................................................................................................................................32

3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5

DISTRICT METER AREA MANAGEMENT Distribution Network Structure ....................................................................................................................37 District Meter Areas......................................................................................................................................37 Waste Meter Areas ........................................................................................................................................40 Links to Other Data Information Systems ....................................................................................................40 Commissioning ............................................................................................................................................41

4. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11

METERING FOR LEAKAGE DETECTION Hierarchy of Metered Areas..........................................................................................................................43 District Metering ..........................................................................................................................................43 Waste Metering ............................................................................................................................................44 Recent Meter Improvements ........................................................................................................................44 Meter Site Selection......................................................................................................................................45 Meter Installation Design..............................................................................................................................45 Meter Selection Criteria................................................................................................................................46 Mechanical Meters - Helix (Woltmann) ......................................................................................................48 Electromagnetic Flow Meters ......................................................................................................................49 Insertion Velocity Probes ..............................................................................................................................51 Domestic Revenue Meters ............................................................................................................................51

5. 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

DETECTION EQUIPMENT Detection Principles ......................................................................................................................................55 Stethoscopes (Listening or Sounding Sticks) ..........................................................................................55 Electronic Sounding Devices........................................................................................................................55 The Mobile Advanced Step Tester (MAST) ................................................................................................56 Leak Noise Correlator (LNC) ......................................................................................................................56 Leak Noise Loggers ......................................................................................................................................57 Non-Acoustic Equipment and Techniques....................................................................................................59

6. 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

EQUIPMENT AND LEAKAGE DETECTION TECHNIQUES FOR TRUNK MAINS Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................62 Meter on Bypass ..........................................................................................................................................62 Heat Pulse Flow Meter ................................................................................................................................63 Pairs of Insertion Turbine Meters ................................................................................................................63 Infra-Red Photography..................................................................................................................................64 Leak Noise Correlation ................................................................................................................................64

7. 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

IDENTIFICATION OF MAINS, SERVICES AND VALVES Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................65 Location for Mains in a 2m Footpath ..........................................................................................................65 Service Pipe Layouts ....................................................................................................................................65 Valve Identification ......................................................................................................................................66 Electronic Pipe Locators ..............................................................................................................................66 Other Location Methods ..............................................................................................................................67

8. 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9

LEAKAGE INDENTIFICATION AND LOCALISATION Demand Patterns ..........................................................................................................................................70 Night Lines....................................................................................................................................................70 The Development of Continuous Monitoring ..............................................................................................70 Determination of Leakage from Night Flows ..............................................................................................71 Necessary Checks ........................................................................................................................................71 Large Area Sub-Division ..............................................................................................................................72 Waste Metering ............................................................................................................................................72 Step Testing ..................................................................................................................................................73 Acoustic (Noise) Logging ............................................................................................................................74

9. 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7

LEAKAGE LOCATION, CONFIRMATION AND REPAIR Sounding ......................................................................................................................................................79 Leak Noise Correlation ................................................................................................................................79 Visual Evidence ............................................................................................................................................80 Other Practical Points ..................................................................................................................................80 Confirmation ................................................................................................................................................80 Repair, Follow-up and Records ....................................................................................................................81 Leakage Contracts ........................................................................................................................................81

10. 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8

PRESSURE MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT Pressure Management ..................................................................................................................................82 Pressure Control Options ..............................................................................................................................82 Pressure Control Benefits ............................................................................................................................82 Pressure Reduction Problems ......................................................................................................................83 Pressure and Leakage....................................................................................................................................84 Statutory Requirements and Levels of Service .......................................................................................... 85 Identification of Areas for Pressure Reduction ............................................................................................85 Pressure Reducing Valves - General Overview ............................................................................................87

11. 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6

THE ECONOMICS OF LEAKAGE MANAGEMENT Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................93 Policy Development through an Economic Approach ................................................................................94 The Unit Cost of Leakage ............................................................................................................................97 Cost of Leakage Detection............................................................................................................................98 Typical Total Leakage Costs ......................................................................................................................100 Environmental and Social Costs ................................................................................................................100

12. 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7

RECENT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE INTERPRETATION AND USE OF NIGHT FLOW DATA Introduction ................................................................................................................................................111 Bursts and Background Losses ..................................................................................................................111 Components of Night Flows ......................................................................................................................111 Night Flow and Customer Use....................................................................................................................113 Losses from Bursts......................................................................................................................................114 Estimating Background Night Flows in Individual DMAs ........................................................................115 Prioritising Unreported Burst Location Activities ......................................................................................118

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ........................................................................................................................125

1.
1.1

INTRODUCTION TO LEAKAGE DETECTION

The Importance of Leakage Reduction
Traditionally, in the UK, leakage detection has been seen only as a small part of a much bigger picture. Water Suppliers had little incentive to find and repair leaks because there was seen to be a relatively plentiful resource. This has all changed. Firstly, there have been three significant droughts in a twenty-year period that have each led to severe supply restrictions in some areas. The climate is changing, with rising temperatures which are forecast to continue, and shifting, less dependable rainfall patterns. With droughts predicted more frequently, the cumulative effect on ground water and river supplies will be noticeable. Furthermore, applications to develop new water sources are rigorously examined in the light of leakage reduction performance. Also, households, industry and agriculture are all likely to want more water due to this climate change, on top of the normal gradual increases. Secondly, the privatisation of the Water Industry and the creation of regulatory bodies have forced Water Suppliers to more accurately quantify leakage, and to devise better strategies to manage it. Leakage has been brought sharply to the attention of the media, and hence to the public. It has become a political issue, capable of making headlines. Consequently, tough mandatory targets have been set for the Industry in the last half of the 1990s, based on a five point criteria:- methodology, data quality, breadth of analysis, robustness of the water balance, and consistency of approach. Thirdly, the Industry is having to take much more notice of its customers views. If customers are being encouraged not to waste water, then the Suppliers must be seen to be doing more. Research has indicated that customers: dont think there should be any leakage do not understand the concept of economic levels of leakage listen to the media more than Water Suppliers about leakage performance have more emotional than rational views about leakage perceive a lack of leakage reduction as a profit related issue have mixed views on water conservation and supply pipe responsibility

Fourthly, a more rigorous cost/benefit assessment of economic levels of leakage has been demanded by the Industry Regulators, with reporting procedures established. The performances of individual Suppliers are now readily compared in the public view, and comparisons are being sought internationally, with the intent of motivating for further leakage reductions. These four aspects are summarised below. Quantity Considerations Climate Change Resource Development Limitations Increasing Demand Regulatory Considerations OFWAT Environmental Agency Drinking Water Inspectorate Customer Considerations Efficiency Perception Shareholder Expectations Legal Responsibilities Economic Considerations An Optimum Level A Consistent Strategy

1.2

Leakage and Usage

Definitions Water loss may be defined as that water which having been obtained from a source and put into a supply and distribution system is lost via leaks or is allowed to escape or is taken therefrom for no useful purpose. Water loss is usually considered as leakage and water loss reduction referred to as leakage control. Water loss is usually quantified on the following basis: Water Loss = (Quantity of water put in to supply) (Non-domestic usage + Domestic consumption)

Unaccounted for Water To allow for leakage and quantities termed as other water uses, the term unaccounted for water is used (called U). This is a good way of distinguishing it from the useful water supplied to both domestic and non-domestic consumers, which is grouped together as accounted for water. The classic leakage control formula is:U = S - (M + A x P) Where U S M = = = Unknown or unaccounted for quantities of water including leakage. Sum of all water inputs into a system. Sum of all water accounted for by measure (metered supplies, domestic and non-domestic) Average domestic usage per capita of population. Population supplied (non-metered).

A P

= =

Leakage is within the unaccounted for water value U. An allowance is normally made for miscellaneous usage and non-domestic, non- metered consumption. The calculation of U, its comparison area by area, and analysis of trends, is thus an important basis upon which to establish leakage control. Water Suppliers use the above formula to calculate their annual overall leakage levels by what is known as the Total Integrated Flow method (i.e. a top-down approach). The Total Integrated Flow (or Water Balance) Method is a useful means of assessing the overall leakage performance for a system on an annual basis. It will take into account all leakage from the system, including that from reservoirs and trunk mains, and can be carried out based on data which all Water Suppliers require, not just for leakage control, but for forward planning and financial management. However, the errors inherent in the data used make the absolute accuracy of the calculation questionable. Also, it can take some time (e.g. a month or two) to assemble and compute. Quantity of Water into Supply The quantity of water put into supply is normally obtained from physical measurements of the water source outputs and therefore the reliability and accuracy of source water meters is of great importance. In leakage calculations it is known as the quantity S.

Water delivered Water delivered is defined as the amount of water delivered by the Water Supplier at the stop tap (i.e. at the boundary of its apparatus and the beginning of the private customers pipework), plus some miscellaneous and illegal use. Water delivered therefore includes private leakage, and is often expressed as a percentage of water produced.. Figure 1.1 illustrates the water balance. Legitimate Use Domestic Domestic demand is a term which includes: reasonable usage in households supplied (usually measured in the UK), but excluding meter option households for calculation purposes unreasonable, excessive or extravagant use (e.g. garden sprinklers left on overnight)

Domestic demand in the UK is traditionally evaluated based on estimates of the population served (P) and an estimate of the average daily demand, referred to as per capita demand (A). Water Suppliers work closely with population census authorities to ensure the accuracy of estimates used. It has been difficult to calculate this per capita value figure reliably until recently. However, the advent of the micro-chip and the modern data logger has made very significant advances in this respect. Data loggers are now light, rugged and reliable, and relatively cheap, and by using them in a statistically structured manner, it is possible to derive values for domestic per capita consumption with a high degree of accuracy. Some UK Water Suppliers operate Domestic Consumption Monitors by which volunteer households are selectively chosen by property age, size and type, and are continuously monitored. All water usage is recorded by data logger, and data retrieval is now being automated for interrogation by telephone. Based on this data and other national studies, it is considered that actual water used in an average UK household is about 145 litres per head per day. This includes allowances for excessive use and is designated A. Household metering in the UK is becoming increasingly significant as Water Suppliers are required to install more and more domestic meters. As at year 2000, 15% of UK households are metered. Some Suppliers expect this figure to double in the near future. Non-Domestic This component of demand is almost totally metered in the UK (only a small component is unmetered) and is designated M. It includes leakage on the customers side of the meter which has thus been measured and paid for. This leakage beyond meters is a matter of concern, because even though the water is paid for, it is wasteful in resources, and if left unchecked it can lower the level of service to other customers. Measurement in terms of population for this component is not really helpful because metered demand can range from a small caf to a large steel works. Non-domestic metered demand can amount to about a quarter of all water supplied.

Other Uses There are other quantities of water which do not reach the consumer, and these include: Water used for fire-fighting. Water used to clean service reservoirs. Water used for mains testing and flushing. Water for cleaning sewers, streets and other public purposes (sometimes metered and charged for, sometimes not).

Strictly speaking these water uses are legitimate, are accountable, and could be measured. In practice, they are usually small in total compared to the amount going into supply, and hence they are not measured, and are counted as part of water losses. Illegal, and therefore not charged, use can be a problem, although it is normally small. Volume of Leakage In round terms in the United Kingdom, about 25% of the water leaving the treatment works is unaccounted for. However, this is a simplistic statement and circumstances vary widely. Often it is more useful to express leakage in demand per property, or per kilometre of main, with time. Some water leakage rates are recorded at a rate of 30% and above (in mining areas for instance), whilst in some developing countries the water losses can vary from 50% to 70%, and the water mains system can only be pressurised for a few hours a day. On the other hand in parts of Northern Europe, on modern systems, leakage as low as 3% is claimed. Singapore makes similar claims. Outsiders to the industry are often amazed to learn that a quarter of the water which has been gathered, impounded, treated and pumped should then be lost, and they take it as indicating poor practice and inefficiency. This is not necessarily so. Compared to other fluids such as petrol and natural gas where tiny or no leakage at all is demanded, water is cheap and a less dangerous product. Furthermore, it is being distributed through old and very expensive apparatus whose replacement or rehabilitation capital cost is huge. Figure 1.2 illustrates the volume of leakage pertaining to the UK, and indicates the sources. Errors Leakage control must be approached in the realistic knowledge that water volume measurement is subject to error. Huge volumes of water are measured and distributed through a vast, aged network of pipes, and whilst calculation of leakage on a logical basis is essential, it must be accepted that errors exist and values are sometimes approximate. Studies have shown that bulk meters often have significant error which invariably represents an underrecording of the true quantity. Even the small diameter positive displacement meters used for consumer metering struggle to record very low flows. Such flows occur frequently when filling roof tanks and cisterns via ball valves, and can give rise to significant under-recording of the quantity used. Meter errors occur because of: an inherent error poor maintenance ageing misreading incorrect location incorrect sizing

10

Where domestic consumption is unmeasured, errors can obviously occur because of incorrect assessments of customers served, per capita demand and seasonal variations - a variation of up to 40% can be experienced between a winters day and a hot summers day. The estimation of non-domestic, non-metered consumption is also a source of error. It must be stressed that the existence of these errors does not in any way invalidate the need to calculate leakage as carefully as possible. The Appendix to this section discusses further the potential for error contained within the use of the Unaccounted for Water formula.

1.3

Sources of Leakage
Treatment Works At the beginning of the water works operation, up to 7% of water can be lost as part of the treatment process. On account of good practice and recycling, this amount can be reduced to 2-3% and is not usually included when leakage control is referred to. Trunk Mains and Aqueducts Trunks mains can carry raw water into a treatment works, or treated water onwards into the distribution mains system. There is no definitive size range, but often pipes of 300m and above are considered in this category in the UK. Because of their importance and the need to preserve security of supply, aqueduct leakage is usually detected and repaired quickly. It usually forms only a small part of the overall leakage total. Service Reservoirs and Water Towers Again, leakage from these structures usually only represents a small proportion of overall water loss. It is nevertheless necessary to maintain and monitor reservoirs and water towers carefully, from considerations of their structural safety as well as for leakage. Cracked walls or floors can leak water into underdrain systems, so it is necessary to regularly record these flows and losses. Cracks and joint degradation can be checked for during a regular cleaning programme. Water entering the overflow system is preventable and regrettably quite common. Inspection of reservoir telemetry data, particularly overnight levels, can often be a useful indication of leakage. Distribution Mains Distribution mains (including trunk carrier mains within them) represent the major source of water leakage in a water supply system. Distribution mains are an inheritance of different pipe materials, age and condition, each leaking at different rates. Valves, Hydrants, Stop Taps etc Valves, hydrants, stop taps etc need glands to operate effectively. The gland sealants will deteriorate with time and sealing surfaces become worn. This creates leakage which must be controlled by the necessary maintenance. Periodic operation of a valve will help prevent the need for repairs. Maintenance of all valves on a set frequency is not recognised as an economic activity. However, strategic valves and trunk main valves may warrant this attention. Similarly, all flow control valves, including pressure reducing valves (PRVs), should have regular inspections and planned maintenance.

11

External corrosion of valves and hydrants is not generally a reason for failure. However, internal corrosion can be a significant problem and may prevent a leak-tight shut off. The types of failures experienced with stop taps are usually leakage from joints or the inability to operate the valve through corrosion or washer failure. Leaking mains ferrules will generally have to be replaced. Pipe Joints Pipe joints are a major source of leakage. Joints may have been fabricated in a faulty manner and remain water-tight for a few years only. Ground movement as a pipe trench settles can overload the joint and induce leakage. Service pipe joints, especially of the mechanical type, are a common source of trouble, compounded by large numbers of very similar specialist parts. An O ring may look to be the correct fitting but begin to leak the day after it has been back-filled. Service Pipes These too are a large source of leakage. Again, these Water Supplier owned pipes may comprise many ages, materials and conditions, and they can leak seriously. Service pipes may be of lead, copper, galvanised iron or polyethylene, each of which can fail. Copper pipe can be subject to pin hole attack. Much galvanised iron is now nearing the end of its life and is in an advanced state of corrosion, and polyethylene, although the best of the modern materials and giving excellent performance, can crack when laid wrongly, or cranked through a tight radius. Joins to the mains at one end of the communication pipe (mains ferrules) and to the stop tap at the other are a particular source of trouble. Underground Private Supply Pipes These frequently leak seriously. Age, material and condition once more vary widely but also there is often the added complication of shared responsibility on common or joint supply pipes. Access to repair on private supply pipes, particularly common supplies, is notoriously difficult. For instance, over the years, out-buildings may have been erected over the pipes. Repair of supply pipes is a private responsibility usually enforceable by the Water Supplier but it is nearly always a protracted process. Water Suppliers may use special notices to require leakage repair, and in default may have to do the work themselves and recharge it to the customer. Continued effort by the Water Supplier to pursue these leaks is needed, and it is the UK experience that the offer of a free repair service greatly helps in terms of time. There is also a suprising increase in the number of such leaks reported. National UK investigations have shown that underground private leakage is greater than previously thought but it is only significant on a few properties (approx. 1 in 300). Private Pipework Above Ground This leakage is considerable and varies greatly with the season. Pipes burst more often in the winter! On non-domestic premises, any leakage is metered and hence paid for. On domestic premises, dripping taps and leaking ball valves accumulate to a significant component of the total.

12

Faulty fittings within a house can cause significant loss of water. One faulty ball valve alone can account for up to 50 l/day. A Water Supplier may have statutory bylaw provisions which it can enforce concerning the size, nature, materials strength and workmanship of waste fittings. They may be able to forbid the use of fittings conducive to leakage or undue consumption, and may be able to enforce their maintenance. In practice the enforcement of bylaws/regulations is very onerous, yet if it is not pursued leakage persists. Leakage often occurs on old or neglected property where the occupiers do not understand their responsibilities, or cannot afford, or wish to afford, repairs. Continued effort and allocation of resources is needed to contain this type of leakage.

1.4

Factors Influencing Leakage

Types of Mains Old iron mains still form the majority of mains and they are the worst culprits for leakage. They suffer from both external and internal corrosion attack which progressively weakens them. Iron mains can then crack and leak, or holes form due to the corrosion process. Once the leakage occurs, which may be finally precipitated by an increase in pressure, flow, or temporary change, then it will worsen. This may occur steadily, or rapidly degenerate into a large burst. Cases of subterranean caverns beneath metalled roadways are known where the escaping water hollows out a void by its pressure jet. Concrete lining of iron mains virtually stops internal corrosion but has no effect on external corrosion. Asbestos cement mains normally fail by cracking, acting as a beam under load, and the subsequent collar repair can be a source of future trouble. UPVC pipes are not thought to contribute largely to the total water lost. Failures in the early plastic pipes have been frequent in large diameter sizes, and the pipes usually fail by shattering. Joint ring failure is sometimes a problem. MDPE (polyethylene) pipes are still a relatively recent introduction but their performance to date is excellent, provided they are jointed properly. Furthermore, polyethylene pipes are still being improved/developed, which can only be good for the future. Steel mains only form a small proportion of mains and these are usually in aqueducts with cathodic protection. Steel fails usually with pin holing, necessitating welded patch repairs. Soil Conditions Clearly soils influence corrosion and leakage rates. Some light soils scarcely affect the pipes whilst others such as Lias clays or alluvium are very aggressive. Trench back-fill of sulphate-rich ashes is especially corrosive. Aggressive Water Water fed into supply should be carefully controlled for quality. It should be checked to ensure that it is not plumbo-solvent. Certain natural waters have a higher rate of attack on iron pipe than others. Climate and Ground Movement Seasonal variations in climate have a marked effect upon leakage levels. For instance, a hard winter induces ground movement in the freeze/thaw cycle and this causes a high number of bursts. In a similar way a long drought causes ground movement, and again often results in an increase in the number of bursts.

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Long periods of hot, dry weather bring about high demand and a disproportionately high domestic per capita consumption. This may distort leakage estimates for particular years. Sudden saturation of dried out sub-soil can also cause problems through local heave. Mining subsidence can create successive tension and compression of the pipework causing joint movement or failure of the pipe. Removal of support from thrust blocks can lead to excessive joint movement. It should be noted that this can also be created by excavation adjacent to the thrust block destroying passive ground pressure at the supporting face. Dissimilar Metals Dissimilar metals between pipes and fittings (e.g. juxtaposition of copper and stainless steel) can cause galvanic corrosion. This must be avoided by reference to guidance in bylaws/regulations/standards etc. Electrical Earthing Electrical earthing of buildings to the water fittings has been prohibited in the UK since 1961. It was common before that time, and faulty electrical fittings can create a to earth potential onto water pipes which, in turn, will create corrosion and eventual leakage. It should also be noted that this now obsolete practice can make service pipes (and mains to some extent) electrically live and dangerous. Temporary earth loops must be used. Network Design A properly designed distribution system should prevent some vulnerability to leakage at the outset. Such design would assess the need for cathodic protection of steel and ductile iron mains. It would ensure that all mains with unrestrained flexible joints had appropriately sized and positioned concrete thrust blocks at all changes of direction and blank ends. All mains and services should be laid with the correct amount of cover to the surface, and appropriately distanced from other underground services. The use of marker tape sited 300mm above the main will alert excavation to the presence of the main, thus preventing incidental damage and ensuing leakage. Where plastic pipe is used, such tape should have a metallic strip incorporated to assist with location equipment. Correct sizing of mains at the outset, considering such factors as peak flow, fire fighting requirements and future development, will prevent the temptation to force more water through by increasing pressures at a later date. Oversized mains also need to be avoided, particularly from a water quality point of view. Workmanship There is no substitute for good workmanship of the initial installation in preventing future leakage. Pipe handling, bedding, laying, jointing and backfilling must be to a high standard. Extra care should be given to repair work, as a repair does represent a potential weakness to the integrity of the system. Quality of Materials It is obvious that all materials used in the distribution system must comply with relevant standards for long term usefulness, be of a high quality, be appropriate to the surrounding conditions, and be of the correct operational capabilities.

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It should also be ensured that the same standards apply to repair materials, and that poor substitutes are not used for permanent repairs. Pressure High pressure equals high leakage. This factor is very important in leakage control, and will be discussed in more detail in a subsequent section. The Size of the Hole This may seem obvious but it is very important to remember that a small increase in the size of the leak has a big effect in terms of volume leaked. Figure 1.3 illustrates this for a constant pressure of water. The longer a leak is left to run, the bigger the hole will get. Duration of the Leak A speedy location and repair of leaks is essential to reduce waste levels. A leak running for a long time can waste just as much water as catastrophic trunk main burst which is repaired quickly. Time before discovery, time to detect, and time to repair are the major components. Leakage will only be reduced by sustained, determined detection, and rapid repair. Find and Fix Fast is an appropriate axiom. Disturbance of the Distribution System Severe pressures can be generated by the rapid operation of isolating valves, thus precipitating bursts and leakage. Ironically, rapid re-charging of a system following leakage repair work can cause further damage and leakage. Valve closures and mains re-charging work should therefore be carried out in a steady, controlled manner. This is particularly relevant when mains scraping and relining is taking place. Similar care must be taken during mains flushing, swabbing and air scouring. Age of System The ageing process cannot be stopped, and increasing leakage is indicative of deteriorating structural condition. It should therefore be recognized that a realistic and consistent level of renewal of the infrastructure is an essential part of leakage strategy development. This may be achieved by targeted mains relining (where iron pipes are in use, and corrosion is mostly internal), or by targeted mains replacement. The former has little, if any, impact on leakage rates from those mains, whereas the latter should eradicate it for a substantial period of time if done well. The modern techniques of mains replacement have substantially cut excavation and backfilling costs. It is essential that the renewal of service pipes is included in such work for the greatest benefit.

1.5

Basics of Leakage Growth and Active Control

Natural Leakage Growth Leakage grows with time, and without action to curb it, would grow to a point where supplies were unsustainable. Passive control, that is, the repair of bursts and leakage showing on the surface, and the elimination of poor pressure and flow complaints, is the minimum possible response. This is required to prevent damage to persons and property, and to maintain supplies to customers.

15

Figure 1.4 illustrates the growth of leakage with time. This graph is illustrative only. Over a large enough area, leakage will increase steadily with time if nothing is done to correct it. The actual leakage level reached will depend on how quickly low pressure and flow will be experienced, and other factors, such as how quickly leakage appears on the surface and is reported. Characteristic Growth Rate For any given area in the distribution system there will be a characteristic growth rate. This characteristic growth rate will be affected by changes in the physical elements of the system, such as rehabilitation of mains, renewal of service pipes, and changes in pressure. Sooner or later, leakage control must be associated with a programme of mains renewal in order to maintain the supply/demand balance. However, improvement of mains and services is expensive and clearly, for the system as whole, is very much a long-term strategy. Reduction in pressure is also effective in reducing both the volume of leakage and its rate of growth, although there is some doubt whether the latter effect persists in the long term. The scope for pressure reduction is, of course, limited, given that adequate supplies to customers must be maintained. Reduction in Leakage with Active Control To reduce the natural level of leakage at any pressure, a programme of leakage detection must be planned, co-ordinated and implemented. The effects of the introduction of various levels or frequencies of leakage detection are again illustrated in Figure 4. This shows clearly the need to maintain a consistent level of effort if the required leakage level is to be maintained. It is not sufficient to put in a high level of resource for a short period, as any slackening of effort will lead to an increase in leakage over a period of time. Given that no two water distribution systems are identical in terms of physical or economic characteristics, it is not possible to determine the most appropriate leakage control policy in a general manner. The best policy for any given system will depend on its particular characteristics.

1.6

Leakage Control Strategies

The Economic Balance The economic balance of searching for and repairing leakage, and of controlling it to an acceptable level, is a complex issue. Typically a leakage percentage of below 10 or even 15% may not be economic to pursue. In other words the effect of hunting down, identifying and repairing the leakage costs more than the value of the water saved. These remarks need to be heavily qualified however. For instance a modern housing estate could have a serious problem with 10% leakage whilst an old area with a stubborn leakage of 30% say, may require a mains renewal scheme. Each area will have its own intrinsic economic leakage level. In the UK, historically, a quantity equivalent to 55 l/prop/day was deemed too expensive to find and repair, and was termed acceptable leakage. It was further suggested that of the acceptable leakage, the quantity of leakage which was undetectable was approximately 30 1/prop/day. Figure 1.5 suggests the relative percentages of leaks caused by different types of bursts, and the possible water quantity lost through them. In addition to the volume of water lost, its scarcity and marginal cost per megalitre are vital factors. In an area of rising demand, needing to promote, build and commission a new source, intensive leakage control activity would be essential. In an area which relied upon pumped supplies with high electricity costs, a high degree of leakage control would make sense, and have priority over an area with plentiful supplies fed by gravity. In selecting the required leakage reduction approach, there are two policies which may be adopted. These are to adopt either a PASSIVE or an ACTIVE policy.

16

Passive Control This is a procedure whereby water loss is only tackled when leakage is visible or when problems are reported from the public. The adoption of this policy minimises the day to day operating costs of leakage detection, but increases the risk of water being wasted. It results in an ever increasing upward trend in the annual supply of water, since leaks can remain undetected for many years until they reach such a magnitude that urgent action has to be taken due to customer complaints. It is however, a perfectly feasible policy to adopt, providing it is politically acceptable, and may be carried out with full instrumentation to allow rapid location of leaks, although this will give rise to modest maintenance costs. Such a policy is only applicable if: The revenue costs of leakage detection are high. The costs of production are low, and there is ample capacity to supply all foreseen demands. Bursts are readily visible and easily repaired.

Active Control It is increasingly accepted that an active approach of searching for leakage is preferential in cost/benefit terms to a passive approach of only reacting when the situation has deteriorated. This relates not only to the Water Suppliers distribution system but also to private pipework where customers are encouraged to carry out repairs on any leakage detected. Active control would usually involve the monitoring of flows in a distribution network by using a system of permanently installed distribution meters. If unexpectedly high flows of water are observed, these are immediately investigated; leakage detection teams being carefully directed to ensure that leakage is maintained within defined criteria (such criteria being prepared using an acceptable cost/benefit basis). It is obvious that monitoring which does not initiate further action is unproductive. It will also be unproductive if, when further action is worthwhile, resources are not available to proceed with location of the leakage. An active policy requires expenditure on meter installations, etc. and the day-to-day operating costs of leakage detection teams. The following benefits should be achieved: It minimises leakage, and hence reduces the loss of water in monetary terms. It results in an overall reduction of water demand. Limited water resources are conserved for legitimate use, and rationing etc. is avoided. It reduces operating costs (savings on electrical power and chemical treatment costs). Work is planned (rather than acting in response to emergency). Dangerous leakage is minimised (e.g. freezing water on highway). Customer perception is improved. Capital expenditure requirements on treatment works, reservoirs and mains are reduced.

Because of their potential, it is worth noting that active leakage detection in the future is likely to increasingly employ acoustic loggers, some permanently installed. This could result in larger meter areas, and hence fewer district meters. A well managed active leakage detection policy ensures that the cost of the leakage detection teams and the repayments of the capital necessary to establish the system is exceeded by the value of the water saved. It is applicable if: The cost of water production is high. The sources of water have limited capacity and cannot meet normal and/or foreseen demand. Bursts are invisible due to the strata. The quantity of water being put into supply is increasing at an unacceptable rate.

17

Strategy Development Leakage reduction and control is a long-term activity, and should be regarded as a part of good distribution management. Occasional short bursts of effort are unlikely to produce lasting results because distribution systems continue to deteriorate for one reason or another. If only the obvious leaks are repaired, leakage levels will still increase, as will consumer problems. The development of a long term leakage control strategy is therefore essential if water supply and distribution systems are to be effectively managed. Such development needs to be flexible, with occasional reviews to ensure that the strategy adopted is the most appropriate one for the situation. Cost/benefit analysis is important in this regard. Active leakage control (i.e. finding and repairing leaks before their presence becomes obvious or generates problems) has been found to be a cost-effective method of reducing water supply deficiencies. A planned approach should result in lower complaint costs, and lower repair and maintenance costs. The establishment of controllable, manageable areas (District Meter Areas - DMAs) within a distribution system whose demands are easily monitored, has been found to be extremely helpful for effective leakage control and supply management. It forces plans to be updated, locating mains and buried fittings. It introduces new valves to give better operational control. It locates illegal connections and identifies malfunctioning meters and public supplies. In the very process of this setting up work, leakages and wastages are found and repaired. It enforces good housekeeping. Regard has to be given however, to the minimisation of dead-ends and their associated quality problems. Training and Data Use Leakage reduction requires a dedicated core of highly trained, specialist personnel using appropriate state of the art equipment and techniques. Local knowledge is essential together with an understanding of the day-to-day operation of the distribution system and demand patterns. Support can be obtained from specialist agencies/contractors, given precise briefs and targets. Personnel motivation, good communication and synchronization of activities, and continuous feedback of decisions/results cannot be over-emphasized. This is vital for understanding, efficiency and success. Everyone should be included, from planners to repair teams. The organisation of leakage control personnel can vary widely. Distribution personnel can either be organised as a specialist team, or be integrated into general distribution system operational duties, and spend only part of their time on leakage control. It is generally accepted that to properly pursue active leakage control, and to meet agreed monitoring/detection frequencies, it is necessary to set up specialist teams. However, general operational duties cannot and should not be entirely divorced from leakage control. Technical support is required for design and modification of district metering, computer systems support, compilation of base data for DMAs, production of reports, overall performance monitoring, production of drawings, system records updating, and for problem solving. Clerical support is required for computer input and administrative duties such as serving notices relating to private pipe repairs. Skilled and knowledgeable technical support is crucial if the mass of data now regularly available is to be handled and analysed to the best advantage for the leakage reduction effort. Good leakage control depends upon good and progressively improving data. To achieve this it is necessary to establish and keep an audit trail of data, building from individual DMAs and their component data up to the regional total figures for the Water Supplier. These can be collected in the two data streams of: Aggregated night-lines/bottom up calculation Total integrated flow/top down calculation.

18

It is easy to dissipate effort and resources on leakage control unless the work is properly planned. To achieve this effectively a good information system and audit trail is essential. Leakage effort needs to be directed towards the areas of greatest need i.e., where most water is leaking and where water costs are highest. Traditionally this has been achieved by the study of total demand relative to population and industry, by examining bulk meter flow records, and by interpreting recording charts on individual waste meters. These principles remain sound, but the advent of the computer and data logger have provided the means for automatic information processing, and direction towards areas of priority leakage. Action Plan Overview The following ten points comprise key actions within a leakage policy where sustained effort is applied: 1. 2. Locate and repair obvious leakage. Sub-divide the distribution system into DMAs and continuously monitor them for leakage control. Maintain DMA meters, loggers and boundary valves. (Apart from physical constraints, the size of these areas may be determined by the leakage detection and location policy, and the equipment used within them.) Employ Active leakage detection policies using modern methods and equipment. Effect PROMPT repair of reported and detected leakage. Provide a sound, reliable leakage information system to underpin leakage control activities. Build consistently improving data. Direct leakage control efforts to areas with priority of need. Reduce pressures where possible. Relay mains and service pipes in modern non-corrodible materials (welded polyethylene preferred). Drive down leakage towards a target value and then review target. Reduce leakage to an economic (or politically acceptable) minimum.

3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

9. 10.

1.7

Customer Reported Leakage

Reported leakage comes from the public, the police, other utilities and public bodies. All these parties are thus offering a valuable service which should be respected and acted upon. This response will then encourage further reports and hence rectify more leakage in turn. On the other hand, the converse is true neglected leakage will discourage further reports. Customer queries relative to leakage particularly require a rapid response. Leakage often has a high profile with the public and the media, and it is sometimes mistakenly believed that leakage is a symptom of mismanagement rather than a legacy of old, corroded mains and pipework. Prompt attention to leakage queries can correct this misapprehension. Local contact between distribution staff and the groups who might report leakage is well worthwhile and promotes the importance and benefits of a timely response.

19

Reported leakage may comprise a significant proportion of all leakage discovered (i.e. with the balance being detected). As such, much of the expenditure of leakage detection is avoided and, apart from the public relations benefits, it behoves the Water Supplier to respond quickly to reported instances on the grounds of economy.

1.8

Future Considerations
The end of the 1990s has seen a very significant reduction of leakage in the UK. The Industry has responded well to the targets it has been set. Some of the contributing factors have been: The attention given to the creation of new and smaller DMAs Continuous, night-flow monitoring The improved management of pressures The improvements in detection technology and techniques Greater investment in renewing the pipe network Greater active leakage control, seeking to locate and repair leaks before they become visible Assistance given to customers in reducing leakage from their own pipework Better understanding of the water balance components and associated issues.

It is unlikely that leakage will ever again become a background issue in the UK. Lower leakage levels will be expected to be achieved, as the supply/demand balance comes under further scrutiny. Customer expectations will continue to rise, as will the encouragement for them to save water. Economic analysis will be a continued emphasis because cash flow will continue to be tight, and further operating cost reductions will be expected. Climate change and environmental considerations will continue to be a driving force. Ways will be sought to introduce competition. Though the relationship between effort, cost and result is still not fully understood, the Industry will be looking for more efficient and effective methods to identify, locate and repair leaks more quickly. Assistance will be sought from further technological development, particularly permanently installed acoustic loggers, possibly with telemetry. Attention will further turn to issues concerning service pipe leakage, better assessment of legitimate night use and the effects of social changes, more reliable quantification of seasonal variations in night flows, and trunk mains monitoring for leakage. There will be more focus on grey water re-use in order to meet rising demand without jeopardising the ability to meet demand in the future. Asset life extension will remain an issue, with more attention given to the dilemma of reconditioning or renewing mains. Data quality will be expected to improve, with particular emphasis on the use of real cost/benefit data in models, appropriate values for water saved, and environmental and social costs.

20

Appendix to Section 1
Water Balance Method of Computing Leakage Total Integrated Flow Formula: U = S - (M + A x P) where U S M A P = = = = = Unaccounted for water Total volume supplied Metered use Per capita use Population supplied unmetered

Each of the above terms is subject to error. Pilot studies of bulk meters in one supply area indicated that on average, readings were only 80% of true flow with some recording only 60%. If it were assumed that the meters associated with the terms S and M above were under-recording by only 5%, whilst A x p was over-estimated by 10%, then leakage could be a third more than estimated. It has been argued that an error of such magnitude is quite feasible. Large variations in unaccounted for water from year to year would indicate a certain inaccuracy associated with the use of this formula. The expression of U as a percentage of total consumption is rightly criticised as being misleading and unsuitable for comparisons. For instance, in a very warm spell, S will increase because A and M increase. If A is not adjusted (as is quite common), U appears to increase both in quantity and as a percentage. Similarly, in an industrial recession, M and S will go down and even though U remains the same quantity, it will increase as a percentage of the volume supplied. The formula is also subject to other inaccuracies. A, the per capita consumption was usually based on studies of existing domestic meters. It is now known that small, conventional domestic meters record nothing until the flow exceeds 5 l/hour and under record any flow between 5 and 22 l/hour. In properties where most water is routed through a ball valve to a roof tank, substantial under recording will occur. For the same reason, the meters of measured consumers will under record at low flows whatever the meter size. This is particularly true at cattle troughs or in factories with substantial periods of low demand. P, population served, is a figure derived from one definition of resident population, (there are several), with deductions for consumers not supplied or supplied through a meter. Population served varies through the year, whilst the deductions are usually un-audited estimates. The measure of net night flow per separately charged property as a means of assessing leakage is now commonly preferred. Theoretically, this measure is prone to less significant errors than the total integrated flow formula, and it implies that leakage is expected to increase in quantity as development takes place. The provision of accurate means of measuring night flows within the distribution system is fundamental to this approach, but it is unrelated to pressure however, and therefore comparisons between areas need to bear in mind their relative average night pressures.

21

Figure 1.1

Components of Water Supplied

Volume per Day (Not to Scale)

DISTRIBUTION INPUT (DI) WATER TAKEN (WT) DISTRIBUTION LOSSES (DL)

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OPERATIONAL USE (DOU)

POINT OF DELIVERY TO CUSTOMERS

WATER DELIVERED (WD) WATER DELIVERED THROUGH SUPPLY PIPES (WDS) MINOR COMPONENTS

UNMEASURED

UNMEASURED

Miscellaneous Water Taken SIMPLIFIED BREAKDOWN OF DISTRIBUTION INPUT (DI) DISTRIBUTION INPUT (DI) WATER TAKEN (WT) WATER DELIVERED (WD) WATER DELIVERED THROUGH SUPPLY PIPES (WDS) MEASURED (WDSM) UNMEASURED USE (WDSU) DOU MISCELLANEOUS WATER TAKEN (WTM) UNMEASURED MISCELLANEOUS WATER SUPPLY PIPE TAKEN (WTM) LOSSES (WDSL) DISTRIBUTION LOSSES (DL) DISTRIBUTION LOSSES (DL) DISTRIBUTION LOSSES (DL) DISTRIBUTION LOSSES (DL)

22

ILLEGAL USE

SUPPLY PIPE

MEASURED

HYDRANTS

LOSSES

USE

COMMUNICATION PIPES

DISTRIBUTION MAINS

SERVICE RESEVOIRS

TRUNK MAINS

Figure 1.2 Histogram to show Assessment of the Volume of Leakage Components

TOTAL VOLUME OF WATER SUPPLIED

Treatment losses

Losses due to fire fighting flushing etc. Leakage on trunk mains & service reservoirs

TOTAL LEAKAGE

MAINS LEAKAGE APPROX

1 / 2

DISTRIBUTION MAINS LEAKAGE

COMMUNICATION PIPE LEAKAGE Leakage on internal private pipework

PRIVATE SUPPLY PIPE LEAKAGE

Total Volume Supplied

Total Unaccounted for

Total Leakage

Total Leakage

23

Figure 1.3 Discharge in Litres/day

Effect of Hole Size on Leakage

49 090 20 945 17 454 2 945 1636

Discharges through circular holes in 0.5 inch diameter lead pipe. The well-known old diagram from Liverpool Corporation tests which shows how leakage increases sharply with a small increase in hole size. Experiments were carried out by Liverpool Corporation to determine the rate of loss through various sized holes in 0.5 inch diameter lead pipes under a pressure of 31.6m head. The results are shown in this diagram.

Figure 1.4 Graph to show growth of leakage with time

Eruptive Bursts Passive leakage Complaints Level Average leakage rate (will vary between extremes dependent on detection and repair frequency)

LEAKAGE

Detection and repair

Intrinsic leakage level (effectively the minimum for a given area without further rehabilitation or pressure reduction)

Time

24

Figure 1.5

Likely Proportion of Bursts/Leakage within an Ageing System

Large bursts immediately obvious

Bursts which gradually become obvious Small bursts-only found by detection Very small burstsimpossible or uneconomic to find and repair

AVG FLOW RATE

% OF ALL LEAKS

TOTAL QUANTITY LOST PER BURST

% OF ALL LEAKS

25

26

2.
2.1

HYDRAULICS AND NETWORK ANALYSIS FOR LEAKAGE DETECTION

Introduction
An understanding of basic hydraulics is essential if distribution data is to be assessed correctly. This particularly applies to the interpretation of flow and pressure data, relating as it does to the internal size and condition of a pipe, as well as to legitimate demands and leakage. It is neither efficient, or necessary, to depend on network analysis to resolve every uncertainty presented by recorded data. Given an accurate knowledge of the pipe network, a basic grasp of the principles of hydraulic gradients in particular is very valuable.

2.2
2.2.1

Energy Principles
Water flowing in a pipeline possesses energy in three forms: Potential energy due to elevation Velocity energy due to velocity Pressure energy due to pressure

2.2.2

Consider a position along a pipeline: pressure -pN/m2

Specific weight of Specific weight of water w N N / water== w / m_ m3 (i.e. (i.e.9810 N N / m3 9810 / m_) z Any reference datum

Then: Total energy = potential energy + pressure energy + velocity energy TE where =
2 p Z + w + V 2g

p w is known as pressure head - unit metres V2 is known as velocity head - unit metres 2g (These factors derive from basic hydraulic theory.) Total energy (TE) is expressed in metres relative to a given datum.

27

It can be expressed graphically on a longitudinal section at a point:

Total

Energy V 2g P W
2

Z Datum
Therefore, three different regimes of pressure can be identified as acting on a pipeline: 2.2.3 Static pressure Working pressure Surge pressure - pressure created during no-flow conditions - pressure dependent on the flow varying from static pressure at no-flow to zero at maximum flow - caused by transient pressure waves

Consider a length of pipe: Provided that a) the fluid is incompressible (as water is assumed to be) b) there are no energy losses (1) - (2)

P1 V1 Z1
then: Z1 + P1 + V12 = Z2 + P2 + V22 w 2g w 2g This is Bernoullis Equation. It can be expressed graphically as:TEL HGL V1 /2g
2

P2 V2 Z2

HGL

V 2 /2g

P1 w CENTRE LINE OF PIPE

P2 w

Z2 Datum Z1

28

Where

TEL is the Total Energy Line HGL is the Hydraulic Gradient

NB. TEL and HGL are unique to a particular flow in the pipe; change it and they both change.

2.3
2.3.1

Head Loss in Pipelines

Bernoullis Equation in the form: Z1 + P1 + V12 = Z2 + P2 + V22 w 2g w 2g assumes no loss of energy. Although for very short smooth pipes, this may be near enough true, in general we need to modify the formula to take losses into account, i.e. Z1 + P1 + V12 = Z2 + P2 + V22 + w 2g w 2g - in graphical form: Losses

V1 2/2g

TEL

Losses
HGL

V22/2g

P1 w CENTRE LINE OF PIPE

P2 w

Z1 Datum

Z2

The effect is to tilt the TEL in the direction of the flow (and the same with the HGL) by an amount depending on flow, roughness and pipe fittings. 2.3.2 Consider the pipe reservoir and pipeline described in Figure 2.1. At times of maximum flow on the pipeline, what will be the resulting pressure at properties A and B? The actual pressure will be the STATIC PRESSURE less the HEAD LOSS at each property. A number of factors are responsible for the loss of head in the pipeline: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. 2.3.3 Losses in entry to pipe. Changes in flow Restrictions in pipeline Friction losses Bursts Internal condition of pipe Pressure Reducing Valves

For every part of the distribution system, there will be a level below which the pressure must not be permitted to drop if an adequate and efficient water supply is to be provided. The minimum pressure must be considered when the system is designed or extended. The difference in level between the bottom water 29

level in the service reservoir, and minimum pressure point, must at no time be exceeded by the loss of head in the mains from the reservoir due to friction and other causes.

2.4
2.4.1

The Hydraulic Gradient

The pressure head in a pipeline at a point = P W

Where

P W

= =

pressure N/m2 specific weight of fluid

This expression is the same as that for the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid h metres high. Therefore the pressure in the main would, if there was such a tube connected, force the fluid up it to a height of h metres (which equals P ). W i.e. water would rise to the height of the hydraulic gradient. 2.4.2 The Hydraulic Gradient of a pipeline is the gradient of a line joining the fluid levels measured at vertical intervals along the pipe At a particular constant flow Q, it is the line showing the pressure in the pipeline between two points. See Figure 2.2. If the flow Q increases, there will be an increase in the friction losses and the hydraulic gradient line will steepen. The friction head loss H between two points can be calculated using the Hazen-Williams equation or similar types of formula. The hydraulic gradient can indicate points within a pipeline system where pressure reduction or system boosting will be required. Figure 2.3 gives an example of this theory. 2.4.3 Where the HGL runs above the pipe, pressures are positive. Where it runs below, pressures are negative (i.e. suction pressures). The maximum suction lift of a pump, or the greatest syphonic head, is in theory 10 metres for water. In practice it is about 7 metres. Water Mains can run above the HGL providing this height does not exceed about 7 metres, but: i) ii) iii) iv) Properties above the HGL at a particular flow cannot be supplied. Connections above HGL lead to back syphonage and contamination risks. Suction pressures may draw in contamination through hydrants, leaks and air valves. Suction pressures may disrupt poorly made joints.

Therefore the practice is to be avoided.

2.5

Pipe Flow Formulae

These flow formula are based on observation and experiment, and not on theory. They are, in general, applicable only to clean water, slime free at normal temperatures. In pipes used for water distribution, the flow may be turbulent. The friction factor depends upon the roughness of the pipe and also the Reynolds Number, which depends in part upon the velocity in the pipe and its diameter.

30

Therefore a pipe flow formula should have a roughness coefficient which varies with velocity and pipe size. Various pipe flow formulae are available to determine head losses in relation to velocity in pipes. Two are described below, but there are others, including Colebrook-White, which is sometimes used for network analysis modelling. 2.5.1 Hazen-Williams This formula is often used in the design of water distribution systems. It is based on well-documented records of experiments on the pipes ordinarily used in distribution practice, has fairly reliable values for co-efficients, and is easy to use.

Imperial Units V = 1.318C (D)0.63 (H)0.54 (4) (L)

This can be arranged to: H = RQ1.85

where R =

14.623 x L D4.87 x C1.85

H L Q C D V

= Head loss in ft. = Length in ft. = Flow in galls/min. = Constant (expression of roughness) = Diameter in ins. = Velocity ft/s.

Metric Units H = RQ1.85 where R = 11.9 x L x l09 D4.87 x C1.85

H L Q D C

= Head loss in metres = Length in metres = Flow in litres/sec. = Diameter in mm = Constant Maximum Average Minimum = Velocity in m/sec

150 100 60

2.5.2

Lamont Formula For hydraulically smooth pipes for both mains and services, Lamonts smooth pipe formula has been developed. It is intended for use with new pipes carrying clean slime-free water at normal temperatures (55F). V = 95.5d0.6935 (H) 0.5645 (L)

31

V D H L

= Average velocity of flow ft/sec = Diameter in ft = Head loss in ft = Length in ft

2.6

Pipe Friction Diagrams

The Hazen-Williams formula may be applied to all types of pipe, with careful selection of the value of the constant C, from available tables. For rapid solution of the formula, a Pipe-Friction Diagram is also available. With the increasing use of hydraulically smooth pipes for distribution and trunk mains, a Pipe-Friction Diagram is also available for solutions using Lamonts smooth-pipe formula. The chart is for use with new pipes carrying clean, slime-free water at normal temperatures.

2.7
2.7.1

Network Analysis
Introduction Network analysis is the term used to describe the analysis of water flows and head losses in a pressurised distribution system under a given set of demand conditions on the system. A network is the collection of pipes, valves, booster pumps and service reservoirs forming the water distribution system. Due to the complexity of most distribution systems, it was normal to simplify the system by considering only the key mains. With the development in recent years of computer hardware and software, it is now possible to include all reservoirs and mains in a distribution system, and all the various control features, with their operating constraints and regimes. The demands and demand patterns on a network are also vital ingredients, and are made up of a number of components: a) b) c) Domestic demand Metered industrial/commercial demand. Unaccounted for water including leakage.

2.7.2

Type of Analysis This is the process of calculating the flows and head losses in a network for a given set of demand conditions. Two types of analysis are normally used: Snapshot - In a snapshot analysis, the flows and head losses are considered at only a single given set of demand conditions. This is frequently expressed as a single time interval. Dynamic or Extended Time - In each dynamic analysis the flows and head losses are considered for a series of varying demand conditions. This is frequently a 24 hour time period, and is the sort of analysis that is now most commonly used. The power and speed of computing for network analysis continues to improve.

2.7.3

Model Construction A network model is basically an intelligent mains record drawing - allowing one to access hydraulic data as well as the position of the mains in the ground. A model represents everything we know about a particular distribution system. It will have been calibrated by the model builders to ensure that, within reason, the model gives the same flows and pressures as the real system. This is done by comparing the results from the model with huge amounts of data from field tests. It is essential to know the system of

32

configuration on the calibration day - i.e the day chosen as the most typical from the field test. The calibration process will find any significant problems with the models representation of the distribution system, but not all of them. To calibrate a model it is necessary to get the pressures right within one metre at virtually all points in the system at all times of day. Once the model is created it has to be converted to what is known as an Average Day Model. To do this, the model builder converts the demands on the model to average demands by comparing the demands for that area with the test day 2.7.4 Network Balance If there is a disagreement between the computed flows and the measured flows, a number of factors can be involved. The more common are listed below: Incorrect estimates for model demands Incorrect assumptions for hydraulic resistances Wrong pipe lengths or diameters Unsuspected network cross-connection Closed valves/opened valves By-passes around PRV or meters Restrictions in mains Pressure measurement on rider main.

The process of model building can thus uncover many problems which may go unnoticed until a burst occurs, often wasting time and money. 2.7.5 Model Application Network analysis is a powerful tool for the effective management of distribution systems. Once a model exists, it allows any user to experiment with system changes before they are tried out on the ground. These could be such things as checking what reinforcements are needed to supply a new development, so that levels of service are not affected somewhere else, perhaps miles away. The model could help maximise the utilisation of low cost supplies, and in pumped distribution systems, minimise the cost of pumping. It could also ensure that levels of service are achieved at customer taps by identifying areas of inadequate or excessive pressures, and areas of high leakage; corrective measures could then be simulated. It might be used for planning a trunk main shut-off, with effects over wide areas, perhaps to see how long the reservoir storage will last. It can be used to check on rehabilitation problems re-line, renew or up-size. It can also be used to design pressure reduction, or to alter distribution areas. As the techniques improve it will also be used to investigate water quality problems. Network models can already tell us how old the water is throughout a system and how that changes during the day. They can also be used to tell us how different source waters blend in the system at different times of the day. All these might point to problem areas and show the results on water quality of system changes. Network models give us a better picture of the system operation, and help improve levels of service. A lot of money can be saved on capital schemes by using models to find out what size mains are really needed, or to sometimes find ways of not laying new mains at all. Network models may be useful in locating large leaks by comparing modelled pressures against actual. Large leaks cause a lowering of pressures. Network models are not perfect, but they are the only tool available to provide such detailed hydraulic information. In the past we often had to guess about the behaviour of complex systems.

33

Figure 2.1 Service Reservoir and Pipeline

TWL 4m BWL 70m 30m

20m

1000m
1. What will be the maximum pressure at property A at BWL at average flow? 2. What will be the maximum pressure at property C at TWL at average flow?

500m

250m

34

Figure 2.2 Hydraulic Gradient of a pipeline

PIPELINE HAS DIA d metres FRICTION COEFF . C LENGTH OF PIPELINE = L B

FRICTION HEAD LOSS H THRO PIPELINE BETWEEN

FLOW Q THRO PIPELINE

A A B

(Can be calculated

from Hazen-Williams equation)

GROUND LEVEL

WATER PRESSURE AT THIS POINT IN PIPELINE FLOW Q

INVERT LEVEL OF PIPELINE

LEVEL OF PIPELINE A.O.D ORDNANCE DATUM

Longitudinal Section of Pipeline

The Hydraulic Gradient is obtained by plotting the sum of the Static Head and the Pressure Head.

35

The Hydraulic Gradient shows the level to which the liquid in the pipe would rise if a vertical stand pipe was inserted in the pipeline at the point under construction.

Figure 2.3 Hydraulic Gradient

RESERVOIR

HYD RA ULI CG R ADI ENT

Pmax

GROUND LEVEL P P B

A DATUM POINT - A.O.D

NOTES 1. 2. 3. 4.

36

Distribution pressures will be less than Pmax (at lowest ground level) due to frictional losses in mains, fittings etc. Reduce pressure in the valley bottom (point A) to reduce leakage. Pressure at point B must satisfy Level of Service criteria. Mains at point C will need boosting.

3. DISTRICT METER AREA MANAGEMENT

3.1 Distribution Network Structure
A wide range of performance standards and regulations apply to the operation of a distribution network. These include statutory requirements, customer standards, water quality standards, public relations and aesthetic needs. Distribution management is required to meet these standards while minimising pumping costs, controlling leakage, maintaining security of supplies and maximising the return on investment in the assets. In addition there is a need to respond to and solve customer complaints of poor or no supply, discolouration, taste and odour, noise and so on. All these requirements need a geographic reference framework of a manageable size. The shape, composition and arrangement of the distribution system is dictated as much by the local history, topography and Town and Country Planning as by good hydraulic design. If uncontrolled, the incremental growth and integration of local supply areas leads to an open distribution system in which it may be very difficult to meet the performance requirements. In open systems, water will mix in an unpredictable fashion, pressures will vary, will be excessive in some areas, and costs will escalate. Customers may receive water of variable quality and taste, which can often result in additional complaints. The alternative approach is one in which the distribution system is separated into manageable units, or zones, each of which has definable characteristics which can be monitored and maintained. In practice zoning takes place at several levels. The techniques of active leakage monitoring require the installation of flow meters at strategic points throughout the distribution system, each meter recording flows into a discrete district which has a defined and permanent boundary. Typical district size currently in the UK varies between 1000 and 5000 properties, although some districts designed around old waste zones are smaller, <500-1000 properties. Others, designed around reservoir zones or bulk meter areas, are larger, 5000-10000 properties. In general, the size of zone should depend on the monitoring requirement and the follow-up leak detection technique being employed.

3.2
3.2.1

District Meter Areas

Establishment and Design Distribution management is an important activity which has considerable impact on customers. The costs of distribution operations are high. It is therefore vital that management decisions are taken in a framework of knowledge and understanding of how the system operates. The development of DMAs as part of a structured operation of the distribution system allows the network to be operated in a planned way. This planned approach inevitably leads to better understanding and control of the distribution system, updated and more comprehensive records, fewer consumer complaints, and closer control of labour. In short, more efficient and informed management. Such an approach helps to ensure that distribution managers can meet the primary objectives to the maximum benefit of the customer and the Water Supplier. District Meter Areas are the basic building blocks of a zoned distribution system. They provide a manageable unit by which the distribution customer and performance information can be linked to other activities and data systems. Their fundamental characteristic is that their boundaries are closed except for defined, measured inputs and outputs. Ideally this should be a single metered input, but this is not always achievable in practice. DMAs in the UK are generally between 1000 and 5000 properties in size, and they have similar topography with limited head loss within their area. This ensures that pressures throughout the DMA are

37

even, and allows pressure and leakage to be managed most effectively. Larger areas are possible from a detection point of view if acoustic logging is part of the detection policy employed. The principles of DMA design and structure are very simple. Nevertheless, where possible, the design should be checked using Network Analysis to ensure that pressures are sustained at all likely demands, that no unnecessarily long water retention periods are created and that water quality variations are within an acceptable range - larger areas usually means less dead ends. System record plans are required, preferably at a scale of 1:2500, together with property count data. This information is used, together with the local system operators knowledge, to define the boundaries of each DMA. Other important considerations in this process are as: i) to cross the fewest number of distribution mains (helped by using natural boundaries such as railway lines, canals and major roads), thereby reducing the number of meters used and the number of closed valves (which can lead to water quality problems). to avoid districts with high outflows (this leads to inaccuracy in calculation of district demand as any changes in demand will be a small proportion of the total flow measured).

ii)

Having defined the limits of a DMA, it will normally be necessary to trial the area in practice. It will be necessary to ensure that all stop (stand shut, boundary) valves perform correctly, and that satisfactory flows and pressures are maintained throughout the DMA. In practice, DMAs often have to be checked very carefully during establishment. Unforeseen difficulties may be found, such as buried, or closed valves, or even unknown pipes. These problems are often discovered when the DMA is first modelled and anomalies in the model are investigated.. Once satisfactorily piloted, the DMA can be fully established. This will require: i. ii. iii. iv. The installation of flow meters at all inlets and outlets. The closing and marking of all boundary valves. The installation of flushing, or OXO, points. The updating of plans, records and related information systems.

The simple checklist below can be used to ensure that all of these activities are performed before a DMA is commissioned. District Meter Area Design 1000-5000 properties Minimum number of boundary valves Preferably single inlet meter Avoid export meters if possible Beware of low pressure (on peak demand) Beware of quality problems at stop-ends Avoid l50 mm mechanical (Helix) meters (1 rev = 1000 litres) Typically downsize mechanical meters (not necessary for electromagnetic) Install mechanical meters on a bypass Fit out-reader chamber for logger if meter access problems

38

3.2.2

Operation and Maintenance Once established, DMAs need to be maintained. For two adjacent DMAs, the opening of a single boundary stop valve is sufficient to destroy the accuracy of DMA demand monitoring. A regular regime of meter readings, boundary valve checks, and pressure monitoring must therefore be established for each DMA. For leakage control purposes, it is necessary to establish the number of domestic properties, and the demand of major industrial users within each DMA. This requires regular, usually weekly, reading of DMA meters and loggers, preferably with the input of the information into a computer analysis programme. Careful inspection of the meter and logger readings can quickly spot any unusual results. This can be used to trigger leak detection follow-up work. Simple management procedures must be introduced to ensure that the integrity of the DMA is maintained, otherwise the cost and effort of establishment and monitoring will be wasted. The following details are worth noting for effective management: All boundary valves should be kept tight closed and a regular checking programme should be followed All boundary valves should be clearly marked and identified Valves within the DMA should be fully open Status quo should be re-established after bursts, rehabilitation or other operational necessity High pressure DMAs should be examined for pressure reduction Logger readings of low pressure should be investigated to determine whether leakage is indicated. Leakage within the DMA, whether visible or not showing, should be repaired promptly DMA meters should not be valved out DMA meters and loggers should be operating normally PRV areas should be properly isolated and operating Poor quality mains should be fed forward into the capital programme as candidates for renewal Plans should be up to date and show new property.

3.2.3

Benefits of DMAs The principal benefit of DMAs is that the key characteristics (e.g. demand, quality, cost) of a well defined area of the distribution system can be closely monitored. The results of this monitoring allow management action to be prioritised and targeted on where it is most cost effective. Specifically DMAs impact on: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Leakage control Pressure management and levels of service. Asset maintenance and renewal. The monitoring and maintenance of water quality The planning and programming of repair and maintenance work.

Perhaps the most important benefit of DMAs is a little less tangible. Together with a zoned approach to distribution management, they provide a better knowledge of how the system works and how water gets to the customers in an appropriate condition. This allows the Water Supplier to focus attention on those activities which produce most benefits to customers a pro-active rather than a reactive approach. For example, flow reversals and retention times can be minimised and more consistent pressures established. This results in a better knowledge of the system, improved demand management, better and more consistent service to customers, all at a lower, long-term cost to the Water Supplier.

39

3.2.4

Disadvantages of DMAs DMAs and zoned systems, in general, do have some disadvantages which must be considered and minimised: Less robust under failure conditions. Open systems automatically compensate (up to a point) for changes in demand patterns. DMAs, on the other hand need to be managed to allow for mains improvement, peak demands, loss of supply etc. The costs of establishment can be considerable. Not only are meters and data loggers required, but new and replacement valves may be needed. In some cases, fresh tracing and mapping of the system may be necessary. Some of this may be considered to be operational good housekeeping. Water quality may suffer because of the creation of closed systems. Certainly the number of deadends can increase considerably when DMAs are introduced. These may, particularly in areas with unlined mains, accumulate debris resulting in discolouration or even blockages. The installation of flushing points and programmes can overcome this problem at a cost. A better long-term solution is to improve treatment works and mains to improve water quality. A substantial commitment is required from management and workforce. It is vital that valves are checked and meters read regularly, otherwise the information obtained is misleading or useless. This too has a cost, which has to be accepted and budgeted for.

3.3

Waste Meter Areas

For the purpose of leakage monitoring and investigation, some DMAs are occasionally subdivided into waste meter areas (WMAs) by closing defined valves and measuring flows using portable or fixed waste meters. These waste meter areas are similar to small DMAs, but their boundaries are not permanent; when the leakage work is completed, the valves are left in the open position. The design of the areas is similar in principle to that of DMAs, although there is not the same constraint on boundary valve closures, as these are only temporary.

3.4

Links to Other Data Information Systems

DMAs are the common link between distribution and other activities. For example: i) C u s t o m e r Service

Customer calls which require a visit or follow-up job can be logged by the DMA in which the customer lives, and recorded with address and problem information. Work scheduling and planning procedures allow appointments and repairs to be programmed by DMA to improve efficiency. Historic DMA characteristics or activities (e.g. a burst main) may help understand and explain the customers problem. ii) Levels of Service

Levels of service registers can be compiled by DMA. Remedial work, whether operational or capital, can be identified and programmed on a DMA basis. iii) Wa t e r Q u a l i t y Water quality zones are aggregates of DMAs. Sampling and reporting programmes can be built up using DMA information and characteristics, particularly the sources from which water is normally supplied. A link to a quality information system would ensure that statutory sampling and reporting requirements can be met, and that managers are aware of quality variations and problems.

40

3.5
3.5.1

Commissioning
General For both waste and district meter areas, on fitting the meter the area can be commissioned by closing the boundary valves. Pressures at critical points should be monitored, together with the meter flows, and any increase in complaints should be noted. It is preferable to data log the meter flows during commissioning to confirm the range of design flows, and to aid the solving of any problems which are subsequently encountered. A typical demand pattern is shown in Figure 3.1. Once it has been established that the area is functioning satisfactorily, the boundary valves should be recorded on the system record drawings, and clearly marked on site.

3.5.2

Establishment of Norms As soon as possible after commissioning the area should be surveyed throughout for leakage, and all leaks quickly repaired. Measurement of the minimum night flow should then take place to establish the norm for the area, against which subsequent readings can be judged. Depending on the resources and technology available, it may take considerable time to achieve a complete leakage survey of each area. In the interim period it will be necessary to calculate the norm based on the number of properties and an appropriate allowance per property.

41

Figure 3.1 Demand Patterns in a Typical Area

Peak Demand

Legitim ate Water Usage

Night Line Leakage flows Continuously

6 a.m.

Noon

6 p.m.

Midnight

6 a.m.

42

4.
4.1

METERING FOR LEAKAGE DETECTION

Hierarchy of Metered Areas
In common practice, there are different levels of metering as shown in Figure 4.1.

4.1.1

Supply Areas Metering of a supply area will comprise metering of all source works outputs, and all imports and exports crossing the boundaries, in order to give an accurate daily figure for demand. Metering at this level is essential to judge overall performance as it includes all possible sources of leakage. However, it is of no use for leakage detection, as any leaks which are not obvious will be swamped by the normal daily variations in consumption.

4.1.2

Zones Zone metering breaks down a large supply area into several zones, typically varying between 20,000 and 50,000 properties. Again all inflows and outflows are measured continuously, including the effect of any increase or decrease in storage. Zones are too large to identify small leakages, as again these will be swamped by normal daily variations. However, they could possibly identify major leakage, especially if daily readings are collected. Zone metering may also be useful for comparing the performance of different leakage control teams, or for collecting together data for parts of this system with similar characteristics such as unit cost, age, urban/rural character.

4.1.3

Districts Within each zone, there will be several district meter areas (DMAs) ranging in size typically from 1000 to 5000 properties. In the UK, this would typically mean a population range of 2500 to 12500 and a daily demand ranging from 0.7 to 3.5 Mld. District metering may be considered as the first level of metering which can be used for leakage detection, the previous two levels being used for performance assessment and monitoring rather than detection.

4.2
4.2.1

District Metering
Original Concept The original concept of district metering was to measure the total volume entering the DMA between the reading intervals, and hence to calculate the average daily demand. This would then be compared to previous readings, and also to the readings for all other DMAs for that period to assess climatic effects. A significant increase in demand, not generally reflected across the system, would signify a likely increase in leakage. Normally, a second cycle of readings would be taken to confirm the result before further action was taken. This procedure suffered from a number of disadvantages: i) it was insensitive as leakage would not be identified until it exceeded a significant proportion of the daily demand, normally at least 10%. the time taken to identify the leakage and initiate further action would be two reading intervals. it was not possible to differentiate between increases in leakage and increases in metered consumption, except for very large consumers whose meters may have been read as district meters. elimination of climatic factors and holiday effects was difficult, and very much a matter of judgement and experience. 43

ii) iii)

iv)

4.2.2

Data Collection Due to the large numbers of meters likely to be involved, it may not be economic for all these meters to be on telemetry, in which case data must be collected by site visit. The frequency of data collection and analysis may itself be limited by the amount of resources which can be economically justified to undertake this activity. This can be varied with the leakage growth characteristics of the area. However, district meters are now usually fitted with data loggers which will record, in addition to the total flow, the night flow over a specified period for a number of nights. This immediately achieves a better than five fold improvement in the sensitivity of the method in the original concept, as night flows will normally be less than 20% of the average daily flow and will suffer less variation due to demand. The time taken to identify leakage is reduced to one reading interval as the night flow readings will confirm the leakage, unless it occurred at the end of the period. The effect of climatic variation is significantly reduced, although care may be needed on occasions when garden sprinklers may be left on overnight. Differentiation between leakage and metered use is easier, as any increase in metered use is less likely to take place at night, particularly at weekends. Logger manufacturers usually provide powerful software to analyse and manipulate recorded data. The equipment and economics associated with data collection are changing. Some Water Suppliers are beginning to move in favour of automated, remote, and centralised interrogation of intelligent data loggers at meters, monitoring pressure as well as flow.

4.3

Waste Metering
This is the fourth and final level of metering. A waste meter measures the total flow into a waste area. The waste meter area (WMA) is specially valved in for the purposes of the test so that it is supplied solely by the waste meter. The area covered is normally in the range 500 to 4000 properties. Where used in combination with district metering, a single DMA may be divided into several WMAs, sometimes using the same meter revalved into different areas. Waste meters are used specifically to record the minimum night flow rate, this measurement being used to judge whether there is significant level of leakage by comparison with previous readings or WMA norms. Waste metering is now rarely be used on its own in the UK. In conjunction with district metering, it would be termed combined metering. Unlike the methods of metering previously mentioned, waste metering is not run continuously. When used on its own, the waste meters are run at a set frequency. Alternatively, and now more usually in the UK, when used with district metering, they are run only when the district meters indicate a significant level of leakage. If it is judged that action is required, waste meters can be used to perform step tests to further locate the leakage within a still smaller area.

4.4

Recent Metering Improvements

The chart below indicates the improvements in flow range that have taken place alongside the evolution of data loggers. These improvements now enable one meter to read minimum night flows and maximum daily flows with an accuracy that facilitates leakage monitoring and detection. Even greater accuracy can be achieved by using electromagnetic meters which can now be obtained at smaller sizes. These meters are becoming more competitive for ordinary use, because they hold out the possibility of reduced installation and maintenance costs.

44

M e t e r Size Meter Type mm 80 Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum

M i n i m u m a n d M a x i m u m F l o w R a t e s i n m 3/ h r Deacon Kent Gate Kent IM Kent 3000 Kent 4000 Electro magnetic 0.14 181 0.21 283 0.48 640

0.23 46 0.23 46 0.45 90

0.15 46 0.21 64 0.47 140

2.50 55 2.75 86 4.50 209

1.14 170 1.59 284 3.41 568

0.50 200 0.60 250 1.80 600

100

150

These relatively recent technological advances have reduced the distinction between district and waste metering. Previously, waste meters were far more sensitive at identifying leakage than district meters, and this off-set the reduced monitoring frequency. DMAs are now as sensitive as WMAs in identifying leakage, and often the district meters themselves can be used to perform step tests. Thus, the benefits of combined metering (District Meters plus Waste Meters) can be achieved at less capital cost in real terms than was previously the case.

4.5

Meter Site Selection

Having defined the boundaries, and hence those mains in which the flow must be measured, the next step is to select the meter site. A site survey is necessary to check the location of the main and other physical obstructions or limitations. Information on the other Utilities apparatus should also be obtained at this stage to avoid subsequent problems during excavation. A site may already be committed where an existing district meter is installed, but otherwise a site should be chosen on the pipeline such that access is practicable under all circumstances for meter reading and for repair and maintenance. Location of the meter in either footpath or verge is preferable because of safety and accessibility. Dependent upon the type chosen, an electromagnetic flowmeter requires a mains power supply.

4.6
4.6.1

Meter Installation Design

Mechanical Meters Mechanical DMA meters should normally be sited on a bypass main which provides the necessary upstream/downstream lengths of straight pipe to avoid flow disturbance. However, in DMAs supplied by several meters, bypasses may not be cost-effective. The criteria should be based on the ability to maintain supplies when a particular meter is shut out, or on the availability of alternate supplies. Strainers are sometimes needed upstream of mechanical meters in dirty water areas to prevent meter blockage, but provision for the extra head loss and cleaning maintenance is needed. Meter chambers should be fitted with vandal resistant lids. If a mechanical flowmeter breaks down it may need to be removed from the pipeline in which it is installed. Depending on the meter type, the breakdown may prevent fluid passing through the faulty meter. There are ways of minimising the consequences of a breakdown by proper design such as providing:

45

Isolating valves either side of the meter. A drain valve to empty the meter. Free draining meter pit Ease of access to the meter. Ease of removal of the meter from the pipe. A bypass loop to allow flow to continue during repair. Air bleeds to facilitate filling the meter when it has been replaced.

Depending on the type of installation, not all the above precautions for mechanical meters may be deemed necessary. Nevertheless, it is too often assumed that a flowmeter, once installed, will run forever and will perform according to its original calibration into perpetuity. This is certainly not true! Mechanical flowmeters after periods of use do not retain their original calibration, but in most cases continue to give a readout, which may be believed or disbelieved depending on the shrewdness and experience of the observer. Means should be provided to make the checking of flowrate at regular intervals a routine part of checking the plant efficiency. This may be done by the temporary installation of a master meter in a specially provided bypass loop incorporating isolation and bleed valves, or alternatively by the provision of connections for insertion meters, or the provision of access for the retrospective fitting of clamp on ultrasonic flowmeters.

4.6.2

Electromagnetic Flowmeters It can be argued, that because of the maintenance-free nature of these meters, it is unnecessary to have a bypass arrangement, though valves on either side are advantageous. They do not need an upstream strainer, and are suitable for installation in meter pits which become flooded. More significantly, they can be installed without a chamber altogether. The meter can be buried, with the sensor cabled back to a transmitter/display unit sited in a convenient location. This can result in significant cost savings, and offsets the higher costs of the meter compared to the mechanical type. Verification of the calibration of electromagnetic meters can be very straightforward, one manufacturer claiming it takes less than half an hour to evaluate the status of the complete system (i.e. transmitter, sensor and interconnecting cables), with no need to gain access to the pipe. The need for re-calibration of good electromagnetic meters is a rarity.

4.7
4.7.1

Meter Selection Criteria

General Criteria The type of meter which can be considered will depend on the type, size and configuration of the district. For instance, if the district is a separate supply area with its own service reservoir or water tower storage, the incoming meter flow is likely to be continuous at a fairly uniform rate. The meter, during the normal working day, recording peak demand to the area supplemented by backflow from the reservoir, and at night, providing much lower flow for use whilst at the same time replenishing the reservoir for the next day. A meter on the reservoir inflow/outflow is also required. The other extreme would be a meter reading the daily demand with no storage on the system when, in the absence of substantial leakage, the demand in the early hours of the morning might be very low indeed.

46

In the latter case the prime considerations would be to choose a meter sensitive enough to record very low rates of flow, which otherwise would be unmeasured. The use of network analysis to identity current problems, to check the effect of the flows at the proposed valve closures, and to give an indication of the flows at the proposed district metering points, is desirable but not essential. If the existing flow information is inadequate, a flow survey must be carried out. This can be done either by the use of an insertion flow meter, or by installing a full bore meter which can subsequently be changed if found to be incorrectly sized. The method chosen will depend on the size of the main and the dimensions of the proposed meter chamber. The internal condition of the pipeline may be a significant factor in the selection of a suitable meter. The condition may be known from previous records if recent repairs or alterations have been carried out. It is practicable to examine the inside of the pipe with an endoscope but this may only be worthwhile if serious doubts about the internal conditions exist. Removing a section of pipe for inspection may be more valuable where there is concern. District meters of the size likely to be encountered (less than 300 mm, and usually uni-directional) are somewhat easier to calibrate than larger meters. It is practicable to do this in a workshop with testing facilities, or on site with the discharge from the pipe beyond the meter being registered through a calibrated check meter. 4.7.2 General Specification All meters specified should conform to the following basic characteristics: i. ii. Will be specified by flow (Qn), class and type, not by diameter. Will be capable of providing a pulsed output to an agreed standard specification which will be available without disturbing certification seals. Larger meters will be maintainable in situ by the removal and replacement of the measuring elements.

iii.

In order to specify a meter for new installations it is necessary to establish: i. ii. iii. The maximum flow required, either actual or assessed. The minimum flow. The average flow (m3/day) calculated from the periodic volume divided by the number of days.

Meters should be selected to measure at least 95% of flow at + 2.5% accuracy. Meters should be selected to ensure that at least 95% of the flow is above Qt and preferably below Qmax. In general the average flow and most (60%) of the volume should be measured between Qt and Qnom. All DMA meters should have the capability of electronic adaptation to provide logging, remote read-out and integration. All these requirements can be met by a battery, but it is worth considering mains power supply if it is readily and cheaply available. 4.7.3 Types of District Meter In theory, a wide variety of meters may appear to be suitable for use as district meters, but by definition, a district meter is usually situated where it is remote from a normal working base, possibly difficult for access (i.e. in the roadway), and usually without a supply of electricity. For this reason, these meters have almost always, in the past, been of helical vane mechanical type. Given

47

that the environmental conditions are suitable and that these meters can be maintained adequately, they are ideally suited to district meter use. If the condition in the distribution system is not gritty and the water is clear and free of suspended matter, the helical vane type of meter is cheap and accurate over wide ranging flows and provides an easy and cheap solution to district metering. Occasionally however, due to reverse flow characteristics or the presence of suspended matter, mechanical meters may not be suitable. Electromagnetic flow meters are a viable alternative to the helical vane type, and require virtually no maintenance. If a power supply is unavailable, they can be supplied to operate from a long life disposable battery. At present, and assuming continuous full use, battery life is about three years. Provision must be made for a routine battery replacement. In exceptional circumstances, it may be impracticable to shut down the supply, and in this situation the use of a retrofit time of flight ultrasonics meter, or an insertion-type point velocity probe, properly calibrated for the local conditions, would provide an alternative, but at reduced accuracy.

4.8
4.8.1

Mechanical Meters - Helix (Woltmann)

Description Inherently only suitable for water metering applications, meters in this category are most numerous, particularly in water distribution networks. In this type of meter, the measuring element takes the form of a helical vane mounted centrally in a measuring chamber with its axis along the direction of flow. The vane consists of a hollow cylinder with accurately formed wings. Water flow directed evenly onto these vanes will cause rotation which is transmitted to the undergear of the meter register by means of a ceramic magnetic coupling. This rotation is proportional to the rate of flow. Electrical transmission of this information is normally achieved by a suitably positioned magnetic reed-switch actuated by a rotating magnet in the meter register. This type of meter has now had many years of use and development in the water industry and has the advantages of requiring no power, low capital cost and ease of maintenance, but has the disadvantage of moving mechanical parts which will wear, resulting in degraded low flow performance, and necessitating regular maintenance/ repair. Grit and particulate in the line can cause deterioration in performance, particularly at the lower end of their range, by damaging bearings and seals. During mains rehabilitation in particular, abrasive material can be passed through the meter . The passage of air, also a feature of mains rehabilitation, can cause these meters to over-speed, again with the potential to damage seals and bearings.

4.8.2

Operational Requirements Location - The mechanical flow transducer should be installed in process pipework which is free of vibration. O p e r a t i n g H e a d - Mechanical flow meters in liquid service should operate with sufficient head to prevent cavitation and avoid the resulting errors or damage. I n s t a l l a t i o n P r a c t i c e - Accuracy and repeatability of mechanical meters is especially dependent upon upstream and downstream piping arrangements. Often the bore of the pipework will be a size less then that of adjacent pipework, because of the low flow characteristics. If so, the pipeline configuration shown in Figure 4.2 should be adopted. Mechanical meters should be installed so that they have a positive head of liquid upstream. This head should be equivalent to at least twice the anticipated pressure drop through the meter.

48

Care should be exercised in the installation of flanged meters to see that the pipeline gaskets do not interfere with the flow pattern by protruding into the flow stream. The pipework should be carefully aligned before fitting the meter, and the meter fitted with the direction of flow arrow correct, as performance characteristics are different for forward and reverse flow. The meter should also be installed horizontally, and with a pulse unit attachment for data logger purposes, although this is not required with some types of logger. 4.8.3 Maintenance Considerations C l e a n i n g a n d P u r g i n g - The meter should be installed only after the process pipework has been cleaned and flushed. In areas with a history of dirty water problems, consideration should be given to the use of strainers upstream to prevent foreign matter from damaging the device or blocking the flow passages. If strainers are used, they should be cleaned after flushing, and periodically during operation. Bypass Piping - The need for bypass piping is determined by the application. It may be necessary to isolate and disassemble the flowmeter for maintenance purposes. Some of the conditions which may necessitate disassembly of the meter are (a) damage caused by foreign material, (b) wear, or (c) solids build-up. In continuous service applications, where shutdown is considered undesirable, a bypass must be provided to permit process operation while the meter is being changed. If bypassed, the meter should be in the main run and the bypass should be line size and placed at least 10 diameters upstream and 5 diameters downstream of the meter. If a conventional bypass arrangement is impractical, consideration should be given to making provision for a temporary bypass. This would involve the insertion of two hydrants either side of the meter, with a valve in between. It should be noted that helical vane meter internals can be removed without taking the meter out of line.

4.9
4.9.1

Electromagnetic Flowmeters
Description The basic principle of operation of this type of flowmeter is based on Faradays law of electromagnetic induction which states that if an electric conductor moves in a magnetic field, an EMF is induced whose amplitude is dependent on the force of the magnetic field. In this application, the conductor is the liquid being metered and it is the fluid velocity that is being measured. As the pipe is full at the point of measurement, velocity and flow rate are directly related. The meter is effectively non-intrusive, giving the advantage of negligible pressure drop, and is inherently maintenance free. Its major disadvantage has traditionally been its relatively high power requirement, which necessitates the provision of a mains power supply. However, this situation has now been resolved with the development of new technology. The meter is inherently bi-directional and suitable for both clean and dirty water applications. The initial disadvantages of this type of system, associated with interfering voltage pick-up, high power assumption and zero drift, have now been largely overcome. F e a t u res - Accuracy of the magnetic flowmeter is typically + 0.5 % of full scale although + 0.5 % of actual flowrate is available from some manufacturers. Operational flow range of more than 1000:1 Since this type of meter tends to average the velocity profile between the electrodes, neither long runs of pipe (up or downstream) nor flow straighteners are needed unless percent of rate of accuracy is required.

49

There is negligible pressure drop. A large variety of sizes are available (25mm to 2500mm or even larger). Battery powering is now possible. 4.9.2 Operational Requirements Manufacturers instructions should be followed where maximum accuracy is required, but a minimum upstream straight length of 5 pipe diameters and a minimum downstream straight length of 2 pipe diameters is recommended. E l e c t r i c a l G ro u n d i n g / E a rt h i n g : The importance of proper grounding cannot be overemphasised It is necessary for the safety of personnel and for satisfactory flow measurement. The manufacturers instructions on grounding and jumper arrangement should be followed carefully. Piping should always be grounded. A continuous electrical contact to the same ground potential is necessary between the flowing liquid, the piping and the flowmeter. This continuous contact is especially important if the conductivity of the liquid is low. How this contact is achieved depends upon the meter construction and the type of adjacent piping (unlined metal, lined metal, or non-metallic ). Jumpers from the meter body to the piping are always required. If the meter is installed in non-metallic piping, it is always necessary to make a grounding connection to the liquid. This connection is achieved by means of a metallic grounding ring between the flanges, unless internal grounding has been provided in the transmitter. This grounding connection is extremely important and must be done as recommended if the system is to operate properly. As development has continued, some manufacturers meters now have an in-built grounding/earthing electrode, thus eliminating the need for grounding/earthing flanges C a t h o d i c P rotection: If the detector head is installed in a system that is cathodically protected, special precautions should be taken to ensure that: current at supply frequency does not flow through the liquid in the detector head. any current at supply frequency flowing through the body of the detector head does not exceed 10A rms.

These precautions will limit the magnitude of any resultant spurious magnetic fields. The magnetic flowmeter responds only to the velocity of the flow stream and, therefore, is independent of density, viscosity and static pressure. I n s tallatio n A r r a n g e m e n t - G e n e r a l : The magnetic flow transmitter tube may be installed in any position (vertical, horizontal, or at an angle), but it must run full of liquid to ensure accurate measurement. If mounted vertically, flow should be from bottom to top to assure a full pipe. When mounted horizontally, the electrode axis should not be in a vertical plane. (A small chain of bubbles moving along the top of the flow line could prevent the top electrode from contacting the liquid). Stress on the flow tube must be avoided, so adjustable couplings are helpful, and flange nuts must only be tightened to the specified torque. Electrical Installation - The measurement signal generated in most flow tubes is in the order of 1mV and source impedance often exceeds 1Mohm. Consequently, care must be taken to minimise electrical interference. In locations subject to high ambient electrical noise, consideration should be given to the use of an integral flow tube/transmitter. Electrical connections between the flow transducer and a remote converter or receiver unit should not exceed the maximum distance permitted by the manufacturer.

50

4.10
4.10.1

Insertion Velocity Probes

Description It is often desirable in flow studies and survey work to be able to measure the velocity at a point within the flow pattern to determine either mean velocity or flow profile. In normal applications, such a device would be inserted through a gate valve assembly on the pipeline, hence it can be installed and withdrawn under pressure without disruption to supply, with minimum costs, and can be precisely located for carrying out a flow traverse. Changes in flow during the traverse, and incorrect positioning of the probe, are possible sources of error. However, it is possible, though not necessarily recommended, to use such devices as low cost permanent flowmeters, in which case they must be positioned to monitor mean velocity. The following types are most common: Electromagnetic Turbine

The electromagnetic device is basically an inside-out version of the electromagnetic full-bore device. The velocity probe consists of a cylindrical sensor/probe shape which houses the field coil and two diametrically opposed pick up electrodes. The field coil develops an electromagnetic field in the region of the sensor and the electrodes pick up a voltage generated which is proportional to point velocity in the vicinity of the probe. This electromagnetic probe is a solid state competitor for the insertion turbine, with the obvious advantage of no moving parts, and hence no wear or blockage problems. The probe is bi-directional, and operates with an accuracy of plus or minus 2% of the flow, or plus or minus 2mm/sec, whichever is the greater.

The operating principle for the insertion turbine device is the same as for a full bore pipeline flowmeter. It consists of a rotor, approximately 20mm in diameter, which is housed in a protective rotor cage and mounted on the end of a supporting insertion rod. More recently, an ultrasonic insertion probe has been developed. Two transducers are inserted into the pipe through a single entry point, and mounted close to the pipe wall. Initial trials have been promising, with good accuracy being demonstrated. This method reduces problems associated with blockage, and eliminates errors due to flow changes.

4.11
4.11.1

Domestic Revenue Meters

Positive Displacement Positive displacement meters are used to determine totalised flow, and measure actual volume of water passed in a given time by dividing the flow into discrete volumes, summing the volumes as they pass through the meter. A very accurate device in operation, it is best suited for use as a revenue meter on customers supplies. Its mechanical nature and inherent high pressure drop make it unsuitable for most distribution metering applications.

4.11.2

Fluidic Oscillation A recent development in small revenue meters, without any moving parts. It uses a transducer to pick up electronic pulse signals, which relate to the flow velocity of the oscillating water jet. The meter is immune to particles, is unaffected when air is present, and, because it has no moving parts, it promises high accuracy throughout a very long life. 51

Simple battery replacement (used to power the electronics) every ten years is the only maintenance required. This meter, developed by a UK company within the Severn Trent Group, should have significant impact in the domestic/small revenue meter market. The same company also offers an automatic, meter reading system, which will work with all commonly available meters, both encoded and pulse output. Meters can be read visually, or by a touch pad, or via a radio signal, and the data downloaded directly into a computer.

52

Figure 4.1 Division of Water Distribution System

Intak e and Treatment Works

Meter measures flow into Operational Contro l Systems

Dist rict meter measures flow into District Meter Area (DMA) e.g. 2000 properties

Waste meter measures flow into Waste Meter Area e.g. 700 properties

M M M Sour ce Meter measures Total Output M M

Each Source is Metered to the Supply area which is

Subdivided into metered

Operational Control Systems (O.C.S.) which are each

Subdivided into meter ed

District Meter Areas (DMAs) These are the key Building Block unit s

(which may be subdivided into In which the Waste Meter Areas (WMAs )) leak can finally be located

53

Figure 4.2 Mechanical Meter Installation

Valve Helix meter Strainer

Main
FLOW

Main

FLOW

Min 5 dia Straight pipe

Min 2 dia Straight pipe

54

5.
5.1

DETECTION EQUIPMENT
Detection Principles
Generally speaking, routine leak location is dependent upon sound being generated by water escaping from the pipe. Water leaking from a pressurised main emits sound over a range of frequencies and produces a hissing noise. The particular distribution of frequencies produced by a leak is specific to that one particular leak and will depend upon such factors as the nature of the leak, size of the orifice, pressure, pipe material, nature of the ground into which the leak is discharging, or whether that ground is waterlogged. The sound so produced will travel through the pipe, at a velocity which depends upon both the characteristics of water and the pipe material, and could also travel through the ground surrounding the pipe. As the sound travels away from the leak its character changes slightly, since higher frequencies will be attenuated with distance, and other frequencies may be amplified due to the presence of cavities or other buried underground equipment. The leak noise detected therefore, will depend upon the position at which a sounding is made. Furthermore, the position of highest sound intensity is not necessarily the position nearest to the leak. Not all leaks produce a detectable noise, and some are inaudible to the human ear.

5.2

Stethoscopes (Listening or Sounding Sticks)

This is the traditional method employed in the Industry. They are passive devices, transferring the leak noise to the ear with a minimum of attenuation. They are widely used, easy to employ, but entail considerable skill in their use, and are limited by the performance of the human ear, which introduces more subjectivity. Training and experience are needed to give the best results. Stethoscopes can be used for either direct or indirect sounding, and are available in a variety of woods and metals. The more professional-looking devices may be aluminium tube with an ebonite ear-piece. Some are collapsible with short stems, which enables them to be conveniently carried in the pocket and can also be used for sounding on top of valve keys. Many operatives, however, appear to get on just as well with their standard stopcock key which is an iron rod about 1 metre long. Experience, knowledge of the area and consumers, and intuition, also play their part. The object, of course, is to identify the position of maximum sound intensity. This may not be easy, especially if there are large lengths of pipe without fittings, leaving more distance for the more difficult surface sounding. Interference from traffic noise, and non-metallic pipe materials also hinder location. At worst, and fortunately not commonplace, an interactive procedure involving dry hole excavations may ensue before the leak is found.

5.3

Electronic Sounding Devices

Where leaks produce a sound that is inaudible to the human ear, or where the leak noise is low, or the background noise is high, electronics can help. These devices usually consist of a microphone, amplifier and frequency filters, seeking to amplify the leak noise whilst seeking to filter out the amplification of extraneous noise. Frequency filter selection facilities can be a great help in this regard, but sometimes the unwanted noise may have a similar frequency to that of the leak, and not all ambient noise can be isolated out. The output of the amplifier can be fed to headphones, to a loudspeaker, to an indicating meter, or to a combination of all three. An indicating meter will display a measure of the total sound intensity received by the microphone, and hence is a more sensitive method of determining the position of maximum noise intensity than the stethoscope, especially if the latters operator is unskilled. To further assist the electronic device, different microphones are normally available depending upon whether the sounding is done on metallic pipe and fittings, or on non-metallic pipes, or on the ground surface. Electronic devices, with ground microphones, are sometimes used as routine tools to survey areas of suspected leakage, and also as a final confirmation of leak position detected by a correlator. 55

Experience is still required in the operation of electronic detectors, and because of this dependency on operator skill and frequency of use, comparisons between individual detectors, and even between detectors and stethoscopes are not readily made. However, from a purely theoretical point of view, the following conclusions might be expected by comparing the performance of stethoscopes with electronic devices and comparing one device with another. i. ii. All instruments give better response when direct sounding on metallic pipelines than on nonmetallic pipes or the surface. Electronic devices are likely to be more effective than stethoscopes in situations when the leak noise is low or where the background noise is high - they can discriminate signals inaudible to the human ear. Electronic devices with separate microphones for direct and surface sounding are likely to be more effective than devices with only a single microphone (normally for surface sounding).

iii.

5.4

The Mobile Advanced Step Tester (MAST)

The primary function of MAST is the rapid identification of high consumption areas within waste zones via the basic concept of traditional step testing methods, but with reduced manpower and time. It has been usual for step tests to be performed using the man at the meter method, with one man monitoring the meter, whilst usually two men operate the valves. Changes in flow are relayed to the operators via the voice radio network. The introduction of wax charts and then data loggers eliminated the necessity for the man at the meter, and provided greater accuracy. However, the operators were not aware of the flow changes until the end of a test, or the next day. A major disadvantage of this was that if high consumptions had been identified during the first part of a test, the further time spent closing valves was unnecessary, expensive and caused extensive disruption to customers. The next development was to have electronic on-site flow readout at the meter, but that again necessitated a man back at the meter to judge immediate response. MAST combines these methods and relays the information constantly to the valve operator (as with the man at the meter method) whilst providing the accuracy of a data logger. The 2-part system comprises a logger/transmitter and display/receiver. The logger/ transmitter is attached to the incoming zone meter. This unit collects data at a user selectable time interval (typically 1 minute) and transmits this information to the receiver which displays the flow rate immediately for operation inspection. By moving through the zone and operating the test valves, the operator is always aware of the flow status, and the loss associated with these valves is immediately indicated by the changes in flow.

5.5

Leak Noise Correlator (LNC)

This instrument does not directly seek the point of highest sound intensity, but a consistent noise source. It is relatively unaffected by background noise. It has two sensors, or accelerometers (transducers), which are placed on fittings such as hydrants or valves on either side of the leak, and uses the technique of crosscorrelation to determine the difference in time between the leak noise reaching the two sensors. The noise is converted into electrical signals, and a comparison made of the signals, searching for similarity. When the correlation is achieved, a display shows a typical high amplitude peak. The time delay for this peak to be produced is measured by means of a calibrated time trace. Figure 5.1 explains the simple mathematics involved in the correlator calculation. One of the parameters used in the calculation is the velocity of sound within the particular pipe material. The apparent velocity is affected by the pipe material. As a pipe becomes softer, the apparent speed of sound within it becomes slower. It is also affected by the diameter of the pipe. As leak noise travels away from the leak, down the pipe wall in both directions, it is attenuated by the material of the pipe. In the case of softer, plastic materials, this attenuation results in the absorption of the

56

higher leak noise frequencies, such that the further away from the leak that the noise travels, the more it is dominated by its lower frequency component. In early correlators, correlation was difficult on nonmetallic pipes because sensor technology was inadeqaute to correlate at low frequencies. The latest correlators incorporate sensors with an extended low frequency response, which has enabled correlation to be performed on all types of pipe material. Current instruments now do all the mathematics themselves, and automatically give the leak position, also calculating the actual speed of sound in that particular run of pipework if necessary, thus enabling the operator to build up a picture of the actual pipe velocities in a particular area, and to work where pipe details are not known. The development of the LNC has continued. The new generation are smaller, easier to use, have extended operation range due to more sensitive sensors, and some have the signals digitised at source. They do not require a dedicated vehicle, and can be operated by one man because the signals are transmitted by radio. This has made the LNC more flexible, and it has become the workhorse of leak pinpointing. The use of hydrophones (sensors coming into direct contact with the water via standpipes, hydrant outlets etc.) enables correlation on sounds of lower frequency and lower intensity, and at a greater distance. This is of particular help with plastic pipes and in rural areas. Figure 5.2 indicates how important it can be to know the actual route of a main between the sensor positions. In conclusion, it may be said that the LNC offers: Accurate leak location in high ambient noise Location of leakage with relatively low acoustic output Location within systems containing few fittings for direct sounding About 90% trial hole accuracy with consequent excavation/backfilling/ reinstatement cost reductions No need for an educated ear (though machine use training is very important).

5.6
5.6.1

Leak Noise Loggers

Introduction Noise (or acoustic) loggers are probably the most significant innovation in leak detection since the correlator. They help to reduce leakage levels and operating costs simultaneously by facilitating the monitoring, or surveying, of large areas quickly and effectively, and with much reduced manpower, compared with traditional sounding stick use (sometimes known as stop tap bashing). Noise loggers usually operate during the night, at the time of lowest background noise and highest pressure, and need only receive a leak signal at one sensor. This makes them a more effective survey tool than the correlator. In addition, they are considerably more sensitive than the human ear, and facilitate identification of the low level noise often associated with leaks on larger diameter mains, on plastic pipes, and in low-pressure areas. They have been proven in urban areas where leakage is difficult to detect even by correlator use, and also where the local mains system is complicated, making it difficult to track down leakage sources. They are now an integral part of leak detection methodology, and promise greater cost-effectiveness in the further lowering of leakage levels now being pursued by the UK Water Suppliers.

5.6.2

Use as a Temporary Survey Tool This version is used to survey an area, or particular trouble-spot, and is usually used in clusters of 6. More recently, economies of scale have lead to accumulation of 5 or even 10 sets together, enabling 30 or 60 to be deployed at one time. Coupling to metal fittings (valves, hydrants, etc.) is magnetic, although hydrophones can be used to increase sensitivity if a wet connection is available. They collect up to 2

57

hours of noise data at one-second intervals, and can be moved around to other locations to obtain several nights data, if required, before analysis. They are analysed by powerful electronic software, the presence of a leak being indicated graphically by a well-defined, consistent noise peak. Whilst correct interpretation of the presented data is crucial, their use does remove some of the individual, subjective assessment of a noise. They do not precisely locate a leak, but they do localise it, and are particularly helpful where the age and condition of valves, or the general network condition/status, rules out step-testing as a leak localisation method. Once removed from the fitting, they can be immmediately interogated by a portable PC. They are an alternative to step testing, if used by skilled and fully trained personnel, and with the added advantage that they do not disturb the operational system. Unlike correlators, these loggers do not rely on the same noise frequency arriving at two points with a short time delay. They listen over a much longer period for the constant source of noise generated by a leak. By comparing the sound level and spread recorded at each logger, the user can identify the approximate location of the leak and then focus attention on this section. By recording over a two-hour period, they are suited to busy night-time areas where traffic noise remains a problem, and where legitimate water demand continues. They can be easily deployed, being pre-programmed to operate automatically, requiring no specialist labour or night work, and without the risk of equipment theft that can be associated with correlator use in busy areas. 5.6.3 Use as a Permanent Monitoring Tool This latest development of the version and principles described above is another major leap forward in detection technology. It has the potential to cause a major re-think about how to monitor areas for leakage, as well as localise it. Already it is proving that it is possible to lower leakage levels further than ever before, and at reduced operating costs. These loggers are again installed at fittings via a simple magnetic coupling, taking about 5 minutes to do so, but are battery powered for up to ten years, with no maintenance requirement, and no problems from being immersed in water. Their installation and function do not interrupt supplies, or affect the customer in any way, as they are non-invasive. Proximity to loud noise sources, such as PRVs, or continuous system draw-offs, is best avoided. The separation distance between loggers depends primarily on the pipe material, with plastic materials requiring closer spacing than metallic. Each unit is intelligent, and adapts itself to its environment. If no leak is present, a radio signal is transmitted to indicate normal background conditions. However, as soon as a possible leak is detected, the unit enters an alarm state and transmits a radio signal to indicate a leak condition. Signals are received by a module which can be mounted in a patrolling vehicle, or can be easily hand-held. This receiving module analyses and homes in on signals to identify the location of units indicating a leak condition, and thus the approximate position of a likely leak. Data reception is confirmed audibly, and an LCD screen displays the leak characteristics against the logger identification number and location. The information is stored in the modules memory, and can be printed out or downloaded to a PC, enabling correlation work and precise location to concentrate solely on suspect areas. Once a leak has been repaired, the logger(s) that identified and localised it will recalibrate automatically so that, the next time that stretch of main is patrolled, it will not flag up that particular leak. There is no need to re-programme a logger once it is permanently installed. No night work is required for this method of monitoring/surveying, since patrols can be done during the day by one person. Providing a vehicle can pass within about 50 metres of the logger, whilst not exceeding 30 miles per hour, the driver need not leave his transport, or stop, since the module will receive data whilst moving. This is obviously helpful when patrolling some areas, and saves a lot of time in the data gathering process. Additional surveys to check the effect of repair work are equally simple and quick.

58

It can be seen that this piece of technology offers the possibility of continuous, permanent monitoring for leakage for 100% of a distribution system, or, alternatively, just for those parts that are known problem areas.

5.7
5.7.1

Non-Acoustic Equipment and Techniques

Introduction The techniques described below do not depend upon leak noise. These techniques are seldom used, the cut and cap method in particular being very inefficient and expensive. It is only by good fortune that a precise leak location can be made using these methods.

5.7.2

Ground Probing Radar A new development with little track record in the UK. It uses radar signals and electronic imaging of the reflected signals to locate underground leakage. It will not work with water saturated soil, and awaits validation as an every day, cost effective alternative to acoustic methods.

5.7.3

Gas Tracer Technique In this method, a non-toxic water soluble gas is added to the water supply in the area of suspected leakage. Bar holes are then made along the line of the main at regular intervals and a hand-held detector, sensitive to the gas, inspects each hole for the presence of the gas which will have come back out of solution as it escaped from the leak. The gas used, has in times past, been nitrous oxide, but it is now preferable to use sulphur hexafluoride, or hydrogen. The technique is more suitable for rural mains and trunk mains where the absence of fittings prevents the use of normal sounding techniques, and bar holes can be easily made.

5.7.4

Cut and Cap Method This last resort technique requires no special equipment. The suspected main is isolated from all other connections, and water is supplied through a meter. The main is cut and capped in the centre. If the flow still continues, the leak lies between the meter and the end cap; if the flow ceases, the leak is downstream of the centre capping. The process is repeated by subsequent section division. Its expense is obvious.

59

Figure 5.1 Leak NoiseCorrelator Calculation

A
a Correlator input Leak noise source L-a

A
a v

Delay Line

B
L-a v Time t

Correlator output I ncreasing time delay t

The figure shows a length of main which contains a noise producing leak with the microphones, A & B, placed either side. The unknown distance of the leak from microphone A is small a and the total distance between the microphones, L. The time taken for the leak noise to reach A = a v (L - a) v (2a - L) v (tv + L) 2

and the time taken for it to reach B where v=velocity of sound in the pipe. The difference in time to reach the two microphones (t)

Re-arranging, the position of the leak is given by

a =

60

Figure

5.2 Sources of Error in Distance Measurement

Leak noise travels along the length of the pipe. When using the correlator, it is important to know exactly how the pipe runs, in order to measure the total length of the pipe. Here are two situations in which mistakes are often made in assessing pipe length. a) Pipe with many Bends

SENSOR

PAVEMENT

SENSO R

FITTING

TRUE PIPE SHAPE

FITTING

b)

T Sections

PAVEMENT

SENSOR ASSUMED PI PE LENGTH

SENSOR

GTH LEN PE PI UAL ACT PAVEMENT

FITTING

FITTING

61

6.
6.1

EQUIPMENT AND LEAKAGE DETECTION TECHNIQUES FOR TRUNK MAINS

Introduction
Monitoring of leakage on trunk mains is notoriously difficult and inconvenient, and the precise location of such can be very time consuming. It is much smaller in total volume than that occurring on the distribution system, often taking the form of sudden eruptive bursts due to the high operating pressures, demanding prompt attention. However, because trunk mains and aqueducts are vital and expensive assets, proper preventative maintenance and inspection procedures are essential. These programmes will include: Surface inspection of the line of aqueduct. Regular checking of cathodic protection systems. Comparisons of input and output meters on the aqueduct and a mass balance assessment of water flows (Trunk main DMAs are sometimes feasible). Check operation of all key valves (and inspection for gland packing etc.). Internal inspection of the aqueduct, using CCTV cameras as necessary, to check internal corrosion. Excavation down to the pipeline every few years to check for graphitisation and other external corrosion.

The simplest and most common way of looking for trunk main leakage is to walk the length of the main, looking for signs of water, changes in vegetation growth, illegal connections, or any other tell-tale signs. Marshy ground, permeable ground and roadways do not help such a search. The reality of the situation is that in general a passive policy is often applied to trunk main leakage, relying on the usual high pressures to make a significant leakage obvious to farmers or the public who will then notify the Water Supplier. Trunk mains usually have a number of large meters associated with them, at treatment works, pumping stations, reservoirs, offtakes, but even so may not be comprehensively covered. Additionally, the meters may not be sufficiently accurate to give confidence regarding discrepancies caused by leakage, especially when a number of measurements have to be aggregated. However, such an approach can, by a study of trends, indicate likely leaks as they occur. Despite the drawbacks involved in all the methods described, it is very important to keep monitoring trunk mains and their leakage. Neglect can mean wasteful and dangerous leaks go unnoticed until they become catastrophic and threaten supplies to large areas. UK experience shows that lack of identification and maintenance of ageing valves and fittings can cause serious embarassment when things go wrong. The first three methods of measurement referred to below only give the approximate positions of leaks. Sounding, gas tracer techniques, infra-red photography and leak noise correlation are all possible means of more precise location. Only the last two of these are mentioned since the other methods have previously been described.

6.2

Meter on Bypass
The easiest method of measuring trunk main leakage is to close two valves on the line, one upstream and one downstream. 25mm tappings are made on either side of the upstream valve, and a small meter, typically a 25mm semi-positive displacement flow meter, is connected between the two tappings. Any leakage on the section under test will registered on the meter. The advantage of this method is that it utilises equipment that will be available. Disadvantages are, firstly, that the main has to be taken out of service, and secondly, if either the upstream or the downstream valve is letting-by a false measurement of leakage will be obtained. The approximate position of any leakage measured can be determined by the successive closing of any sluice valves along the main, in the manner of a step test. This method has the disadvantage that trunk mains normally have few sluice valves along their length and that an accurate measurement depends upon the drop tight closure of these valves.

62

6.3

Heat Pulse Flow Meter

The second method of measuring the trunk main leakage is to use the heat pulse flow meter. This is an insertion type meter and will pass through any 25mm clear, straight tapping. The meter is used by isolating the trunk main at some downstream point, and inserting the meter through a tapping made at some upstream point. Any flow registered by the meter will be leakage along that trunk main plus any water which is letting-by the shut valve. Inserting the meter through a tapping adjacent to, and just upstream of, the shut valve will provide a measure of water passing the valve and the difference between the two readings is the leakage along the length of the main. If it is found that leakage does exist along the main, its approximate position can be determined by closing valves. In view of the disadvantages of this method, a better technique is to insert the meter through additional tappings made along the length of the main to determine whether the leakage is upstream or downstream of this additional tapping. This is equivalent to cutting and capping, but of course is very much cheaper. The meter is capable of measuring velocities in the range of 2 to 25mm per second with an accuracy of about + lmm per second. The meter will, however, indicate a much higher velocity than 25mm per second, but with less accuracy. For leak detection purposes this is adequate, since leakage velocities greater than 25mm per second will usually warrant further investigation. The advantages of this method of trunk main leakage measurement are: a) b) The method accounts for any water which is let by by the valves. It can be used to determine roughly the position of the leak.

The disadvantage is that the trunk main has to be isolated from supply, albeit for a short period of time.

6.4

Pairs of Insertion Turbine Meters

It is well known that in situations where flow meters are installed on the inlet and outlet of the trunk main, only very large leaks can be detected because of errors in the meters themselves, and sometimes the difference between two measurements indicates a net gain along the length of the main. At first sight, the thought of using two flow measurements made with insertion meters would appear to add to this problem, since problems of integrating the velocity profile to obtain mean velocity, and uncertainties about the exact cross-sectional area of the pipeline at the point of measurement, could increase the errors, since the two meters are not used to make flow measurements as such. As the rate of flow through a trunk main varies, the velocity at the two measurement points also varies. Differences in the velocity at the two measurement points caused by differences in the velocity profile or cross-sectional area will vary in a velocity proportional manner, whereas the velocity differences between the two measurement points due to leakage will be independent of velocity. Consequently, by comparing upstream flow with downstream flow, or upstream velocity with downstream velocity over a range of flows, it is possible to determine the degree of leakage between the two measurement points. Manual analysis of the flow data obtained is sufficient to detect leaks producing velocities in the main equivalent to l0mm per second or greater. For detection of leaks below l0mm per second, and down to a minimum of 3mm per second, it is necessary to repeat the measurement with the meters exchanged end for end, and to use a more sophisticated analysis of the data, which will involve the use of a computer programme. The advantage of this method of trunk main leak measurement is that it is not necessary to take the trunk main out of supply in order to make the measurement. The meters can also be inserted through additional tappings made along the length of the main to determine roughly the position of the leak. The disadvantage is that it requires two site visits, the first to install the meters and the second, approximately 24 hours later, to remove the meters and to collect the data.

63

6.5

Infra-Red Photography
This is a technique which has been applied in some parts of the UK, but from reports seen, it has not yet proved its worth. It relies on changes in the temperature of the ground caused by the presence of moisture (hopefully leakage) to be identified by an infra-red camera carried by an aircraft flying along the route of the main, which obviously has to be clearly identifiable. Development work continues, and it may yet find its place in rural mains situations, particularly where access is difficult, and where the climate is hot and/or dry.

6.6

Leak Noise Correlation

This technique has been previously explained in its use in the distribution system. The LNC has been restricted in its use on trunk mains largely because of the few access points generally available. However, developments with computer hardware enable correlations to take place utilising hydrophone sensors placed significant distances apart. Successful tests have been reported with such sensors 5kms apart. This long distance correlator therefore looks to be a promising technique. If the cost of the extra hardware and ancillaries is favourable, leakage surveys of trunk mains may well be around the corner, moving trunk mains detection from a largely passive to an active policy.

64

7.
7.1

IDENTIFICATION OF MAINS, SERVICES AND VALVES

Introduction
Being able to easily identify the location of mains and services is an obvious requirement if leakage is to be located and repaired. Valve and hydrant chambers help, but vigilance is required to prevent their covers from being obscured, by tarmac in particular. Roadside markers for such fittings are extremely helpful, and must be replaced if they go missing. To avoid accidental damage (and asscoiated leakage), highly visible plastic marker tape should be laid in the pipe trench, 300mm above the pipe soffit, to serve as a warning to excavators. If non-metallic pipes are in the trench, this tape should contain a metallised mesh to aid subsequent location by detectors. Standard positioning of mains in footpaths, and service connections to houses, can not only help the location procedure, but also help identify other underground pipes and services when they appear in the excavation process. Needless to say, other Utilities should always be contacted to ensure there is an awareness of such plant, before any excavation commences.

7.2

Location for Mains in a 2 Metre Footpath

Mains routes involving all Utilities normally require in the UK a minimum clear width of 2.0 metres in the straight sections. The disposition of mains involving all Utilities would normally be as indicated in Figure 7.1. However, where all Utilities are not involved, a reduction in the route width may be acceptable, but it must have a clear width of at least 1.0 metre and the prior agreement of all Utilities concerned. The recommended dispositions as illustrated in Figure 7.2 result from a fresh analysis of Utility needs in the UK. The relative depths of lay required for the various mains argue powerfully in favour of the lateral dispositions illustrated, and are therefore recommended as standard locations. The lateral clearances between adjacent Utility mains are considered as the minimum, and represent the best use of the limited space available.

7.3
7.3.1

Service Pipe Layouts

General Arrangement of a Service Pipe Figure 7.3 illustrates the normal arrangement in the UK for a service pipe where the water main and the service pipe are located in the same footpath (short-sided services).

7.3.2

Depth of Service Pipe All service pipes in the UK should be laid with a minimum cover of 750 mm to the final finished ground level. Under no circumstances should the cover be greater than 1350 mm.

7.3.3

Provision of Ducting A duct should be provided for all service pipes located under the carriageway (usually on long-sided services). The duct should be a minimum of 40 mm diameter, coloured blue, and clearly marked Water Service Pipe at one metre intervals along its top. No joints of the service pipe should be contained within the length of the duct.

7.3.4

Proximity to Other Services The usual location of the service pipe in regard to other Utilities services in the UK is indicated in Figure 7.4.

65

The dimensions indicated are generally regarded as the minimum distances allowed between the various sections. Under no circumstances, should the water service pipe be located nearer the gas service, or problems may occur with impregnation of gas through the walls of the polyethylene water pipe. 7.3.5 Alternative Layouts for Crossing Carriageway Generally, under normal circumstances every supply pipe should have a separate communication pipe and a separate ferrule connecting it to the water main. However, under certain exceptional circumstances, more than one property may be connected to one communication pipe. It must be stressed however that these alternative arrangements are not regarded as good practice and should only be used when the provision of separate communication pipes is not practicable.

7.4

Valve Identification
Valves should be identified on site by, for example, the installation of a coloured sleeve over the valve cap. The direction of valve closure could be indicated as follows by the background colour of the sleeve:Clockwise closing Anti-clockwise closing Blue Black

The function of the valve could be indicated by coloured bands on the sleeve e.g. Z o n e / B o u n d a r y valve District (DMA) valve Valve controlling a private main Valve controlling a dialysis unit Yellow Red Green White

7.5
7.5.1

Electronic Pipe Locators

I n t ro d u c t i o n All existing pipe locators used by the water industry come under the general heading of low radio frequency instruments and can only be used for locating metallic pipelines. All of the locators work by causing an alternating current to flow in the pipe and detecting the magnetic field thus produced. The alternating current may be caused to flow in the pipeline by either induction or conduction. Induction is probably the most convenient method, because it is not necessary to have access to the pipeline, nor to run out lengths of cable, or drive in earthstakes. Pipe locating equipment used inductively has the transmitter placed on the ground above the line of the pipe, and the receiver used separately. Equipment used to make the current flow in the pipeline by conduction can be used in two forms: a) b) Earthstake coupling - the transmitter is directly connected between a fitting on the pipeline and an earthstake driven into the ground at some distance from the pipe to be located. Direct coupling - the transmitter is connected by wires to two access points on the pipeline, the section between which, is to be traced.

66

7.5.2

Discrimination The major problem, shared by all pipe location equipment, is that of discrimination between closely spaced mains and services. The degree of discrimination will depend on the mode of operation. For instruments used inductively, it is likely that discrimination between two parallel pipelines will only be achieved where the separation exceeds 1.25 to 1.5 times the depth. With conductive coupling, discrimination is likely to be better than 1 times depth if direct coupling is used.

7.5.3

Accuracy of location The sharpness of response of pipe location instruments to buried pipelines will depend on the depth and the mode of operation. The location accuracy obtained with instruments used in the conductive mode will in most cases be better than instruments used inductively.

7.5.4

Plastic Pipe Locators Since plastic is non-conductive, current-based methods can not be used to locate such pipes unless metallised marker tape is laid at the same time as the pipe. Plastic pipe locators therefore rely on the audiotracing of a noise genrated into the pipe or water column. They are generally less effective, but at least offer the possibility of tracing the pipe.

7.6

Other Pipe Location Methods

There are two other possibilities being considered for the location of pipes, plastic ones in particular. They are both very much at a developmental stage. The first is to use a traceable, chemical coating, similar to substances at use in the food industry, to line the inside of the pipe. The second is to implant micro radio transmitters in the pipe wall that can be detected when in close proximity above the main.

67

Figure 7.1

Water Main - Position in 2m Footpath

300mm max

Property Boundary

Footpath Road

Cable TV Telecomms Electricity Gas

Meter & Stop Valve

Water

Figure 7.2

Recommended Arrangement of Main in a 2m Footpath

Dimensions in mm
2000 1550 1255 960

300 mm max
Property Boundary

690 430 Road

Cable TV

450

295

295

270

Water

Elec

Gas

260

Telecoms

430

68

Figure 7.3

Typical Layout of Service Pipe

Dimensions in mm
Property boundary line

750mm

300mm max

Plastic Tube 1350mm max 750mm min Boundary box / Stop valve 900mm

25mm nom bore Supply Pipe Maintained by consumer Service Pipe

25mm Polythene tube (Provide duct on road crossing) Communication P ipe

Ferrule connect ion Water Main

Figure 7.4

Usual Location of Service Pipe to Property

Dimensions in mm

450

450

750 Min

200 min

100

100

Electrici ty

Telecomms Water Service Pipe Gas

69

8.
8.1

LEAKAGE IDENTIFICATION AND LOCALISATION

Demand Patterns
The Total Integrated Flow (TIF), or top down approach is of little use in assessing leakage on less than an annual basis, so another method is required for operational leakage detection purposes. Leakage is continuous, whereas legitimate demand varies with time. It is this difference which forms the key to leakage identification, for if ways can be found of separating legitimate usage from leakage, or if there are times (even temporarily) when normal usage ceases, then the water still flowing can be identified as leakage. Fortunately there are methods by which this can be done. Legitimate usage takes place mostly during daytime. Although some commercial undertakings work shift systems and some households work at nights, the large majority of demand occurs in daytime and results in the classic and well known demand pattern shown in Figure 8.1. This is true for large conurbations and is surprisingly still accurate for quite small demand areas within the overall area. In all cases the leakage is running to waste continuously, although its volume varies with pressure. It can readily be seen that since most of the legitimate demand does not occur at night-time, most of the flow at night will be leakage.

8.2

Night Lines
The flow of water at night is thus a very important factor in leakage control and detection. It is known as the Night-Line in the UK, and is usually the flow through a DMA meter for 1 hour between 3 am and 4 am (times may vary). A high night line is a good first indicator of high leakage levels, but it is not a leakage level itself, because important deductions from it (such as for factories working shifts etc.,) have to be made to arrive at a net Night Flow (NNF). NNF is normally expressed in litres per property per hour. This enables comparison to be made between areas and against set targets. It is subject to less significant errors than the TIF method, and eliminates the extraneous factors included in unaccounted for water. It is known as the bottom up approach. It is, however, more difficult to obtain, as it requires specific measurements to be taken, rather than using generally available data. In systems with either district or waste metering it is possible to aggregate the results of night flow measurements to produce an overall figure, provided that meter coverage is complete. However, such figures will not include leakage from service reservoirs or trunk mains, and therefore cannot be used to assess overall performance. It should also be remembered that the Net Night Flow also contains some legitimate domestic consumption, and that the rate of leakage at night is higher than the average daily rate because the pressure is at its highest at night. To convert night time leakage rate to total daily leakage, tests have yielded the following approximation: (night time leakage rate) x 20 hrs = total daily leakage The multiplier of 20 instead of 24 hours takes into account the reduced day time pressure. This is known as the 20 hour rule.

8.3

The Development of Continuous Monitoring

Studies throughout the world have shown that continual monitoring for leakage control is cost effective on almost all distribution networks. The success of the method can be attributed to two major influences. Firstly, the rapid advances in metering technology have expanded the flow range of the well established mechanical meters, and have led to the introduction of other meter types, such as electromagnetic , in the size and flow range, and at a cost suitable for leakage measurement.

70

Secondly, data capture has become increasingly sophisticated, the techniques ranging from simple remote reading devices to programmable data loggers and telemetry. Together these advances have encouraged a trend away from those leakage control methods requiring a routine survey (the inefficient regular sounding or the labour intensive regular waste metering) to those which utilise continual monitoring (district metering/combined metering). The latest development is that of the permanent acoustic (or noise) loggers. This, of course, is different in that they monitor directly for leakage, not for flow into an area. Furthermore, they automatically localise the approximate position of a leak such that a leak noise correlator can be immediately employed to precisely locate it. Even so, they are not a replacement for flow monitoring.

8.4

Determination of Leakage from Night Flows

The primary use of net night flow data is to provide operational data on which to decide on the need for further action. The minimum night flow (MNF) can be readily measured with reasonable accuracy for both district and waste meter areas, allowing small changes in flow volumes to be observed. Determination of the night metered consumption is more difficult. In many areas it will be negligible and can be ignored. Where it is not deemed negligible, the alternative methods available to determine it are as follows:i) Use a percentage of average daily consumption. This is satisfactory where the total non-domestic consumption is relatively small. Measure MNF immediately prior to and during a bank holiday period. The difference will give the night consumption of industrial users who shutdown for the holiday. Some allowance will still be required for commercial users with an element of domestic type consumption, and for industrial users with continuous processes. Do a telephone survey of major consumers to determine whether there is significant night usage e.g. replenishment of factory storage tanks. Some users may be able to supply night consumption data. In addition, on large complex sites there is a possibility of misuse of water (e.g. unauthorised use of fire mains), and it may be prudent to check such connections before embarking on leak location work. Take night meter readings of the major non-domestic users. Use data loggers where the meters are logger compatible - consider changing/converting old meters on major users where this is not the case. Trade effluent data may provide useful information.

ii)

iii)

iv)

v)

It must also be remembered, however that whilst domestic consumption is reduced to a minimum by measuring flows at night, it is not eliminated entirely. Research in the UK suggests an allowance of about 21/prop/hr, which includes minor undetectable leakage such as dripping taps and passing ball cocks. This consumption is included in the net night flow figure. The increasing use of domestic appliances overnight using economy electricity tariffs is also a factor which may need consideration. Having determined the leakage, this can be compared to previous readings and norms for the area, and a decision made on whether further action is required. If the night flow in a district exceeds some threshold value, further investigation should be undertaken to locate the source of the extra losses, which may be unreported bursts.

8.5

Necessary Checks
Having identified an area with indicated high unaccounted for levels at the meter(s), the first step should be to verify the data and check DMA meters, loggers and boundary valves. This can be the source of big errors, and, if overlooked, a lot of time can be wasted. 71

Pressure Zero Testing should be carried out in order to confirm the integrity of the area. This will not only prove that the boundary valves shut tight, but will also disclose any unknown connections to adjacent areas. In operating at night, the water supply is turned off at the meters, and the system allowed to drain down through consumption and leakage. If the area is tight, then pressures monitored at key points in the area will approach zero. The supply is then slowly re-introduced, and the situation monitored until pressures return to normal. Then, the search for leakage needs to concentrate upon the reasons for a high night- line. It may be that a meter registering water flow into a rural area suddenly shows an increase in demand. If this corresponds to a new large metered customer being connected to the mains, then it is possible to correlate the two and show that the increased flow is not leakage. If the demand gradually builds up in an area and thus matches the number of new properties being built, then a high increase of leakage is probably not indicated. On the other hand, where sudden increases in demand occur for no apparent reason, or flows creep up whilst housing stock is constant, then the pointers are towards increasing leakage, and the need is for further investigations. This demonstrates the importance of monitoring leakage regularly and taking account of TREND in flow patterns. A realistic calculation of actual leakage is also necessary for each DMA so that an aggregated bottom up assessment of each District can be made, and performance monitored against the target level set for each DMA. On a weekly basis, using district meter information, comparisons may be helpful to confirm leakage between bottom-up night flow calculations and top down bulk consumption calculations. Regulators of the UK Water Industry now expect such comparisons of leakage as part of leakage assessment.

8.6

Large Area Sub-Division

Detection methods should be employed to progressively narrow the search for leakage (localisation) using the most appropriate method to home in and finally locate it. If leakage is suspected in a large DMA, it may be necessary to subdivide it so that each sub-area contains less than about 1000 properties. This can be done using established Waste Meter Areas within the DMA, or by judicious valving. In either case, the flow into the sub-area will only be monitored temporarily. Areas of less than about 1000 properties are more manageable for the final leak location. This is done by valving-off the area, so that each district meter feeds a district area. Figure 8.2 illustrates this exercise. If the installation of further meters or valves is necessary, although it is more capital expense, it has the permanent advantage that future investigation of the area is made easier.

8.7
8.7.1

Waste Metering
General This technique may still be necessary even within a district metering strategy, where a large area has to be kept open. Waste runs will be performed on each of the WMAs at an agreed frequency. To carry out waste meter runs, it is necessary to close all the predetermined boundary valves, and record the flow through the meter, preferably with a data logger. The time taken to do this will, of course, depend on the number of valve shuts required and also on whether the meter is fixed or mobile. Having recorded the flows in several such WMAs, the decision can be made as to whether further action is required. Some WMAs may not be capable of being run for 24 hours due to low pressure in the area itself, or in adjacent areas downstream. In such cases additional costs for night-time overtime working will be incurred, but these can be minimised by shutting most of the valves during the day, just leaving the critical valves to be closed. Waste meter areas are now sometimes referred to as district meter sub-areas.

72

8.7.2

Checking of Boundary Valves It is clearly essential that the boundary valves shut tight, and each valve should be sounded after closing to check this, although this will not always indicate valves which are passing. If it is suspected that a valve is letting by, but no noise can be heard, it will be necessary to test the water tightness of the valve. This can be done by installing a hydrant flow meter near to the suspect valve and within the valved-in WMA. Water is run to waste through the hydrant, and the flow rate is measured. This additional flow should appear at the waste meter if the valve is water tight, provided that pressures are not significantly reduced. If this is not the case, the valve will require repair or replacement.

8.7.3

Effect of Reduction in Pressures If due to the valve closure pressures are significantly reduced during the night period, it may be necessary to adjust the measured MNF to obtain a figure which is truly representative of the normal leakage level.

8.7.4

Combination with District Metering If waste metering is used in combination with district metering (and this is now much more usual in the UK than waste metering on its own), provided that Minimum Night Flows (MNF) are being recorded by the district meters, it is no longer necessary to maintain a set pattern or frequency of waste testing. The location and frequency of the waste tests and step tests will be determined by the district meter readings.

8.8
8.8.1

Step Testing
General If further detection action is decided upon as a result of a night-time increase at the district meter or the waste meter run, it is necessary to decide on whether a step test should be carried out prior to sounding/correlating. This will depend on the size of the area and past experience. Step testing is the process of successively closing valves to reduce the size of the area being metered. The resultant drop in flow rate monitored at the meter by chart and/or logger, following the closure of a particular valve, represents the MNF in that small section isolated by that valve. Thus the leakage in that section can be separately assessed. An undiscovered leak would show a disproportionate drop in flow. In this way it is possible to identify those small sections where the leakage is occurring, and this normally means that a much smaller part of the area needs subsequent location work. For best results, each step of the test should contain about l00 houses in a UK situation. Step testing is usually carried out at night and thus carries penalties in overtime payments and disruption of work routine, but it can be very effective and may be the only option in busy city centre areas if no acoustic loggers are available. Since water flow is interrupted, checks of important water supplies and dialysis patients are necessary before work begins. With technological developments, step tests can now be performed using radio, saving time and money. As soon as possible after the step test, water supplies are restored. Figure 8.3 illustrates the principle of step testing.

8.8.2

Methods of Step Testing There are various procedures for actually performing step tests, all of which depend on valves shutting tight:

73

i)

The isolation method, where the area downstream of the closed valves is left without water for the duration of the test. The close and open method, in which each valve is only closed for a period long enough for the drop in flow rate to be recorded. The back feed method, where each time a valve is closed a corresponding valve is opened behind it.

ii)

iii)

8.8.3

Night Tests Step testing must normally be carried out at night, and each test is likely to take a two (or sometimes three) man team 6 hours to carry it out. Actual time taken will depend on the number of shuts, and on the duration of the night period when flows are at a minimum. This period may be influenced by electricity tariffs and social habits. The period will be indicated by the pattern of the MNFs previously recorded, and may vary with the day of the week. Often only 3 or 4 hours will be available. The number of shuts planned must be tailored to fit within the time available. For large areas, steps larger than the ideal 100 houses will probably be required.

8.8.4

Day Tests Trials of afternoon step testing may be carried out with success in areas where many of the properties are unoccupied during the day. This technique may be useful in identifying some steps where leakage is not running, but positive readings are not able to differentiate between leakage and normal consumption.

8.8.5

Flow Recording Where the Mobile Advanced Step Tester (MAST - see section 5.4) is not used, an on-site readout of flow rate, preferably in graphical form, is required. The advantages of this are that: i) ii) Each step can be noted on the graph, thus confirming the water tightness of the valves If all the leakage is accounted for prior to the end of the test, this can be identified and the test completed early.

8.9
8.9.1

Acoustic (Noise) Logging

General The localisation procedures of waste metering, step testing, and initial sounding surveys are all manpower intensive, and therefore relatively costly in operational expenditure. The introduction of the first temporary noise loggers (see section 5.6.2) has improved this situation. They have proved a cost-effective survey tool, enabling better targeting of leak location resources. Their use in clusters has greatly helped to locate leaks in problem areas where it was already known that something was wrong, but previous sounding and correlation had been inconclusive - in busy built-up areas, or where mains intersections are complex (e.g. urban crossroads), a certain conviction is required before holes can be confidently dug, with all the interruption and expense that this entails. Experience needs to be gained, however, in the correct interpretation of results from these loggers. However, it is the permanent device (see section 5.6.3) which is causing the most excitement, carrying, as it does, the possibility of helping Water Suppliers achieve further leakage reductions without the spiralling operational costs that might have been anticipated. In fact, it threatens to reduce existing operational costs. In the UK, most of the easy leakage has now been detected and repaired. In many areas, the leakage benefit of pressure reduction has already been felt, and cannot be repeated. Reduced pressures have made remaining leakage more difficult to find, and detection is also becoming more difficult because

74

background noise at night is increasing. This has meant that leakage reductions have started to tail off with existing methods, and detection costs are increasing. Furthermore, the time taken to identify, detect and repair an average leak is still relatively long.

It is obvious that labour-intensive methods cannot continue to deliver ongoing reductions in leakage and cost. The permanent noise logger offers the potential to reduce the economic level of leakage, and to change the thinking about what levels of leakage are tolerable and inevitable. Also, by facilitating further savings, it may afford the postponement of some capital schemes for resource enhancement, and cause the postponement of some mains renewal schemes in areas where this was seen to be the only remaining solution to reduce leakage. 8.9.2 Operational Aspects Preparation prior to the installation of these loggers is minimal. The area to be monitored has to be checked for the availability of fittings and for the presence of loud noise sources on the mains, whose proximity is to be avoided. The spacing of the loggers will also be dependent on the pipe material. The planning of a patrol route, (to be within 50 metres of each logger), may also be a factor regarding where they are actually deployed. Once deployed and initially patrolled, an initial list of leaks will be generated, with no reliance on subjective, human interpretation factors. One person can survey several DMAs in a day, and skilled detection staff are focussed on finding known leaks with a correlator, thus avoiding wasted time looking for leaks in areas where there are none. This is obviously motivating for the workforce. Once installed, the loggers allow more and more leaks to be identified, at the minimal extra cost of another patrol. Because the noisiest leaks may not be the biggest, and repair may initially cause the breakout of more leaks that were waiting to happen, more than one patrol may be necessary to significantly reduce the leakage level. Management has control over this process, so by monitoring the night flow into the DMA, leakage reduction efforts can be stopped at any point once an acceptable level has been reached. The reading of a DMA meter can easily include the monitoring of the loggers within it, so that new leaks are localised at exactly the same time as increases in the night flow are noticed. This means a prescribed leakage level can be easily maintained, because the detection time is greatly reduced. In stable areas where leakage increase is slow, once the prescribed level is reached, the loggers could be removed and re-deployed to another area. When there is an unacceptable increase in the night flow in the original area, they could be taken back again to assist in the localisation of the new leaks. These loggers may be the only solution in areas where it is not possible to set up DMAs, or where it is preferred not to do so. Where leakage control is the only reason for setting up small DMAs, they enable a move in policy to larger ones, with consequently reduced setting-up costs. Hence they provide greater flexibility in the development and operation of a distribution system. 8.9.3 Results The permanent version of the noise logger was launched in the UK in June 1999, following substantial field trials. Many operational benefits have been confirmed. These include: Leaks being localised faster than before, with the obvious savings in water More leaks being found than was thought possible with previous methodologies - some of these were thought to have been masked, or inaudible Increased repair efficiency, with leaks being dealt with in clusters, rather than in a widely dispersed manner

75

Lowest ever leakage levels being attained, and maintained, in established DMAs A marked reduction in leak detection operating costs

The evidence suggests that a new era is dawning for leak detection with this piece of technology. More figures are awaited regarding overall costs, but it is looking likely that initial capital investments will easily be repaid within the life expectancy of the loggers. It remains for individual Water Suppliers to decide what coverage to deploy them at, and whether to use some in a rotational way between different areas. Such best use data will accumulate as experience is gained.

76

Figure 8.1

Demand Pattern in a Typical Area

Peak Demand

Legitim ate Water Usage

Night Line Leakage flows Continuously

Leakage Flows Continuously

6 a.m.

Noon

6 p.m.

Midnight

6 a.m.

Figure 8.2

Temporary Sub-Division of DMAs to Help Locate Leakage

PERMANENTLY CLOSED DMA BOUNDARY VALVES

METER M1

MAINS

METER M2

TEMPORARY CLO SURE AT VA LVES A & B TO DI VIDE THE DMA INTO 2 PARTS WILL ENABLE ASSESSMENTS O F DEMAND PER PROPERTY IN EACH TO BE MADE. THIS METHOD SOMETIMES HAS APPLICATION IN LOCATING LEAKAG E (ESSENTIALLY 2 TEMPORARY WASTE METER AREAS ARE FORMED.)

77

Figure 8.3

Diagram to Illustrate the Principle of Step Testing for Leakage Control

VALVES CLOSED AT INTERVALS DURING STEP TEST

BETA GROVE

B C

E
GR ANGE AV ENUE

G F

METER & CHART / ELECTRONIC RECORDER

ALPHA AVENUE

MAINS

CLOSED BOUNDARY VALVES

A B C DISPROPORTIONATE DROP IN FLOW WHEN VALVES C & E ARE CLO SED, INDICATING SUSPECTED LEAKAGE FOR FURTHER INVESTIG ATION

FLOW
D E

F G

1.00

1.15

1.30

1.45

2.00

2.15

2.30

2.45

TIME (a.m.)

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9.
9.1

LEAKAGE LOCATION, CONFIRMATION AND REPAIR

Sounding
Sounding can be used as a detection method in its own right (very labour intensive), or more usually as a means of finally locating a leak previously identified and localised by other methods. Sounding seeks to identify aurally the point of maximum intensity of the characteristic hissing noise of a pressurised leak. Sounding can either be done directly, that is by making direct contact with fittings on the main, or by listening on the ground surface above the line of the main. Surface sounding can be successful where there is a hard surface above the main, but generally it is less effective and reliable than direct sounding on fittings, i.e. boundary stop taps, valves and hydrants. It can be particularly unreliable where recent excavations have been made and backfilled with imported material, or where other underground apparatus is very close. However, the more recent ground microphones with probe attachments are a significant improvement. The procedure for locating a leak is as follows. On the first pass a note is made of those fittings on which a noise is found. Those fittings are then sounded again. If the noise is on a boundary stop tap, it is necessary to ascertain whether this is due to use within the house. The stop tap is closed and then sounded once more. If the noise ceases, it indicates leakage on the consumers pipework and a notification of such is made. If the noise continues, it indicates a leak on the communication pipe, or more probably on the main if the noise can be heard on adjacent fittings. In this case surface sounding is carried out to locate the position of the leak more precisely. The advantages of sounding are: a) b) c) The equipment is relatively simple and inexpensive; In conditions of low background noise, a large number of fittings can be inspected fairly rapidly; It is possible to detect leakage within the premises when used in conjunction with the turning off of the consumers stopcocks.

The main disadvantages of both direct and surface soundings are: a) b) c) d) e) It is sometimes difficult to determine the precise position of highest sound intensity; The position of highest sound intensity does not always coincide with the position of the leak or the fitting nearest the leak; Sounding can be very difficult in areas with high background noise such as that produced by traffic in busy streets, or by boosters and certain fittings such as control valves; Successful sounding is dependent upon operator skill; Some leaks are inaudible to the human ear, and some produce insufficient sound to be detected by any sounding technique.

The disadvantages can all be overcome by use of the Leak Noise Correlator.

9.2

Leak Noise Correlation

Leak Noise Correlators measure the time taken for the leak noise to travel from the leak to sensors placed at different points on the mains system. Automatic correlation by the machine then indicates the position of the leak. Properly used, leak noise correlation can identify leakage typically to within a metre of its location, which is usually more precise than sounding. Leak noise correlation can be carried out either in place of sounding, or in conjunction with it. Where it is carried out together with sounding, the correlator sensors are attached to those fittings noted as producing a noise, and the location of the leak determined. Correlators can be used to carry out the initial sound survey by attaching the sensors to fittings on the main at suitable intervals and seeing whether a correlation can be found. Where there are long lengths of main without any access points, holes can be drilled through the ground, allowing access via an iron bar.

79

The maximum distance between the sensors must be set according to the pipe materials encountered, and the sensitivity of the particular correlator and sensor. Typical operating distances are as follows: cast iron/ductile iron asbestos cement uPVC medium density polyethylene 600m 220m 150m 100m

An improvement in sensitivity, and hence an increase in the maximum distance between the sensors, can be achieved by use of hydrophone sensors. These sensors are fitted to hydrants, or other wet fittings, and are in direct contact with the water. Thus, water is the sound transmission medium rather than the pipe wall. Using these sensors sounds can be picked up over distances of 1 km or more. Later correlator models facilitate the sound survey technique by incorporating a survey mode, in which the machine will search for a correlation without the need for the operator to enter the normal information required for a leak location (e.g. length between sensors etc). This technique requires less manpower than conventional sounding, and leak noise correlators do have a major advantage in busy urban areas in that they are less affected by background noise. To sound such areas manually usually requires that the work is carried out at night, and hence additional costs for overtime working are involved. Reliability, portability and performance of Leak Noise Correlators has continuously improved over recent years and they are now employed as an essential part of a leakage control programme. They must be used by trained and skilled personnel, and preferably by people who are using the equipment regularly. Leak noise correlators continue to be the principal method of leak location. However, their use as a survey tool is declining due to the emergence of noise loggers. The combination of the two methods, together with electronic listening devices, provides the most efficient and effective means of leak localisation, location, and confirmation.

9.3

Visual Evidence
Apart from the obvious emergence of trickling/running water, leakage location can be helped by other signs such as increased growth of vegetation, moss on ground or walls, wet or damp patches, melted snow or frost, and water entering gullies or manholes. Adjacent premises with cellars may also provide clues.

9.4

Other Practical Points

The answers to the following and similar questions may have some bearing on the method chosen to locate the leakage: Is the leakage likely to be a burst main or several leaking fittings or pipes? Does the area contain industry? Will customers be affected by a valve inspection? Can meters be logged? Can the area be worked in normal working hours or does traffic density and noise necessitate nighttime or weekend working? What are the age and pipe materials in the area? What is the previous burst history?

9.5

Confirmation
Where correlators locate leakage without previous use of sounding equipment, it would be normal to seek some confirmation by use of a ground microphone. This is a helpful check before the expensive commitment of digging a hole! In a verge or field, the insertion of a rod or bar may immediately reveal leaking water.

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9.6
9.6.1

Repair, Follow-Up and Records

General Having located leakage, it is necessary to ensure that it is quickly and efficiently repaired. The total leakage volume is directly related to the length of time leaks are left running. Leakage detection activities will only retain their credibility if leaks are repaired quickly. Many of the leaks will, of course, be on the consumers pipework, in which case it may take very much longer to get the leak repaired. This can be a difficult process, particularly in the case of joint supply pipes where questions of responsibility have to be resolved. It is sometimes overlooked that leaking pipes and fittings can give rise to water ingress during negative pressure incidents (e.g. in the vicinity of a large burst). Ingress brings the risk of pollution and hence reinforces the need for prompt repair of all known leaks.

9.6.2

Follow-up After Repair Having repaired the located leaks, it is good practice to re-sound in the immediate vicinity of the repair to check that the previous leak was not masking other leakage. If permanent noise loggers are installed, another patrol will reveal this information. Night flows should be immediately checked after repair work, and compared to DMA norms. These should be adjusted downwards where appropriate.

9.6.3

Repair Records It is essential that all repairs of bursts and leaks are accurately and comprehensively recorded, preferably on a database. This information should include: Location DMA reference Date Size Type of burst Mains/service pipe material Type of repair Was burst reported or detected?

9.7

Leakage Contracts
The use of Contractors in leakage work is relatively new in the UK, but is likely to develop. Various forms of contract have been tried, from simple Detection to Payment by Results. There have been limitations from both the Employers and the Contractors point of view. Work to produce a Model Form of Contract is ongoing. Basic sections on Conditions and Technical Specification will be supplemented by specialist sections for different types, and further supplemented by additional sections to cover the needs of individual Employers. A number of different payment options will be included. Employers and Contractors are working together on this, so it is expected there will be a move from an adversarial style of contract to a more co-operative approach. Partnering will be a key word.

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10.
10.1

PRESSURE MONITORING AND MANAGEMENT

Pressure Measurement
Pressure is one of the most frequently measured parameters in the Water Industry, often being measured alongside flow. Many methods of measurement are in usage, but pressure transducers have become the most common means in distribution systems. They operate by converting fluid pressures into electrical signals. Pressure measurement typically takes place for: General monitoring of the distribution system Specific monitoring at critical points (levels of service) Particular consumer problems of inadequate pressure Co-ordination with particular flow tests e.g. new housing estates, high rise flats, industrial consumers, fire fighting installations and fire hydrants Network analysis calibration

10.2

Pressure Control Options

Pressure management is a major element in a leakage management strategy. Pressure reduction is probably the simplest and most immediate way of reducing leakage within the distribution system. Its benefits are immediate. Even where already practised, it is likely to be worthwhile to re-examine and reset equipment and schemes to take advantage of progressive technical developments, and local system alterations. Pressure management can be accomplished in a number of ways and not just via the installation of a new pressure reduction valve (PRV). In fact, the generation of pressure almost always costs money, so reducing pressure by means of a PRV is intrinsically inefficient. The following options should be considered first: Re-zoning the area supplied to match input head to topography and minimise system losses. This may include boosting to a smaller, critical area, reinforcing or reconditioning mains to allow low pressure zones to be extended, or transferring demand zones to an alternative source with a lower overall head. Network analysis could greatly facilitate this investigation. Matching pump output curves to closely match distribution demands. This could include resizing pumps to match known demands, or staged or variable speed pumping, or closed loop control using flow or pressure signals. Installation of break pressure tanks. These generally have a higher capital cost and are a potential contamination risk. On account of this they are no longer used in the UK.

Having considered these three options, mechanical pressure control devices, typically PRVs, provide the next stage in a pressure control strategy.

10.3

Pressure Control Benefits

Pressure control can: Reduce leakage Reduce pressure-related consumption such as hand-washing, car washing etc Reduce the frequency of bursts, at least in the immediate future subsequent savings in repair costs can exceed those due to reduced leakage Stabilise pressure, decreasing the possibility of pipework movement and fatigue type failures, and possibly eliminating certain household plumbing problems. Provide a more constant service to customers large diurnal pressure variations may give customers an impression of a poorly managed service, and unnecessarily high pressures raise customers expectations and perceptions of what is adequate. Enable a company to standardise on pipes and fittings which have a lower pressure rating, and are therefore cheaper. Assist demand management when flow restriction is necessary i.e. during drought.

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10.4

Pressure Reduction Problems

Some examples of the problems that can potentially arise, and their consequences, are listed below. Some of these can be designed out of the system. P o o r P re s s u re In correctly configured systems this is typically a result of restrictions and blockages of individual supplies. Flow and pressure tests at the property affected will reveal the location of the problem which can then be dealt with in the normal way. Partly closed stop taps and valves are a typical problem. Poor pressures may also be the result of pipework simply being undersized, perhaps through corrosion. They may also occur by the setting up of the PRV area severing the normal interlinking of the system. This should be assessed beforehand at the area design stage. Noise Noise can be a problem close to PRV installations. Noise is usually associated with small valve openings and may be associated with cavitation problems. Attention to pipework detail and valve settings can reduce noise levels but it is best avoided by correct selection and siting. Noise through a PRV does create difficulties for leak detection work in the vicinity because of its interference. Blockages Blockages can occur as a result of mains material becoming trapped in the PRV. This may result in failure of the control and actuating mechanism and loss of pressure control, leading to excessively high or low pressures. Attention to the maintenance of filters and correct flushing are necessary to avoid blockages in distribution systems which are prone to solids contamination. It is generally recommended that planned preventative maintenance be carried out on a six- monthly basis. Valves without close mechanical tolerances are less susceptible to this type of failure. Strainers upstream of the PRV will also help Va l v e O p e r a t i o n Closing of valves between the PRV and a remote pressure monitoring point will result in the PRV attempting to rectify the apparent loss of pressure at the remote point. Typically this occurs when valves are shut in the course of a routine repair. The results of exposing the system to maximum pressures at moderate flows will usually be a series of burst mains. This situation should be avoided by ensuring that Inspectors, in particular, are aware of pressure control systems and follow appropriate procedures before closing critical valves. Network models can also be used to simulate valve closures prior to operation on site to help understand how the system will react. P re s s u re a n d F l o w S u r g e s Under certain circumstances surges of pressure and flow can cause unpredictable PRV behaviour. This can result, with certain valves, in the piston exceeding its travel and jamming in the fully open or closed position. Usually, the surges which cause this type of failure result from valve or pump operations which should be examined to minimise the risk. In addition, the provision of stops to limit the travel in mechanical systems can be helpful. High-Rise Buildings Ordnance survey data alone is insufficient in planning an area from a topographical point of view a tall building survey should be undertaken. In areas where existing flats rely upon a highpressure mains supply, pressure reduction may only be possible if the Supplier is willing to bear costs of pumping and plumbing modifications. Where small boosters are already feeding multistorey buildings, the lowering of pressures may cause the boosters to operate more regularly.

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Specialist Consumers Particular care must be taken in consideration of pressure reduction on the effect on home dialysis units (they may simply be able to be adjusted) and industrial consumers who use processes dependent on existing mains pressures, or who have sprinkler systems requiring pressure in excess of that required. The Fire Service function will also be affected by pressure reduction. Technical staff can usefully discuss such problems with consumers beforehand and find individual solutions. Time must then be allowed to make the required changes.

Costs PRVs work best as a single feed to a DMA. The installation of a PRV may therefore incur extra expenditure to convert the area being supplied to a single feed system. A d d i t i o n a l Active Leakage Detection It should be noted that in the long run, the lower the pressure, the less leakage, but the greater the need, frequency and cost of leak detection. Obviously, less spare pressure exists before consumers complain. The prime reason for leak detection effort in such a case becomes one of responding to low pressure complaints caused by leakage rather than to save water and money directly. An appropriate balance must thus be found for sensitive areas. Lower pressures also mean leakage is more difficult to actually detect because the noise of escaping water is less intense. This suggests that intensive leakage detection should be carried out before pressure reduction is implemented, otherwise leakage which could be found could instead be rendered undetectable (or more costly to find), thus negating potential benefit.

10.5

Pressure and Leakage

Consideration of a basic hydraulic map indicates that the residual pressure at any point in the system depends on: The input hydraulic head of the zone resulting from either: a) the supplying reservoir level in gravity systems, or b) the pump outlet pressure in pumped systems The difference in level between the source of supply and the point of delivery The frictional losses between the system inlet and outlet

There is often confusion between absolute and residual head when discussing pressure. Figure 10.1 illustrates the relationships between these points in the distribution system. The pressure within a DMA (for example) will therefore vary geographically with elevation and pipe configuration (longer, smaller pipes generate more frictional head loss). It will also vary with demand as higher flows and velocities also result in higher pressure losses. The significance of these two effects will vary with the topography of the area and the DMA, the variability of demand, and the size and condition of the mains. Theoretically, leakage is expected to be related to the square root of the pressure at the leakage point. Field work undertaken in the UK at the end of the 1970s, co-ordinated by the Water Research Centre, indicated that, in practice, the effects of pressure were greater than this and approached a linear relationship. This means that the actual benefit achieved from a particular pressure reduction can be considerably greater than predicted. See Figures 10.2 and 10.3, which attempt to define the relationship between pressure and leakage, and are used to estimate the potential leakage savings from the introduction of pressure reduction. . However, this relationship has produced mixed results, leaving the conclusion that there is no universal pressure/leakage relationship, each unique system having its own. It has understandably been argued that there are two types of leak aperture; one that keeps its size (e.g. holes and cracks in metal pipes), and one that changes with pressure (e.g. leaks at joints and fittings, and possibly in some plastic pipes).

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Another reason for greater than expected leakage at higher pressures may be due to a change in the effect of the surrounding backfill material. Clearly, more research work is needed to better understand the pressure/leakage relationship. It should also be noted that pressure is generally at a maximum overnight, when flow and friction losses are at a minimum. It follows therefore that proportionally more leakage reduction will occur at night when pressure control is implemented. It is for this reason that the previously mentioned 20 hour rule is used, whereby measured savings per hour at night should only be multiplied by 20, not 24 to derive a daily total.

10.6

Statutory Requirements and Levels of Service

In the UK, under the terms of the Water Industry Act 1991, it is the duty of a Water Supplier to cause the water in its mains and other pipes to be laid on constantly, and at such a pressure as will cause the water to reach the top of the topmost storey of every building within the Suppliers area. This specifically refers to: i) ii) Supplies of water for domestic purposes Mains which have hydrants fixed to them

The Water Suppliers duty however is limited to supplying water to a height no greater than that to which it will flow by gravity from the service reservoir or tank, and the Supplier is free to select which reservoir or tank is used. If any house requires water to be delivered at a height greater than l0.5m below the draw-off level of the reservoir, the Supplier may require the installation of a cistern capable of holding up to 24 hrs storage. The above requirements mean that, in the UK, a Water Supplier does not legally have to supply water to every building regardless of elevation. He would normally do so, however, but would re-charge for all necessary expenditure in these exceptional circumstances. A reference level of service (LoS) has to be provided of 10 metres head, at the customers boundary, at a flow of 9 litres/minute for a single property, measured on the customers side of any metre, boundary box or other fitting. Checking compliance against this standard could require excavation etc. and is clearly impractical for widespread compliance testing. Many UK Suppliers have therefore adopted a surrogate pressure reference. This is the pressure in an adjacent distribution system i.e. the nearest hydrant which can be shown statistically to deliver 9 litres/minute without the pressure falling below 10m at the stop tap. The actual surrogate pressure used varies between Suppliers, but whatever the target minimum is, it needs to be available at the critical point in the area, and should allow for future increases in demand, and deterioration of the network.

10.7
10.7.1

Identification of Areas for Pressure Reduction

General Before schemes for pressure are implemented, it is important to collect and keep data on uncontrolled networks. Without this data it will not be possible to appraise completed schemes, and it will then be more difficult to design and justify future projects. Pressure data over a seven-day period is needed preferably in graphical and digital form. Actual pressures occurring in a potential PRV area should be determined by deploying temporary pressure loggers. Pressure loggers should be sited at critical points within DMA areas which are often but not always at the highest point AOD. The peak and minimum flows should be determined.

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25 metres head is commonly considered in the UK as a normal desirable maximum at the target point. However, practical and physical requirements, for example topographical features, may dictate that pressures as high as 75m must be tolerated at some properties. Mains pressure reduction should be investigated for areas where night time pressure can be reduced by at least l0m. Where local pressures exceed 75m and cannot be reduced, then pressure management should be considered for individual properties or sub-groups of properties. Use should be made of available network analysis models and information to assist in the identification, planning and design of prospective areas for proposed pressure reduction. These will normally be where the pressure always exceeds 30m at the critical point in the DMA at maximum demand. Account must be taken of the most sensitive customer location and the stability of the PRV likely to be installed at low flows. Peak week and seasonal demands also need to be allowed for. It should be remembered also that some areas do contract in demand as industry and population move location. Other signposts which may indicate areas worthy of further investigation are: 10.7.2 Areas suffering from pressure bursts or high pressure complaints Reservoir outlets, even though the scope may be limited Uncontrolled branches on trunk mains Multi-feed areas with some or all feeds not pressure controlled Areas requiring high day pressure but low night pressure, for which flow modulation may be the most appropriate New developments/extensions to existing system Local knowledge.

Existing Pressure Reduced Areas If local pressure management already exists, it is possible that the application of latest generation equipment can optimise savings. Such applications range from the complete replacement of an existing PRV to the addition of retrofit devices to enhance performance. For example, replacing conventional fixed outlet PRVs with flow modulated equipment presents the opportunity to optimise district pressures across changing demand profiles. As the following illustration shows, pressure profiles can be achieved which reduce pressures for most of a typical day, but allow increased pressure at peak demand.

LOS at target consumer Level of Service (LOS) (m) Local peak demand period

Flow modulated PRV

MNT 1

10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Time Hours

19

20 21 22 23 MNT

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Results of replacing a conventional PRV with a flow modulated PRV This example is taken from an actual installation. Benefits are twofold. Average daily metered throughput to the district decreased by 20%, and pressures at the target point were improved at peak demand. Result: rapid payback of investment, reduction in leakage, reduced incidence of burst mains and reduced customer complaints. It is worth noting that existing pressure management installations may well be lacking in maintenance which can impair and even nullify their performance. Items which require regular checks, and, if necessary, corresponding alterations in PRV settings are: Status of boundary valves Extensions at margins of PRV area, i.e. additional properties/roads/streets, above design setting. Additions/changes to consumption profile within defined area, i.e. new housing site or changing industrial consumption. Regular checks on PRV inlet/outlet settings to confirm profile against design settings.

10.8

Pressure Reducing Valves - General Overview

A pressure reducing valve (PRV) can be defined as a mechanical device which will give a reduced outlet (downstream) pressure for a range of flow rates and upstream pressures. All PRVs have certain features in common. These are a means of controlling the flow (the valve), a means of sensing the pressure differential between the inlet and the outlet, and a means of actuating the valve. A variety of more or less sophisticated means of providing these features have been developed by manufacturers. The two principal categories of PRV are fixed outlet and flow-modulated, each with several variations. Generally, fixed outlet characteristics maintain approximately the same value of downstream pressure over a range of flowrates. The pressure has to be set so that level of service (LOS) pressure is maintained at the target point for the maximum design flowrate. The resultant average zone night pressure (AZNP) will be at a higher value than a flow modulated pressure in a similar system since in the latter case pressures can be optimised for minimum demand. In reality, some fixed outlet valves are not always capable of maintaining a constant outlet pressure, particularly at low flow when some rise in outlet pressure can be experienced. A pilot can assist in providing the necessary variable throttling effect to keep a constant outlet pressure as inlet pressures and flows vary. Two pilots with a timed changeover can give a day and night setting of outlet pressure. Flow-modulated PRVs vary the outlet pressure in such a manner that a constant head can be maintained at a target point in the distribution system for a range of flow rates and inlet pressures. The activating mechanism responsible for regulating the outlet pressure may be mechanical or electronic, or a combination of both. Look-up tables or telemetry may be involved in the outlet pressure control. Figures 10.4 and 10.5 demonstrate the effect of the two basic types of valve on a critical point in the downstream distribution system. Generally speaking, where head losses across the target area exceed l0m (night time/no flow pressure minus day-time peak flow pressure) flow-modulated devices will provide greater net benefit (in spite of the extra cost), and are to be preferred. Because of advances in control practice and communications, control systems for PRVs are becoming more complex and more effective. The valves are now fitted primarily to reduce leakage and to some extent pressure dependent consumption, rather than the traditional reason of protecting the downstream infrastructure. It should be noted that in some cases where old mains systems are combined with high pressures, leakage reductions cannot be maintained until pressure is reduced, because the effect of

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repairing a burst is to increase the pressure in the system, possibly causing further bursts. The effectiveness and accuracy of the PRVs will normally increase as the control system becomes more sophisticated. More sophisticated control systems are also better able to respond to unexpected demands. PRV technology is still developing, and whilst the most common method of control is still local hydraulic operation, controlled operation by intelligent process units is becoming more economic, even for smaller areas. These units do not necessarily need pre-designed pressure profiles to follow, but will learn one insitu from the real, dynamic network they are operating, always assuming they are in contact with signals from the critical pressure point(s).

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Figure 10.1 Hydraulic Gradient

RESERVOIR

P
GRA DIE NT

HYD RAU LIC

Pmax GROUND LEVEL P P B

DATUM POINT - A.O.D

NOTES

1. 2. 3. 4.

Distribution pressures will be less than Pmax (at lowest ground level) due to frictional losses in mains, fittings etc. Reduce pressure in the valley bottom (point A) to reduce leakage. Pressure at point B must satisfy Level of Service criteria. Mains at point C will need boosting.

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Figure 10.2 Leakage Increase with Pressure

20

40

90

60 PRESSURE (m)

80

100

Figure 10.3 Relationship between Leakage and Pressure

100

90

80

70

60

LEAKAGE INDEX

50

40

30

20

10

0 0 20 40 60 80 AVERAGE ZONE NIGHT PRESSURE (m) 100

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Figure 10.4 Diurnal Pressure Variation at Critical Point

No PRV fitted Fixed outlet PRV Flow modulated

12 14

16 18 20 22 MNT 2 4 6 TIME (24hrs)

8 10 12

Figure 10.5 Pressure Gradient to Critical Point

Gradient at minimum flow (fixed outlet PRV)

Gradien t

at minim um

flow (all PRVs)

Head AOD At PRV outlet

Excess level of service Level of service

Gradient at minimum flow (flow modulated PRVs)

Ground Level Ordnance Datum

Critical head AOD

Ground Level

Distance from PRV

92

11.
11.1

THE ECONOMICS OF LEAKAGE MANAGEMENT

Introduction
Water Suppliers must be seen to be operating efficiently and effectively, and must be able to cost justify their level of leakage and works designed to manage leakage, particularly to their customers who want to see their costs minimised. Leakage is often seen as synonymous with waste, and reducing leakage is seen as a means of saving money. Water lost through leakage has a value and so reducing the level of leakage offers benefits. However, eliminating leakage completely is impracticable and the cost of reducing it to low levels may exceed the cost of producing the water saved. Conversely, when little effort is expended on active leakage control, leakage levels will rise to levels where the cost of the water lost predominates. Water Suppliers must therefore strike a balance between the cost of reducing leakage and the value of the water saved. The level of leakage at which it would cost more to make further reductions than to produce the water from another source is what is known as the economic level of leakage (ELL). Operating at economic levels of leakage means that the total cost to the customer of supplying water is minimised, and Suppliers are operating efficiently. This means that leakage reduction should be pursued to the point where the long run marginal cost of leakage control is equal to the long run marginal benefit of the water saved. The latter depends on the long run marginal costs of augmenting supplies by alternative means, including an assessment of the environmental benefits. The ELL is not fixed for all time. It depends on a wide range of factors, which will vary over time. For example, the cost of detecting and repairing leaks will fall as new technology is introduced. This will cause the ELL to fall. Conversely, if total demand falls to a point where there is a large surplus of water, it may not be economic to reduce leakage, unless the water can be sold to other Suppliers. Once the economic optimum level is known, this can be compared to the present level of leakage, and the Supplier can then set targets for leakage control in conjunction with other corporate policies on customer metering, mains rehabilitation, resource development and pressure control. To do so they will need to appraise the investment required for these various different supply and demand management solutions, and the benefits which are expected to accrue. Due to the complexity of the issues, it is not possible to generalise to provide standardised formulae for setting leakage targets. Even if the same leakage policy is pursued, it is likely to be uneconomical to set the same target leakage levels for areas of differing characteristics. Thus there is a need to examine each system to determine the most appropriate method of leakage control and to plan the required capital investment, manpower and revenue resource. However, any Supplier who is prepared to commit resources to collecting the required data, and to carry out the analysis and appraisals, will develop a greater understanding of the factors which are important to target setting. They will also be less likely to have unrealistic or uneconomic targets imposed on them from outside, or fall into the trap of setting leakage targets themselves without full consideration of the practicalities of achieving them, or the economic consequences. There are many possible ways of setting a leakage target. These can include targets based on minimum night flows, areas with excess pressure, areas with expensive water or the most urbanised areas. The setting of economic targets, i.e. a level of leakage which provides the most economic mix of leakage related costs, is independent of variations in physical factors such as property density, pressure, etc. and can provide clear information upon which sound management decisions may be based. However, it is recognised that there may be social, environmental and political factors which dictate the target leakage level, as well as economic ones related to the Suppliers own operating environment. This has given rise to a broader concept of the most appropriate leakage target, being described as that level of leakage which, over a long term planning horizon, provides the least cost combination of demand management and resource development, whilst adequately providing a low risk of security of supply to customers, and not unduly over-abstracting water from the environment.

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N.B. The Tables and Figures in this section are only illustrative of the sort of procedures, data gathering and analysis that a Water Supplier needs to give attention to in order to move towards optimum economic efficiency in leakage control. They should not be used in a literal way, since they need re-configuring for the local cost environment , and the technology employed. They are themselves now out of date for the UK, but nevertheless demonstrate the principles and progression needed for informed, cost-related decisions.

11.2
11.2.1

Policy Development Through An Economic Approach

Economic Target The economic target is considered to be that level of leakage that provides the lowest overall annual cost. An investment appraisal is necessary, therefore, to examine the costs of operating the water supply system with the present level of leakage, the potential savings and other benefits of moving to a different level of leakage, and the cost of the measures proposed to effect the change. The frequent monitoring of all costs, including overheads, is an essential factor in assessing real progress as the implementation of the leakage detection and control policy proceeds.

11.2.2

Assessment of Current Leakage Level and Leakage Control Costs The precise nature of the method used to identify the level of leakage in the water supply zone is of secondary importance. The critical aspects are consistency between areas for comparative purposes and an understanding of the accuracy of measurement. Economically, it is necessary to use total losses in the water supply zone. The cost of water lost will include both those elements of losses that occur on the distribution system and that from customers supply pipes. The cost to the Supplier of control and repair will be different, depending where leakage occurs, but both these elements need to be considered. The cost of active leakage control is made up of costs associated with leakage monitoring, detection and location. Costs for these activities should be made up of appropriate staff costs, including on-costs and overhead allowances. Costs should not include other distribution activities such as levels of service requirements and water quality related work. As before, a precise definition is not necessary, but to enable comparisons to be made between water supply zones, a consistent approach is essential. Repair costs are not directly required for an economic evaluation but are used to calculate the cost of reducing leakage when changing leakage control policy. A unit cost of repair, preferably for the water supply zone, should be developed for repairs on mains, communication pipes and supply pipes. Repair costs on supply pipes may be recovered from the customer, depending on current policy.

11.2.3

The Optimum Level of Leakage The optimum level of leakage may be defined as that level of leakage where the marginal cost of active leakage control (ALC) equals the marginal cost of the leaking water. In other words where the cost of reducing leakage by one m3of water equals the value of that m3 of water. Operating a water supply area at the optimum will result in a mix of costs for leakage control and the value of lost water that gives the lowest possible cost. Operating at any other combination will be more expensive. Repair costs are largely driven by the rate at which bursts occur. They will be similar for any approach to leakage control and therefore do not need to be considered in a calculation of the optimum level of leakage.

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There is not one global optimum level of leakage. Each water supply zone will have its own optimum level depending on the cost of water, the cost of labour, operating pressure, the age and condition of the mains network and the location of bursts whether on the mains, communication pipes or supplies. Additionally, in any one global water supply zone there will be different optimum levels depending on the method of active leakage control and the efficiency with which the method is implemented. Methods with lower operating costs, such as telemetered district metering, will generate a lower optimum level than more intensive methods such as regular sounding. The concept of an optimum level of leakage can be presented graphically in terms of costs against level of leakage (see Figure 11.1, which is illustrative only). On the first graph, the curves show that as leakage increases the value of water lost increases and the effort spent on ALC is small. Conversely where leakage activities (and costs) increase the level of leakage will reduce. Adding these two curves identifies a minimum point of expenditure which is referred to as the optimum level of leakage. The second graph shows the same curves in terms of their marginal costs. The marginal cost of water is fixed by the most expensive source of water and is the cost that would be saved by reducing the water supplied by, for example, one cubic metre. The marginal cost of active leakage control is the cost, at a given level of leakage, of reducing leakage by one more cubic metre. The optimum level of leakage in any scenario is where the two marginal costs are equal. Having collected data on the cost of water and the cost of active leakage control for a level of leakage, it is possible to prepare graphs as presented in Figure 11.1. The optimum level of leakage and the optimum spend on leakage control can be defined through an intensification of the current method of control. 11.2.4 Calculation of Optimum Level of Leakage The marginal cost of leakage control is, therefore, the additional cost required to reduce leakage levels in an area by one unit. For example, if the leakage level in an area is 40m3/property/year, and the cost of active leakage control is 2.00/property/year, then if the cost increases to 2.50 to reduce leakage to 39m3/property/year, then the marginal cost of the active leakage control is 50 pence/m3/property at that level of leakage. The difficulty in calculating the actual or marginal cost of leakage control is that only one point is known, namely the current operating conditions. Total and marginal cost follow the curves shown in Figure 1 where the costs increase in some exponential form as the level of leakage is reduced. Before any economic optimum can be derived, a method to estimate costs away from the current level must be established. A possible approach is to assume that in any water supply zone, levels of leakage could range between two extremes: A base level of leakage where all bursts are repaired, and the only leaks running are those which cannot be detected by the current method of active leakage control. This base, or intrinsic level, can be approximated to by measuring the level attained following an intensive programme of detection and repair in a specific area. At the other extreme, if no money were spent on ALC, the level of leakage would be that controlled by customer-reported bursts. This is the passive level of leakage and can be obtained, given an assessment of the intrinsic leakage level, from a Passive leakage control curve like that illustrated by Figure 11.2. (This Figure should be taken as illustrative only, since it based on UK data from the late 1970s, at an unspecified pressure, and 24 hour supply.)

Between these two extremes is the actual level of leakage and the cost of ALC in the water supply area. An equation can be produced based on the two extremes and the actual data point, to give a form of ALC cost curve as illustrated in Figure 11.3, which is also based upon UK data.. Measurement of the current leakage level and cost will give sufficient information to use the following equation, which typifies this curve, and is taken from the UKWIR Managing Leakage Reports:

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Total cost of leakage control = C = (-1/d) 1n ((L - Lb)/(Lp - Lb)) Where d is a constant, and = (-1/Ca) 1n ((La - Lb)/(Lp - Lb)) The other terms are as follows: L C La Ca Lb Lp = = = = = = level of leakage, m3/prop/yr cost of leakage control, /prop/yr actual level of leakage for the area, m3/prop/yr actual cost of leakage control for the area, /prop/yr base level of leakage, m3/prop/yr passive level of leakage, m3/prop/yr

Once a graph has been drawn, it is possible to estimate the level of leakage, corresponding to any given level of resource input, and hence calculate the optimum level of control activity. This process will establish the optimum economic level of leakage for the chosen control method. To move to the optimum level of leakage will require a one-off additional expenditure on burst repairs. Costs associated with burst repairs will remain constant for any area in steady state conditions, but it is likely that by intensifying the method of active leakage control, an increasing number of background leaks will be found and include in the repairs. This one-off cost of repairs should be included in any project appraisal study. Assuming that burst occurrences remain constant over time, then once this backlog of leak repairs has been made, overall repair costs will return to the level that existed before. The possible exception to this is that pressure reduction could produce a new, lower level of burst occurrence. The calculation of the above optimum level assumes that the method of active leakage control and system pressure is held constant. It is equally possible to conduct similar studies to investigate the effect of pressure control or changing to a new method of active leakage control if there is a need to reduce leakage further. In each case there will be a series of one off costs to establish the new approach, including installation of PRVs or district meters, staff training, district reconfiguration and backlog of repairs. The assessment of the optimum level of leakage then will reflect the cost of water and the new shape of the relationship between the cost of active leakage control and the leakage level. The marginal cost of active leakage control, at any level of leakage, can only be confirmed when the new policy is implemented. 11.2.5 Implementation and Performance Monitoring The final element in developing a new leakage control strategy is implementation and performance monitoring. Performance should be monitored through a programme of robust data collection. Data collection and recording systems should be established for each water supply zone covering the following information: Man hours spent on active leakage control, broken down between detection, location and equipment maintenance Level of leakage Information on bursts Repair costs and frequencies on mains, communication pipes and supply pipes. Cost of new equipment installation, zone configuration and staff training Power and chemicals (pumping and treatment)

Once any new policy is implemented it will take a period of time before its operation settles down. The timing of any new operational stability will be dependent on the completion of the repairs to the backlog of leaks. For each water supply zone subject to a change of policy, it is recommended that an economic optimum level of leakage review should be conducted at this time (or annually, whichever is the shorter time). This will investigate whether the theoretical optimum has been achieved in reality and may provide valuable information for future leakage policy development.

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It will be evident from the above that performance monitoring in itself carries its own costs, and certainly requires persistence and discipline to achieve and keep up to date the level of information required. Nonetheless, good project management demands good post-project appraisal if the right conclusions are to be reached for future planning.

11.3
11.3.1

The Unit Cost of Leakage

General The unit cost of leakage is made up of two principal factors operating cost and capital cost. The normal requirement is to calculate the value of water likely to be saved by improved leakage control. Thus it is necessary firstly to estimate the likely extent of the savings so that for a given system those supplies and sources whose output will be reduced in the event of a reduction in leakage can be identified. Usually the reduction will be made in the most expensive source, but the extent to which this is possible will depend on the particular supply and distribution system configuration.

11.3.2

Unit Operating Cost The unit operating cost, insofar as leakage is concerned, is the marginal cost of pumping (source, source works, and any distribution) and treatment, or in the case of bulk purchases, the unit cost. The last unit of leakage is likely to be more expensive than the first as in general it will be supplied by the most expensive source. Having determined the sources to be reduced, the unit operating cost can be calculated as follows:Unit Operating Cost Unit Pumping Cost Unit Treatment Cost Unit Purchase Cost for bulk supplies

///

This operating cost does not include any allowance for the following: Other source operation costs, including wages - some of these are flow related Damage payments made by the Water Supplier as a result of leakage Costs of dealing with leakage related customer complaints

It may be considered reasonable to add 5 to 10% for these elements. If the operating cost, and all other costs associated with the determination of leakage control policies, are calculated as an annual unit cost, it simplifies subsequent cost comparisons. 11.3.3 Unit Capital Cost The capital cost element is determined by estimating the cost of future capital works required to satisfy growth in demand. These costs are discounted to produce a total current cost equivalent. A reduction in leakage equivalent to one years growth will enable all these costs to be deferred by one year. Whilst not relevant in every case, such a deferment would be a major element in arguing the case for more leakage control development. In order to most easily compare the costs of the various leakage control methods available, costs are converted to an annual unit cost. Thus the net present value of one years deferment of capital costs is multiplied by the discount rate to convert it to an annual equivalent, and then divided by the value of one years growth to produce the unit capital cost.

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The formula is: Unit Capital Cost = (TDCC x r2) [(l + r) x 365 x d] In /m3 Where TDCC = Total discounted capital cost, r = discount rate d = yearly growth in demand, m3/day In addition to the capital cost, it is also necessary to include fixed operating costs when calculating the total capital cost (TDCC), as these costs will also be deferred if schemes are put back in the programme. (In simplified terms, given the present economic climate in the UK, the value of deferral for one year might be considered to sensibly be 5% of the capital value divided by the first year forecast growth in demand.) Figure 11.4 illustrates the way in which reduction in leakage achieves deferment of capital expenditure.

11.4
11.4.1

Cost of Leakage Detection

General Having determined the unit cost of the water, it is also of course necessary to calculate how much of it can be saved and how much it will cost to do so. These factors depend upon the method of leakage detection employed and the frequency at which it is employed.

11.4.2

Leakage Estimates Associated with Detection Methods It is possible to estimate the resulting level of leakage applicable to each detection method in a simple way by the use of a graph like Figure 11.2, which is based on experimental data gathered from across the UK in the late 1970s. Water Suppliers (or national groupings) need their own local, reliable data to compile a similar graph for their own situation. Technological advances mean that Figure 11.2 now requires amendment anyway. There is less distinction now between the various methods of metering, and in practice a more modern and sensitive version of District Metering is normally employed, as previously explained. LNCs are used much more now, and are much improved. Permanent acoustic logging is another new dimension. Lower levels of leakage are also attainable now because of the improved sensitivity achieved by modern meters and loggers. Where passive control is currently exercised, use of Figure 11.2 is straightforward. The average net night flow for the system is measured and a horizontal line is drawn on the graph at this flow. At the point where this line crosses the passive control line, a vertical line is drawn. The intersection of this vertical line with the lines representing the other methods of control gives the net night flow applicable to each of those methods. If some form of active control is being carried out, the level of activity, or frequency of existing control, is likely to have a significant effect. In such cases some judgement is required in assessing the true intrinsic leakage level. Clearly, the intrinsic level of any area will also depend on the physical characteristics of the system and on the average system pressure. If much of the system is relatively new and ground conditions are nonaggressive then the intrinsic level will be low. Alternatively, if the system consists predominantly of old unlined iron mains in aggressive soil conditions, the intrinsic level will be high. The average burst rate will also provide a clue to the correct level.

98

It must also be noted that: Unusual weather conditions may affect the burst rate, and must be taken into account The average system pressure will affect the intrinsic leakage level - thus a medium burst rate and high average system pressure will give rise to relatively high intrinsic leakage levels

It should be again emphasised that the figures in Figure 11.2 are not related to pressure, and could be misleading if they are not carefully considered in the light of the local conditions and more modern technology. 11.4.3 Annual Cost of Leakage Estimates Having determined the likely net night flow for a leakage control method, the annual cost of leakage for each can be calculated as follows bearing in mind that net night flow on the graph includes legitimate domestic use, estimated in the UK at 21/property/hr: Annual Cost ( per prop) = (leakage x 20 x 365 x C) /100,000

Where leakage is in 1/prop/hr and C is the unit annual cost of leakage in pence/m3 Note that a factor of 20 is used to convert from a night flow to a daily average figure. As previously mentioned, this takes account of the lower pressure, and hence reduced leakage, which normally applies during the day. 11.4.4 Frequency of Detection Activity Leakage estimates and annual costs of methods will be dependent on the frequencies of detection activities. Recommended frequencies from UK research in 1980 are reproduced in Table 11.1. Clearly, the frequencies adopted will have an impact on the net night flow achieved. However, the law of diminishing returns will apply, and this can be conveniently illustrated by Figures 11.5 and 11.6. The volume of water saved is shown by the shaded portion of the graph in Figure 11.5. A doubling of the detection frequency does not double the leakage saved. In this case the additional saving in leakage is shown hatched and is equal to half the previous saving. 11.4.5 Annual Cost of Detection Methods These costs will comprise of three elements, namely: (a) (b) (c) Initial setting up costs, which include purchase of equipment and installation of meters The initial cost of applying the chosen method throughout the system The annual operating cost, which will include manpower costs, maintenance, and replacement of equipment

Table 11.2 shows typical UK costs for these three elements. The annual operating cost will, as noted above, depend on the frequency with which the various leakage control tasks are carried out, and also on the required maintenance frequencies. In the compilation of Table 11.2, as noted, the recommended frequencies of Table 11.1 have been assumed. Table 11.3 details the component parts of the annual costs in terms of man-hours per task. Having determined the costs of the above components, it is necessary to calculate the total annual cost of each method. This is done by converting the initial costs to annual costs by multiplying by the chosen discount rate, and then adding the annual operating cost. Table 11.4 shows typical total annual costs calculated for each method based on the data in the previous tables, and assuming a discount rate of 5%.

99

11.4.6

Annual Cost of Repairing Leaks The cost of repairing leaks is not included in the annual operating cost calculation for choice of methods because, for a given distribution system, the rate at which leaks occur will not be affected by the chosen method. Thus once the method has been fully implemented and the corresponding leakage level established, the number of repairs required will be the same for each method, and therefore the cost of repairs can be ignored when comparing methods. In moving from the current leakage level to a reduced level, however, it will be necessary to locate and repair an increased number of leaks. Whilst the cost of repairing this backlog will vary according to both the starting leakage level and the control method being considered, the difference between the various methods of active control is likely to be small and can be ignored. The major difference is between passive and active control, and an average figure, based on the 1980 UK research, has been included in Table 11.2 as part of the initial costs.

11.5

Typical Total Leakage Costs

Typical total leakage costs for each of the methods are shown in Table 11.5. In compiling this table the following assumptions were made: The intrinsic leakage level is medium as defined in Figure 11.2 Initial costs of each method are as shown in Table 11.2 The annual detection costs are based on the recommended frequencies in Table 11.1

The figures in Table 11.5 are indicative only. However, it is clear that passive control is only economic at low unit leakage costs or where intrinsic leakage levels are low. The assumptions made in performing the calculations mean that differences in total leakage cost of less than 10% are not significant. Thus the choice between two methods with cost differences of less than 10% must be based on other factors.

11.6

Environmental and Social Costs

These costs are so specific to individual situations, and so open to interpretation and influence by the local political environment, that they are not explored in this section. They may, however, have a significant bearing on a leakage level target.

100

Table 11.1

Recommended Frequencies of Leakage Control Activities

Recommended Frequency (No/Year) Regular sounding Leak Noise Correlation District Metering - Read meters - Inspection 1 1.5 25 1

Acceptable Range (No/Year) 0.5 to 2 1 to 4 12 to 50 0.5 to 2

Waste Metering a) Areas up to 1500 props b) Areas over 1500 props

- Monitoring - Inspection - Monitoring - Inspection

4 1.5 5 2.5

2 to 6 1.25 to 2 3 to 12 1.75 to 3

Combined District and Waste Metering - Read district meters - Inspection

25 2.25

12 to 50 1.75 to 3

Footnotes to Table 11.1 1. Recommended frequencies are generally taken from UK research except as noted below. 2. District meter reading rates have been adjusted to reflect some improvements in technology. 3. Inspection frequencies given for waste metering include the use of step tests. Thus, if for example, a Water Supplier has 100 WMAs, and the inspection frequency is 1.5, then 150 WMAs should be inspected per year. The areas to be inspected will be determined by meter readings. Inspection will normally consist of a step test followed by inspection of between 45% and 65% of the area. 4. Inspection frequencies given for combined metering include recording MNFs using waste meters and subsequent step tests and sounding as per note 3.

101

Table 11.2

Typical Component Costs for Leakage Control

ACTIVITY MEAN COST 4,500 TYPICAL RANGE OF COSTS 3,000-9,000

a) Initial Setting-Up Costs Install PRV and set up pressure reduced area Install District meters and set up DMA (ave. 1.6 meters per DMA) Install Waste Meter Purchase Leak Noise Correlator

5,000

3,500-10,000

3,000 12,000

2,000-5,000 5,000-15,000

b) Initial Cost of Applying the Chosen Method Per 1,000 Properties Passive Regular sounding - Inspect properties - Repair backlog of leaks

NIL 1,100 850 800 850 2.3

NIL 750-2,200 550- 1,400 550-1,700 550-1,400 1.8-2.8

Leak Noise Correlation - Inspect properties - Repair backlog of leaks District Metering - Read and record meter readings Inspect District Repair backlog of leaks Read and record meter readings - Record MNF Perform Step Test Inspect WMA Repair backlog of leaks Record MNF

(DMA size) (assumed to be) (4,000 properties)

1,100 850 2.3

750-2,200 550-1,400 1.8-2.8

Waste Metering (WMA size) (assumed to be) (2,000 properties)

85 170 1,100 850 85

45-140 90-220 750-2,200 550-1,400 45-140

Combined District and Waste Metering - Read and record district meters - Record MNFs of Waste areas - Perform Step Tests - Inspect whole District - Repair backlog of leaks - Record MNFs of waste areas - Read and record district meters

2.3 85 170 1,100 850 85 2.3

1.8-2.8 45-140 90-220 750-2,200 550-1,400 45-140 1.8-2.8

102

ACTIVITY

MEAN COST

TYPICAL RANGE OF COSTS

c) Annual Operating Costs (per 1,000 properties) based on recommd frequencies in Table 11.1 Passive Regular soundi ng 430 750-2,200 1,200 9 280-2,200

1,100

Leak Noise Correlation Operation Maintenance of Equipment District Metering Monitoring Inspection Maintenance of meters Record MNFs Perform Step Tests Inspection Maintenance of meters Monitoring Record MNFs Perform Step Tests Inspection Maintenance of meters

850-2,500 4-19

55 1,100 35 420 370 2,400 55 55 190 370 2,400 75

45-75 750-2,200 28-55 230-700 250-500 1,700-5,000 35-75 45-75 110-170 250-500 1,700-5,000 55-110

Waste Metering

Combined Metering

Footnotes to Table 11.2 1. Initial costs do not include design. 2. Labour rate assumed at 18.60 per hour, inclusive of overheads. 3. Vehicle rate assumed at 3.80 per hour, inclusive of fuel. 4. Assumed to be 1.6 meters per DMA 5. Setting up of DMAs assumed to take 30 man hours. 6. Setting up of PRV areas assumed to take 40 man hours.

103

Table 11.3

Typical Resource Requirements for the Regular Operating Components of Leakage Control
Resource Requirement 20 man hours per 1000 properties 50 man hours 40 man hours 4 man hours 8 man hours

Activity Locate reported leaks when operating passive control. Sound 1000 houses, including locating detected leaks. Carry out leakage survey of 1000 houses with leak noise correlator. Locate leak using leak noise correlator. Record the minimum night flow in a WMA using a fixed meter. Record the minimum night flow in a WMA using a mobile meter. Perform a step test. Meter maintenance

10 man hours 12 man hours 3 man hours per annum per meter + materials at say 40 per meter 8 man hours per annum per PRV + materials at say 50 per PRV

PRV maintenance

Footnotes to Table 11.3 1. 2. 3. Figures for locating leaks with passive control or sounding are average figures based on UK research in 1980. Figures quoted are actual man hours to carry out the activity, no allowance having been made for overtime. Reading district meter includes manual recording of total flow and previous seven MNFs.

104

Table 11.4

Typical Annual Costs per Property of Different Methods of Leakage Control

INITIAL COST (/prop) ANNUAL COST (/prop/year) TOTAL ANNUAL COST (/prop/year) 0.43 1.2 1.31 1.35 3.43 3.3

METHOD OF LEAKAGE CONTROL

Passive Regular Sounding Leak Noise Correlation District Metering Waste Metering Combined District and Waste Metering

NIL 1.95 1.95 3.2 3.79 4.29

0.43 1.1 1.21 1.19 3.25 3.09

Footnotes to Table 11.4 1. 2. 3. 4. A discount rate of 5% has been assumed. Costs quoted are based on the mean costs given in Table 11.2. For calculating initial set up costs for leak noise correlation, it has been assumed that one correlator will be required for every 40,000 properties. Assumed that some district meters are also used as waste meters when considering combined metering. Thus, allowance made for one waste meter for every 4,000 properties in addition to the 1.6 district meters per 4,000 properties.

Table 11.5

Typical Total Annual Costs of Leakage and Leakage Control ( / prop / year)
LEAKAGE CONTROL METHOD 2 3.12 2.66 2.77 2.52 4.31 4.18 UNIT COST OF LEAKAGE (p/m3) 4 5.8 4.12 4.23 3.69 5.18 5.05 6 8.49 5.58 5.69 4.85 6.06 5.93 8 11.18 7.04 7.15 6.02 6.93 6.8 10 13.9 8.5 8.61 7.19 7.81 7.68 12 16.6 9.96 10.1 8.36 8.69 8.56

Passive Regular Sounding Leak Noise Correlation District Metering Waste Metering Combined District Metering and Waster Metering

Footnotes to Table 11.5 1. The total annual cost of detection is taken from Table 11.4.

105

Figure 11.1 The Optimal Level of Leakage

15

Cost

Total 10 Optimum Level Cost (/prop/yr) 5 Water Lo st

Active Leakag e Control 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Leakage (l/prop/hr)

Marginal Cost 0.8 0.7 Active Leakage Control 0.6 0.5 Marginal Cost (/prop/yr) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Most Expensive Source Water

Leakage (l/prop/hr)

106

Figure 11.2 Graph for Prediction of Net Night Flows

Passive leakage control

NET NIGHT FLOW (l/prop/hr)

Regular Sounding

District Metering

Waste Metering and combined metering

Low

Medium INTRINSIC LEAGAGE LEVELS

High

107

Figure 11.3

14 Base Level of Leakage

12 12

10 10

To t a l C o s t To t a l C o s t of Leakage of Leakage Control (/prop/yr) (/prop/yr) 6 6

Passive Level of Leakage 2 2

0 0 0 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 70 70 Level of Leakage (m / p r o p / y r ) L e v e l o f L e a k a g e ( m 3/ p r o p / y r ) 80 80 90 90

100 100

110 110

120 120

130 130

108

Figure 11.4 Diagrammatic Representation of the Deferment of Capital

Passive leakage control Reduction in leakage Active leakage control Present capacity or Yield

Consequent deferment of capital scheme

TIME (years)

Figure 11.5 The Effect of Increased Detection Frequency on Leakage Level

PassiveP LEAKAGE RATE

COMPLAINTS LEVEL PASSIVE CONTROL

Active A

Minimum M
ACTIVE CONTROL

t
TIME

Extra volume saved by doubling the detection frequency

Extra volume saved by again doubling the detection frequency

109

Figure 11.6 Marginal Benefits of Increased Detection

t x P-M 2

LEAKAGE SAVED

0 Passive

No. of DETECTION EXERCISES in TIME t

110

12.

RECENT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE INTERPRETATION AND USE OF NIGHT FLOW DATA
Introduction
Measured minimum night flows into well-defined District Meter Areas (DMAs) of moderate size are a very effective means by which leakage control teams can become aware of unreported bursts, and prioritise activities to locate and repair them. Thanks to advances in new technology, flows and pressures in DMAs can now be routinely recorded relatively cheaply, and Night Flow Monitoring has become the predominant leakage control method in the UK. This section seeks to collate some of the key elements of recent research and thinking, co-ordinated by the Water Research Centre, in a format which can be used and developed by leakage practitioners working with the measured night flow data now being routinely collected for leakage management in the UK and elsewhere. Appropriate methods of analysis and interpretation are needed for this data.

12.1

12.2

Bursts and Background Losses

Flow rates of individual leaks, bursts and overflows are pressure dependent and can range from less than 1 l/hr to more than 100,000 l/hr. For comparison, a fully open tap or hosepipe can run at around 1000 l/hr. For the purpose of analysis all individual sources of losses from pipes and fittings can be classified (by flow rate) into two categories: BURSTS - individually more than 500 l/hr at 50 m pressure; these may be reported (not, therefore, requiring detection), or unreported (awaiting detection) BACKGROUND LOSSES - individually less than 500 l/hr at 50 m pressure.

12.3

Components of Night Flows

Figure 12.1 shows the components of minimum night flow. This diagram relates to UK practice, where, at the point of delivery, the responsibility for the service pipe changes from the Suppliers underground communication pipe to the customers supply pipe. Minimum Night Flows (MNFs) consist of differently sized components of customer night use from a limited proportion of properties which are active on any given night, and losses (leaks, bursts, overflows) from a relatively small number of points on the Suppliers distribution system and customers supply pipes. Measured MNFs provide awareness of unreported bursts, which could otherwise run for long periods and accumulate considerable annual volumes of losses. The variation of MNFs in a DMA over a longer period of time can be considered to consist of the following components (Figure 12.2): Exceptional Individual Night Use exceeding 500 l/hr Assessed Normal Customer Household and Non-Household Night Use Background Losses on Mains, Communications Pipes and Supply Pipes Bursts (of finite duration), both reported and unreported, on Mains, Communication Pipes and Supply Pipes.

The components of minimum night flow from Figure 12.1 can be further subdivided, based on bursts and background losses concepts, as shown in Table 12.1. The values shown in Table 12.1 have been assessed from recent UK research into night flow measurements.

111

Table 12.1

Best estimates of average values for components of 1 hour minimum night flow at 50 m AZNP
Component Value or Method Assessment Distribution (Pressure dependent)

Distribution mains Distribution mains Distribution mains Communication pipes Communication pipes

Background losses* Reported bursts Unreported bursts Background losses* Reported and unreported bursts

40 l/hr x length of mains (km) Number x flow rate (depends on pipe size) Number x flow rate (depends on pipe size) 3 l/hr x number of props Number x 1.6 m_/hr

Supply pipe (Pressure dependent) Underground supply pipe Underground supply pipe Plumbing Background losses* 0.5 l/hr x number of props

Reported and unreported bursts Background losses*

Number x 1.6 m_/hr

0.5 l/hr x number of props

Customer Night Use (Not normally pressure dependent) Households Normal night use 1.7 l/hr x no of households (or 0.6 l/hr x no of persons) 0.9 l/hr x number in Group A 6.2 l/hr x number in Group B 12.6 l/hr x number in Group C 20.5 l/hr x number in Group D 60 l/hr x number in Group E Sum of individual users

Non-households normal use

Group A Group B Group C Group D Group E >500 l/hr individually

Households and nonhouseholds exceptional night use

These are average values for background losses. High and Low values (respectively +/-50% of the average) can be expected depending upon infrastructure condition.

112

12.4
12.4.1

Night Flow and Customer Use

Household Night Use From a variety of tests involving 8847 UK households, it was concluded that the average household night use is 1.7 l/prop/hr (0.6 1/person/hr); this does not include exceptional use for hosepipes or purposes equivalent to a fully open tap. This average use is generated principally by a small percentage of active properties (17 %). Average use is also sensitive to small changes in numbers of properties using washing machines/dishwashers overnight.

12.4.2

Non-Household Night Use Non-household night use is highly variable. Table 12.2 shows data from a sample of 3000 external meters, categorised into 5 groups for the purpose of estimating assessed non-household night use. These figures exclude individual non-household night use of more than 0.5m3/hr.

Table 12.2

Average values of night flow delivered to different types of non-household, grouped by similar averages
Group Sample size Number active % Active Average per Average Active for all Property Properties l/prop/hr l/prop/hr

A: Unmanned fire/police stations, telephone exchanges, banks, church/chapels, gardens/ allotments, market gardens, water/sewage treatment works B: Shops, offices, craft centres, launderettes, depots, large domestic properties, guest houses, garage/filling stations, touring caravan sites, farms, small holdings and cattle troughs C: Hotels, schools/colleges, cafes/restaurants, public houses, social halls, residential caravan sites, livery stables D:* Hospitals, factories (food and manufacturers), public toilets, works sites E: Old peoples homes, mines and quarries

123

16

13

0.9

2013

606

30

20.5

6.2

505

244

48

26

12.6

205

79

39

53

20.5

33

25

76

80

60.6

* An alternative for larger nursing homes and hospitals is 2.5 l/resident/hr A simplified estimation of 81/non-household/hour can be used where the property information has not been classified as in the above table.

113

12.5
12.5.1

Losses from Bursts

Losses from Bursts on Underground Services Losses from a relatively small number of unreported bursts on underground service pipes (as few a 2 per thousand properties per year) can constitute a significant and highly variable component of night flow delivered and annual water delivered. The volume lost from a single burst is the product of average flow rate x duration. Burst flow data shows that service pipe bursts have a median (50 percentile) flow rate of 1,600 l/hr at 50m AZNP (average zonal night pressure) when located, and that a large proportion of supply pipe bursts may not be reported. Only one such burst on an underground supply pipe (equivalent to a large tap running fully open) will: Increase the minimum night flow of a 1000 property DMA by 1.6 l/prop/hr Lose 32 m3/day, or (if allowed to run a year) around 11,700 m3/yr (the annual consumption of 100 typical households).

Using this methodology (background and bursts) it can be demonstrated that annual average losses from underground service pipes can vary from 10 to 100 l/prop/day, depending upon local circumstances, notably: 12.5.2 Pressure Reported burst frequencies Unreported burst frequencies Leakage control or external metering policy (awareness of unreported bursts) Economic justification for sending a leakage control team out to try to locate only one or two suspected unreported service pipe bursts (equivalent to single open taps) in a DMA Policy for enforcement of private supply pipe repairs.

Losses from Bursts on Mains Figure 12.3 gives some indication of loss rates that may be expected from mains bursts, both reported and unreported, the difference being that reported bursts are brought to the attention of the Water Supplier, regardless of monitoring. The information should be used cautiously and only in the initial assessment of the likelihood of leakage, since mains bursts in particular can be highly variable.

12.5.3

Effect of Burst Duration It is obvious that the average MNF over a year, for any particular DMA, will be influenced by the Water Suppliers policies for locating and repairing unreported bursts. This is easily seen from Figure 12.2; if the unreported burst in August had been allowed to run another 4 months before location and repair, the annual average MNF would have been higher. Figure 12.4 shows the effect that duration can have on the volume of losses. The extra volume lost on the supply pipe burst illustrates the procedural difficulties associated with the customers ownership of that part of the service pipe. The free repair service now offered by Water Suppliers in the UK, after some political pressure, is the Industrys response to reduce the repair time and to save water which, in the absence of domestic metering at the property boundary, is not paid for directly by the customer, even though it is his responsibility. It should not be ignored either that reducing awareness and location times as well as repair times can have a significant impact on the overall quantity wasted. Improving administration and communication procedures is a part of this. The annual average MNF is therefore influenced by the active leakage control methods, and the timescales for awareness/location/repair of unreported bursts, and the repair times for reported bursts.

114

12.6
12.6.1

Estimating Background Night Flows in Individual DMAs

Introduction It is not helpful to set the same net night flow targets for all DMAs in a supply area, irrespective of pressure, mains length per property, percentage of non-households, and infrastructure condition. If night flow targets for individual DMAs are not realistic, manpower resources can be uneconomically deployed to look for unreported bursts in DMAs where there are only minor background seepages. There is need therefore to incorporate other parameters (notably pressure, mains length and non-household night use) in setting realistic night flow targets for individual DMAs. The Background Night Flows approach can be used to estimate, at any time, the excess night flow attributable to unreported bursts. The DMAs with excess losses can then be identified and prioritised (for scheduling burst location activities) by cost of losses, or other relevant parameters.

12.6.2

Methodology A methodology to estimate background minimum night flows in individual DMAs, given all relevant local characteristics (mains length, number of households and non-households, pressure) is potentially of significant value. It could indicate the night flow at which it is no longer appropriate to allocate resources to try to locate significant unreported bursts in that DMA. Such a methodology also provides an independent check on the minimum night flow achieved when a DMA is initially set up, after the best practice of thoroughly checking the DMA for leaks by step-testing and sounding has been carried out. The background night flow losses (when no bursts exist in a DMA) can be calculated for any DMA (given L (length of mains in km), N (number of properties), AZNP (average zonal night pressure in m)) from the equation:NFLB(l/hr) = (C1 x L + (C2 + C3) x N) x PCF using the following values of C1, C2 and C3 from Table 12.3, and the pressure correction factor (PCF) from Table 12.4, based on the UK research of the 1980s.

Table 12.3

Background Night Flow Losses

Units Low Average High

Background Losses Component C1: Dist mains C2 : Commun pipes C3 : Supply pipes

l/km/hr l/prop/hr l/prop/hr

20 1.5 0.5

40 3.0 1.0

60 4.5 1.5

115

Table 12.4
AZNP (metres) PCF

Pressure Correction Factors

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

.329

.529

.753

1.00

1.271

1.565

1.884

2.226

2.592

The background minimum night flow for an individual DMA can be estimated by using the indicative values for background losses (in Table 12.3), and adding the following components for night flow delivered: 1.7 l/prop/hr for normal household night use (excluding individual use > 500 1/hr) an appropriate allowance for normal non-household night use (see Section 12.4.2) exceptional individual customer use (household or non-household) >500 1/hr.

Table 12.5 shows the average values of background minimum night flow, at 50m AZNP, for DMAs with different values of L/N, with an overall allowance of 8 l/prop/hr for non-household night use.

Table 12.5

Background net night flows in l/prop/hr at 50 m AZNP, from Component Analysis (Assuming no exceptional customer use > 500 l/hr, and 10% of properties are non-households using 8 l/prop/hr)

Components

Average Values

Net night flow in l/prop/hr Mains length per property L/N = 10 L/N = 20 L/N = 50 0.4 3.0 0.8 3.0 2.0 3.0

L/N = 100 4.0 3.0

Distribution Losses

Mains Commun pipes Underground + Plumbing Households (90%) Non Households (10%)

40 l/km/hr 3.0 l/prop/hr

Supply Pipe Losses Assessed Customer Night Use

1.0 l/prop/hr

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.0

1.7 l/prop/hr 8 l/prop/hr

1.53 0.8

1.53 0.8

1.53 0.8

1.53 0.8

TOTAL for average background losses

6.73 l/prop/hr 8.93 l/prop/hr 4.53 l/prop/hr

7.13 l/prop/hr 9.53 l/prop/hr 4.73 l/prop/hr

8.33 l/prop/hr 11.33 l/prop/hr 5.33 l/prop/hr

10.33 l/prop/hr 14.33 l/prop/hr 6.33 l/prop/hr

Allowing for high background losses

Allowing for low background losses

116

Table 12.6

Example Calculation for estimating background 1 hour minimum night flows for any district meter area
COMPONENTS SUB TOTAL l/hr TOTAL l/hr

CUSTOMER NIGHT USE

SUM OF EXCEPTIONAL NIGHT USERS >500 l/hr individually

HOUSEHOLDS NON HOUSEHOLDS

0 1000

1000

ASSESSED HOUSEHOLD NIGHT USE: 1.7 l / household / hr x No of properties (NH) or 0.6 l / resident / hr x No of residents (n)

1.7 x 900

1530

ASSESSED NON - HOUSEHOLD NIGHT USE: SIMPLIFIED: 8 l / non-household / hour x No of non-households (NNH) or Classified by Groups A to E A B C D E

8 x 100

800

DETAILED:

3330

BACKGROUND LOSSES AT 50m AZNP CONDITION DISTRIBUTION Good MAINS Average Fair CONDITION Good Average Fair

L/KM/HR 20 40 60 L/PROP/HR 2.0 4.0 6.0

LENGTH (KM) 10

SUB TOTAL 200

SERVICES

NO OF PROPS 1000

2000

AZNP (meters) 60 PRESSURE CORRECTION FACTOR (PCF) AZNP(m) PCF 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

x PCF 75 80 85 90

2200 x 1.27 95 100 105 110

2794 115 120

0.33 0.43 0.53 0.64 0.75 0.87 1.00 1.13 1.27 1.42 1.57 1.72 1.88 2.05 2.23 2.41 2.59 2.78 2.98 3.18 3.39 6124 SUB TOTAL l / hr 3.8 NH or 2.4 n 3.8 x 900 114 TOTAL l / hr 224

TOTAL BACKGROUND MINIMUM NIGHT FLOW (l / hr) STANDARD DEVIATION OF ONE-OFF MEASUREMENT ASSESSED HOUSEHOLD NIGHT USE ASSESSED NON - HOUSEHOLD NIGHT USE

11 NNH

11 x

100

110

The sample calculation (Table 12.6) suggests that a 1000 property urban DMA at 60m AZNP with 10km of mains, 10% non-households, good infrastructure condition, and 1 m3/hr exceptional night use would have a background night flow of around 6.1 m3/hr. It must be remembered that these are only estimates for the purpose of repetitive calculations which are intended to identify DMAs with unreported bursts, and to prioritise activities to locate them. Table 12.6 also shows that an individual one-off measurement in this DMA might have a standard deviation of 0.22 m3/hr arising from variability in assessed customer night use. This implies that (if exceptional night use does not vary) at the 95% confidence level (+/- 2 standard deviations) a one-off measured background night flow could be anywhere between 5.6 and 6.6 m3/hr. 117

In this DMA, at 60 m AZNP, measured night flows of around 13 m3/hr would be indicative of the existence of a typical unreported l00mm mains burst (7m3/hr at 60m AZNP) or 3 to 4 service pipe bursts (typically 2m3/hr at 60m AZNP). However, night flows consistently running at around 8 to 9 m3/hr could include a single service pipe burst, or be due to infrastructure in average (rather than good) condition, The smaller the DMA size, the easier it is to differentiate unreported bursts from the background night flows; 1000 properties is near the upper limit of size for awareness of a single unreported service pipe burst. Continuous recording of night flows (rather than one-off measurements) helps considerably to reduce uncertainty, particularly if exceptional non-household night use is very variable from night to night. Where populations vary seasonally (e.g. DMAs in holiday areas), or the number of billed properties is not a good indicator of numbers of people (e.g. in city centres with large blocks of flats), it is preferable to use numbers of residents to estimate assessed household night use (and its variability) in Table 12.6. The methodology permits approximate (rather than precisely auditable) figures to be used to complete Table 12.6. The key elements are numbers of properties, AZNP and exceptional individual users. Number of non-households can initially be estimated from the overall percentage for the Supplier. The principal unknown factor is the general infrastructure condition, insofar as it affects background losses. The methodology in Figure 12.5 proposes that an initial calculation of excess night flow is made, using the assumption that background losses are low, and that large anomalies are then investigated (by sounding/step testing), to identify unreported bursts and unsuspected exceptional night users. Any remaining anomaly can then be attributed to infrastructure, and the assumed value of background losses in subsequent calculations adjusted to reflect this. 12.6.3 Units for Expressing Night Flows The background losses approach implies that it is preferable to set targets and define background night flows (and their viability) in m3/hr, based on a number of DMA local characteristics. For example, Figure 12.6 shows that, if background net night flows are expressed in 1/prop/hr, for infrastructure in good condition, the NNFs would vary between 3 1/prop/hr (20m AZNP, urban L/N l0m) and 12 1/prop/hr (l00m AZNP, rural L/N l00m). (L/N is an expression for the length of main per property). It is also important to remember that the average net night flows over 12 months would always be higher than the background net night flows in Figure 12.6 (which excludes the volume lost through reported and unreported bursts during the year).

12.7
12.7.1

Prioritising Unreported Burst Location Activities

Introduction In any group of DMAs, there will always be some bursts temporarily running at any time. It is the practitioners job to assess, from the night flow data, which DMAs are most likely (at any particular time) to have high levels of economically recoverable losses. As skilled manpower resources are always limited, it is necessary to prioritise activities systematically (both within and between DMAs), in order to locate (by step testing/acoustic survey) the leaks and bursts which are causing these losses, many of them being unreported (assuming that the suspected burst has not caused a failure in standards of service to customers). This can be easily carried out using spreadsheets.

12.7.2

Prioritising by Excess Volume The most basic form of prioritisation is by excess volume - that is, the amount by which the measured night flow exceeds the target night flow in m3/hr. The target night flow may be based on either:

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METHOD 1:

The lowest achievable night flow established following intensive step tests/sounding and repairs. The background minimum night flows approach.

METHOD 2:

In practice, the methods are complementary to each other; Method 2 can be used to check that no leaks have been missed in using Method 1, and Method 1 is needed to check the cause of apparent excess night flows from Method 2. 12.7.3 Alternative Prioritisation Concepts Excess volume in m3/hr can be multiplied by marginal costs in each DMA (to prioritise on the basis of excess costs) or used to estimate the probable number of unreported bursts in each DMA. Either priority may be over-ridden where unreported bursts cause failure of Levels of Service to customers, through low pressure, lack of water, or through shortage of resources during droughts. 12.7.4 The Equivalent Service Pipe Bursts (ESPB) Concept Recent research work into typical burst flow rates permits consideration of the merits of expressing losses in terms of Equivalent Service Pipe Bursts. With this concept, the median service pipe burst flow rate at 50m AZNP (1.6m3/hr) is converted to a flow rate at the AZNP in the DMA using the square root relationship for individual bursts, i.e. 1.6 x (AZNP/50) The calculated excess night flow for each DMA is then expressed as an equivalent number of service pipe bursts. This gives an immediate indication of the maximum number of bursts which are to be looked for in each DMA (recognising that a mains burst is equivalent to three or more service pipe bursts). A week-by-week addition of the calculated ESPB in all DMAs is likely to be a sensitive indicator of trends in leakage control performance. 12.7.5 Economics of Unreported Burst Location Activities The manpower resources which are allocated to location of unreported bursts will depend on the overall local economics of leakage control. However, given any particular level of manpower resources for unreported burst location, it is preferable to use them in the most economic way, i.e. to find the biggest bursts fastest. If the number of properties is divided by the number of equivalent service pipe bursts, the resulting figure gives an indication of the likely speed of location; working in a DMA with 200 properties per ESPB is likely to be more efficient than in a DMA with 1000 properties per ESPB.

119

Figure 12.1 Components of Night Flows (not to scale)

120

Figure 12.2 Components of Minimum Night Flows

Reported bur sts Unre ported burst s

B = Onset of burst R = Repair of burst

BR BR

M Minimum inimum night flow night flow 3 (m .hr) (m3/hr)

(Su m of (Sum of components components represented represented by thick by thick black line) black line)

BR B R

Bursts

Mains Background los ses Comm Pipes Supply Pipes Household Non-household Household Exceptional night use (individual > 500 l / hour) Non-household Use Background losses

Normal night use

Jan

Time

Dec

Figure 12.3 Median Flow Rate of Bursts (l/sec) at 50m AZNP vs Mains Diameter (mm)

121

Figure 12.4 Estimated Durations and Flow Rates of Reported Bursts

A = Awareness L = Location R = Repair

216 m_/day m3/day at 50m at 50m AZNP AZNP

Reported 100mm distribution mains burst: Volume lost = 238m_ 3 238m

1.1 Days

Reported communication pipe burst: Volume lost = 512m_ 3 512m m_/day m3/day 32 at 50m at 50m AZNP AZNP
A L R

16 Days

Reported supply pipe burst: Volume lost = 1472m_ 3 1472m m_/day m3/day 32 at 50m at 50m AZNP AZNP
A L R

46 Days

122

Figure 12.5

Methodology for Assessing Likely Excess Night Flow from Unreported Bursts in a District Meter Area (DMA)

START

Estimate Background Minimum Night flow over 1 hour, using best estimates of Exceptional Night Use, simplified assessment of NonHousehold Night Use, and Background Losses for assessed Good infrastructure condition

Obtain measured Minimum Night Flow over 1 hour in l/hr

Average of Series of measurements

One-Off measurement

Deduct Background Night Flow to obtain difference (l/hr)

Calculate Standard Deviation of Assessed Night Use, and Deduct from Measured Value*

+ve Difference?

No Further Action at Present

Positive difference (Excess) may be due to Unreported Bursts, Unknown Exceptional Night Uses, or Infrastructure in Average or Poor Condition

This r educes the chance to 1 in 6 that the adjusted value is more than t he average value f rom a series of measurements.

Investigate and Identify Bursts and Exce ptional Night Use; Attribute remainder to Background Lo sses and categorise as Average or High

123

Figure 12.6

Net Night Flows with Low Background Losses (i.e. infrastructure in good condition)

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The progress made in leakage management in the UK has been considerably assisted by the Water Research Centre, working with the Water Industry. There have been two major reports published of this important work. They are: Leakage Control Policy and Practice, Standing Technical Committee Report No. 26, July 1980, ISBN 0 904561 95 X UKWIR Managing Leakage series of Reports, 1994

Figures 10.2, 10.3 and 11.2 are taken from the first Report. Figures 1.1, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, and Tables 12.1, 12.2, 12/3. 12.4, 12.5 and 12.6 are taken from the second Report. (The first number in each of the references above relates to the relevant section of this document)

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