1.

NOUNS
Nouns are naming words. They name people, animals, places and things.
A. Common and Proper Nouns
 Common nouns are the names of everyday things; the things we see, hear, smell, taste
and touch.
 Words like room, composer, cat and computer are common nouns.
 Proper nouns are special names for particular people and things.
 They include the names of places, the days of the week and the titles of books and
films.
 Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.
 The words Hyderabad, Raju are proper nouns.

 Sometimes, common nouns can be part of proper nouns.

 For example:
a. He travelled to space.
b. He had an amazing adventure.
c. My favourite cartoon is 'Space Adventure'.
 The two words space and adventure are common nouns, but the name of the cartoon is
'Space Adventure', so this is a proper noun and must be written with capital letters.

B. Countable and Uncountable Nouns

 Countable nouns refer to things that can be counted. They can also be called count
nouns.

one cow two cows one chef two chefs

one bag ten bags one house five houses
one girl four girls one street three streets
one car twenty cars one bottle eight bottles
one tree twelve trees one balloon ninety balloons
one dress two dresses one cat thirty cats
one apple six apples one man a hundred men
one chair nine chairs one horse sixteen horses

 We can always count countable nouns, whether there is one or a million of them!
 Uncountable nouns refer to things that cannot be counted. They can also be called non-
 count nouns.
NOTE:
1. Uncountable nouns have just one form. We don't change them to make a plural form. We
don't need to add -s to the end of the noun.
 For example:
music dirt rice luggage dust weather
flour homework milk

2. Since uncountable nouns are always singular, remember to use the correct form of the
verb.
 For example:
 There is dust everywhere! I must clean the house. (NOT: There are dust
everywhere. I must clean the house.)
3. Usually, we don't use a or an or a number with an uncountable noun.
 For example:
 We’re having very hot weather. (NOT: We’re having a very hot weather.)
4. When we need to use uncountable nouns in a plural sense, we add words called
partitives.
 For example:
 The two pieces of luggage were left in the taxi. (NOT: The two luggages
were left in the taxi.)
Note:
 Remember that the verb needs to change depending on whether the partitive is
singular or plural :
 The piece of luggage was left in the taxi. (singular partitive and singular
verb)
 The two pieces of luggage were left in the taxi. (plural partitive and plural
verb)
5. Some uncountable nouns are always plural.
 For example :
groceries clothes pyjamas shorts trousers jeans
scissors spectacles news

 We can say "I bought some jeans or I bought a pair of jeans". We shouldn't
say "I bought a jean".
C. Singular and Plural Nouns
Nouns can be singular or plural.
1. Nouns have a singular form when they refer to one person or thing
2. Nouns have plural form when they refer to more than one person or thing.
3. When we make a plural noun, we usually add -S, for example, one apple (singular)
becomes ten apples (plural).
 Here are some examples of plural nouns with -s :
Bee − bees Piano − pianos
Toy − toys Girl − girls
Cup − cups Plate − plates
Tree − trees Flower − flowers
Road − roads Town − towns
Book − books Cake − cakes
Note:
 Not all countable nouns are formed in this way.
 There are special spelling rules for making the plural form of some countable
nouns.
1. When a singular noun ends in a hissing sound like -s, -ss, -tch, -x, -sh and -z, we add -es
to make the plural form. For example :
bus − busses fox − foxes watch − watches
waltz − waltzes wish − wishes kiss − kisses

 But if the hissing sound is followed by a silent -e, then we just add –s to make the
plural form:
maze − mazes base − bases
noise − noises axe − axes
2. When a singular noun ends in -ch, we need to remember two things:

a. If the -ch is a soft sound, we add -es to make the plural form. For example:
lunch − lunches sandwich − sandwiches
branch − branches church − churches
b. If the -ch is a hard sound, we add -s to make the plural form. For example:
monarch − monarches eunuch − eunuches

3. When a singular noun ends in -y, we need to remember two things:

a. If there is a vowel in front of the -y, we add -s to make the plural form.
For example:
 key − keys toy − toys
monkey − monkeys way − ways

b. If there is a consonant in front of the -y, first we change the -y to -i, then we
add -es. For example:
baby − babies city − cities
party − parties family − families

4. For most singular nouns ending in -O, we simply add -s to make the plural form. For
example :
yoyo − yoyos photo − photos
flamingo − flamingos piano − pianos

But there are some nouns ending in -O that take -es in the plural form :
hero − heroes potato − potatoes
tomato − tomatoes volcano − volcanoes

There are also some nouns ending in -O that can take either -s or -es in the plural
form :
eskimo Eskimos eskimoes
flamingo flamingos flamingoes
motto mottos mottoes
5. For singular nouns ending in -f or -fe, we can form the plural in two ways :
a. Some nouns drop the -f or -fe and add -ves. For example :
half − halves life − lives
loaf − loaves thief − thieves
wolf − wolves shelf − shelves

b. Some nouns keep the -f or -fe and just add –s. For example :
safe safes reef reefs
roof roofs chief chiefs

6. Some nouns can be used in the singular or plural form without any change in spelling.
The words before and after the noun tell us whether the noun is singular or plural. For
example :

One sheep wandered out of the pen. (singular) Now, there are nine sheep left. (plural)
a. A young deer played happily in the forest.
 b. Deer live in the forest. (plural)

7. Some nouns are made up of more than one word, for example, son-in-law. These nouns
are called compound nouns. To make the plural form of a compound noun, we add -s to
the main word. For example:
son-in-law − sons-in-law
passer-by − passers-by
commander-in-chief − commanders-in-chief
brother-in-law − brothers-in-law
mother-in-law − mothers-in-law
daughter-in-law − daughters-in-law

8. There are some countable nouns which have their own special plural forms. For example:
Singular Plural
mouse mice
louse lice
foot feet
child children
crisis crises
ox oxen
man men
woman women
goose geese
tooth teeth
oasis oases
die dice
radius radii or radiuses
genius genii or geniuses
formula formulae or formulas
D. Collective Nouns
 Collective nouns are names given to people, animals or things that are grouped
together.
 Here are some examples of collective nouns:
Collective Noun (living things) Collective Noun (non-living things)
an army of soldiers a bale of cotton / hay / paper
a band of musicians a batch of bread / cakes
a choir of singers a bunch of bananas / grapes
a class of pupils / students a chest of drawers
a clump of trees a cluster of diamonds / stars
a crew of sailors a clutch of eggs
a company of actors a collection of pictures / coins / stamps
a flock of birds / sheep a comb of bananas
a gaggle of geese a crate of fruit
 a gang of laboures / thieves a fleet o cars / ships
a herd of cattle / elephants a flight of aeroplanes / steps
a litter of kittens / cubs / pups a galaxy of stars
a nest of ants / mice / rabbits a library of books / records / videos
a pack of rascals / wolves a pack of cards / cigarettes / lies
a school of whales / dolphins / fish a pile of books / clothes / sand / rubbish
a staff of servants / teachers / journalists a row of houses
a swarm of bees / insects a stack of books / boxes / papers
a troop of soldiers / monkeys a string of beads
a troupe of dancers / performers a tuft of hair / grass
a team of players a wad of notes

 Some adjectives can be used as collective nouns when we put the with them.
 The verb used is always plural.
 For example:
 The sick are cared for in a hospital.

E. Possessive Nouns
 The possessive form of the noun shows that a parson owns something, or is connected
to the noun that is talked about.
 For example:
 I have the man’s keys.
 But I don’t know where the man’s car is!
Note:
1. To make the possessive form of the noun, we add an apostrophe and -s at the end of the
noun.
1. For example:
a. I returned the man’s keys to him.
b. That is Rani’s book.

2. If a noun (singular or plural) already ends in -s, we only add an apostrophe to indicate
possession.
 For example :
a. The boys’ bikes are over there.
b. The teachers’ room is locked.

F. Gender of Nouns
 Nouns belong to groups.
 This means that they can be masculine (male living things), feminine (female living
things), common (male or female living things) or neuter (not male of female, and not
living).
 Words like baby, animal and cousin are nouns which have common gender. They can
be male or female.
 Words like house, bread and bicycle are nouns which are neuter. They’re not living
things, and aren’t male or female.
 Here is a list of some masculine and feminine nouns:
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
father mother boy girl
brother sister king queen
grandfather grandmother prince princess
uncle aunt bull cow
nephew niece hero heroine
son daughter stallion mare
husband wife headmaster headmistress
man woman

 Many feminine nouns are formed by adding –ess to the end of a masculine noun.
 Here are some examples :
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
author authoress lion lioness
manager manageress host hostess
murderer murderess emperor empress
waiter waitress leopard leopardess
actor actress prince princess
proprietor proprietress baron baroness

 Many people feel that ending in ess are very old-fashioned these days, and that
we should use the masculine form of the word to refer to male and female living things,
especially when we talk about people.
 In books and newspapers nowadays, the words actor and author can refer to
both women and men.

G - ABSTRACT NOUNS
 We know that the word – abstract – means having no material form.
 There are names given to things that have no material bodies.
 They include name of actions, feelings, qualities, states, arts, subjects, skills and games.
 We cannot touch these things as they have no bodies.
 So, we can simply feel them or think of them.
 WHAT DO ABSTRACT NOUNS INCLUDE?
1. Words stating actions are called verbs. So, abstract nouns include nouns formed
from verbs.
2. Words expressing qualities and feelings are called adjectives. So, abstract nouns
include nouns formed from adjectives as well.
3. Words expressing states and facts are called nouns. So, abstract nouns include
nouns formed from nouns also.
4. Names of arts, subjects of study, games, crafts, skills and sciences are also
abstract nouns.
5. Words like time, day, noon, morning, evening, night, dawn, dusk, etc. are also
abstract nouns.
Formation of abstract nouns:
From adjectives:
broad – breadth long – length brave – bravery
From common nouns:
child – childhood friend – friendship thief – theft
From verbs:
laugh – laughter live – life know – knowledge

H. Compound Nouns
 A compound noun is made up of two or more words.
 When we put the words together, we have a new word with a new meaning.
 For example:
surf + board = surfboard sail + boat = sailboat day + dream =
daydream
 This is how we can form compound nouns:

1. We can add one noun to another. For example:

bed + room = bedroom
pocket + knife = pocketknife

2. We can add an adjective to a noun. For example:

black + board = blackboard
high + way = highway
2. PRONOUNS

A. Personal Pronouns
 We use personal pronouns to refer to people, places or things without actually naming
them.
 For example:
 The monkeys are climbing the tree to pick some fruit. They love bananas best of
all.
 One of the monkeys is climbing on the man. It wants a banana from the bucket!
 There are three groups of personal pronouns :
Group Personal Pronoun
First person (speaker) I, Me, We, Us
Second person (person spoken to) You
Third person (not the speaker or the He, She, It, They, Him, Her, Them
person spoken to)

 I, me, he, she, him, her and it are singular.

 We, us, they and them are plural.
 You can be singular and plural.
Note:
1. We can use personal pronouns such as I, he, she, it, you, they and we as subjects
in sentences. (Subject pronouns)
For example:
a. I am in Primary Four.
b. This is my brother. He is in primary Three.
c. My mother is a teacher. She teaches English.
d. I have a pet dog. It is called Rocky.
2. We can use personal pronouns such as me, him, her, it, you, them and us as
objects in sentences. (Object pronouns)
For example:
a. My grandmother gave the apple to me.
b. David is my pen-pal. I sent a letter to him last week.
c. Mona was hungry. I made a sandwich for her.
d. The cat was thirsty, so I gave it some water.

I or Me
 Do you every get confused about when you should use I and me?
 Sometimes, it is difficult to know which personal pronoun to use.
 Let’s read the following conversation to help us decide.
Mother: Who broke the window?
Boy 1: Not I!
Boy 2: Not me!
Problem: Which is correct: I or me?
Solution: The boys’ answers could be rewritten as:
Boy1: I did not do it. 
Boy2: Me did not do it. X
So I is correct.
 We usually use me with the verb be.
 For example :
a. “Who is it?” “It’s me.”
b. There will only be me and you at the party.
c. There was only Mark, Bill and me at the playground.

B. Possessive Pronouns
 We use possessive pronouns to show ownership or possession.
 There are three groups of possessive pronouns:
Group Personal Pronoun
first person mine, ours
second person yours
third person his, hers, theirs

1. We can use possessive pronouns in place of possessive adjectives.

 For example:
This is her house. This house is hers.
This is their car. This car is theirs.

2. We can use possessive pronouns in place of possessive nouns.

For example:
a. This is the boy's bag. This bag is his.
b. Those books are the children's. Those books are theirs.
c. That's the girl's bread. The bread is hers.

C. Reflexive Pronouns
 Reflexive pronouns generally refer back to the subject of the sentence.
 The reflexive pronoun is the object of the sentence.
 There are three groups of reflexive pronouns:

Group Reflexive Pronoun

first person myself, ourselves
second person yourself, yourselves
third person himself, herself, itself, themselves

Which reflexive pronouns are singular? Which ones are plural?

 Reflexive pronouns refer to the person or thing that is the subject.
 For example:
a. Betty injured herself while defending the goal.
b. The spider spun itself an enormous web.
c. We gave ourselves a treat at the new Chinese restaurant in town.
d. I baked this pie for myself.
 The reflexive pronoun usually comes after the verb in the sentence.
 It also has to agree with the subject, so as Betty in example a, is a girl, we must use
herself.
EMPHATIC PRONOUNS
 Reflexive pronouns can also be used for emphasis, or when we want to say something
strongly.
 In this case, the reflexive pronoun comes immediately after the subject or subjects of the
sentence.
 For example: I myself painted this wonderful picture.
 Here are more examples using reflexive pronouns for emphasis :
a. We ourselves could never finish such a large pizza.
b. You yourself must be responsible for this mess.
c. The principal herself came to see me in hospital.

D. Demonstrative Pronouns
 We use demonstrative pronouns to refer to nouns. They tell us which one.
 The pronouns this, that, these and those point out a person, place or thing, especially
from among others.
 Let's look at some examples of demonstrative pronouns:
This is my latest trick... I shall turn the rabbits into frogs!
Oops! That was a big mistake!
 Here are more examples using demonstrative pronouns :
a. This is my house.
b. That is my principal's house.
c. These are sheep.
d. Those are goats.
When to use this, that, these and those?
 When someone or something is near us, we use this and these and when the person or
thing is not so close, we use that and those.

Nearby Far away

this (singular) that (singular)
these (plural) those (plural)

 Now let's look at these examples:

a. This car is faster than that car.
b. These houses are nicer then those houses.
This car and these houses could be closer to the person who is
speaking.
That car and those houses could be further away.

E. Interrogative Pronouns
 We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions.
 For example:
 What is that fruit? Who wants to buy some fruit?
Which fruit would you like? I don’t like fruit !
 Interrogative pronouns include who, whom, whose, which and what.
 We use who, whom and whose in questions about people.
 We use which and what in questions about other living things and non-living things.

F. Distributive Pronouns
Distributive pronouns are those which show that persons or things are taken one at a time or
in separate groups.
For example:
1. Each of the girls got a prize.
2. Either of the two roads leads to Hyderabad.
3. I bought two books, and neither of them is interesting.
In first sentence, ‘Each’ refers to two or more persons taken on by one.
In second sentence, ‘either’ means one or other.
In third sentence, ‘neither’ also means one or other but in a negative sense.
• So, the pronouns, ‘each, either, neither’ refer to a number of persons or things, one at a
time.
• These pronouns are always singular and, as such, are always followed by a verb in the
singular.

G. Reciprocal Pronouns
 There are only two reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another.
 We use them to refer to people, places or things that are involved in the action described
by the verb.
 We use each other when referring to two people, places or things, and one another for
more than two items, or groups of people, place or things.
 Here are some examples of reciprocal pronouns :
a. The twins really look like each other.
b. All the towns in the district were competing with one another for the 'Clean &
Tidy' prize.
c. The two schools share a football field because they are next door to each
other.
d. The triplets share everything with one another.
H. Indefinite Pronouns
 We use indefinite pronouns when we are not referring to any particular person or thing.
They are singular and we use them with a singular verb.
 Example:
Someone has stolen my wallet.
Did you see anyone running away with it?
1. The table shows the most common indefinite pronouns:
anyone no one none all
anybody nobody each some
someone nothing either many
somebody anything neither several
everyone something any few
everybody Everything both one

 Let's look at some sentences using indefinite pronouns.

 Indefinite pronouns that begin with some - refer to one person or thing,
 those beginning with any - refer to any person or thing,
 Those with every - refer to all the people or all the things, and
 those with no - refer to no person or thing.
 For example:
a. Can somebody help me?
b. I don’t mind who it is. It can be anybody.
c. Everybody can help if they’d like.
d. Okay, so nobody wants to help me!

G. Relative Pronouns
The Relative pronouns – ‘who, whose, whom, that & which’ join two sentences and
refer back to nouns going before them.
For example:
i. I met Raju. Raju is our class leader.
I met Raju who is our class leader.
ii. We met a woman. Her son was given a reward.
We met a woman whose son was given a reward.
iii. The lady is my aunt. You met the lady at the door.
The lady whom you met at the door is my aunt.
 iv. I know the hostel. He lives in the hostel.
I know the hostel that he lives in.
v. Chandra has found the purse. She had lost the purse.
Chandra has found the purse which she had lost.
Rules of using the relative pronouns:
1. As a general rule, ‘who’ is used for ‘persons’ only. It may refer to a singular or plural noun.
For example:
I went to see Mohan who is my friend. (Mohan – Singular)
I joined my friends who were playing in the park. (Friends – Plural)
2. ‘Whose’ and ‘whom’ are used in speaking of ‘persons’.
For example:
We met the travellers whose belongings were robbed.
These are the boys whom the principal punished.
3. ‘Which’ is used for animals and things without life.’
For example:
The dog which chased the thieves was killed.
The pen which I broke was not mine.
4. ‘That’ is used for persons, animals and things.
For example:
The thief killed the dog that chased him.
This is the shirt that you bought for me.
NOTE:
• The relative pronoun is generally omitted when it is the ‘object’ of a verb.
For example:
The house (which) you see on the corner is empty. (‘which’ can be omitted)
• Though the object form is ‘whom’, nowadays ‘whom’ is often replaced by ‘who’ and ‘that’.
For example:
He is the boy (whom / who / that) I bullied yesterday.
• The relative pronoun ‘whom’ is used after the preposition.
The people with whom she came have now left.
 However, the preposition may be placed at the end, using ‘who’ or ‘that’ or
omitting.
For example:
The people who / that she came with have now left. Or
 The people she came with have now left.

3. DETERMINERS
A. The Indefinite Article
 A and an are indefinite articles.
 We usually use a in front of nouns that begin with a consonant sound, and an in front of
nouns that begin with the vowels a, e, i, o, u.
Note:
 So why do we say a university when this word starts with the vowel u?
 And why do we say an hour when this word starts with the consonant h?
⇒ Let's look at university first.
⇒ Say the word university. What sound comes at the beginning of the word?
⇒ It is you sound, the sound that is usually spelt with the letter y.
⇒ The you sound is a consonant sound.
 We use a with any noun phrase that begins with a consonant sound, even if the
first letter in the spelling is a vowel.
 Try saying these other examples :
a union a unit a utility room
a unique experience a one-man band a European country
a uniform a one-way street a U.F.O.

 The word hour is all about sound too.

⇒ Say the word hour and see what sound you get at the beginning?
⇒ I get a short u sound, a bit like the u in under. And that's a vowel sound.
 We use an with any noun phrase that begins with a vowel sound, even if the first
letter in the spelling is a consonant.
 This is especially true for words that have a silent h sound.
 Other examples are :
an honour an honest man an hourly train

 Remember that a and an are only used with singular countable nouns and collective
nouns.
 They cannot be used with plural nouns.
 Here is a summary of when to use the indefinite articles a and an :
Noun Example
Singular, Countable She's a doctor.
nouns He's an artist.
Collective nouns A herd of cows eats grass in the field.
I was stung by a swarm of bees.
Certain numbers a hundred, a thousand, a million
Certain quantities a dozen, a couple of, a pair of, a lot (of), a few, a little,
a pound, an ounce, a gram
Measurements sixty kilometres an hour

B. The Definite Article

 The is the definite article.
 We use the when we talk about a particular or definite person or thing.
 We use a and an when we talk about a person or a thing which is not so important or
definite.

Take a look at these two sentences. How are they different?

 It is raining outside. The mother of Rani is thinking in the following way.
a. I hope Rani remembered to take a raincoat and an umbrella.
b. I hope Rani remembered to take the raincoat and the umbrella.
 The second sentence uses the! Why?
In the second sentence, the mother might be thinking about a particular raincoat and
umbrella, so she uses the definite article: the raincoat and the umbrella.
Whereas, in the first sentence, the raincoat and umbrella that the mother might be
thinking about are not a particular raincoat or umbrella, so she uses the indefinite articles: a
raincoat and an umbrella.
When to use ‘the’:
1. We use ‘the’ to talk about a particular person or thing that has been mentioned before.
For example:
I've booked a ticket for a dance show. The ticket cost me Rs. 1000!
2. We also use the in front of superlatives.
For example:
a. He had the most frightening experience of his life.
 b. I'm the best football player in the school.

3. We use ‘the’ to talk about unique things. Unique means that there is only one. There
is only one earth, one sun and one sky.
For example :
I love the earth, the sun and the sky !
Last year, we visited the Great Wall of China.
4. When we say something general about a group or a class of the same animals, we
normally use the singular form, so the word the needs to come before the noun.
For example:
The kangaroo carries its young in a pouch.
Note:
 We use the singular form of the noun, kangaroo, and so we must also use ‘the’,
as ‘the’ comes before a singular countable noun.
 When a plural countable noun is used in a general statement about animals,
the does not need to be used.
 For example :
a. Gorillas are found in the rainforests of Central Africa. (NOT : The
gorillas are found in the rainforests of Central Africa.)
b. Ants are social insects. (NOT : The ants are social insects.)
5. We also put the before the name of a race of people, or the people of a country, if
there is no plural form. If there is a plural form, we do not use the.
For example:
a. The Chinese have a long history. (There is no plural form of Chinese.)
b. Australians love going to the beach.
(Australians is a plural form so we do not need the.)
Note:
Usage of article in front of proper nouns
 What about other proper nouns, like cities and countries? Do we need to use the
definite article with them?
 Most of the time, we do not need to use articles in front of I proper nouns.
 Look at these two sentences. Which one do you think is correct?
a. Last December, we visited the North America.
b. Last December, we visited North America.
  Sentence b. is correct because we don't need to use the with continents and
countries.
 Generally, we do not need to put an article before continents and countries.
 But there are some countries, which have names that suggest that the country is
made up of smaller units, that do need to have the as part of their name.

 For example :
the United States of America the United Kingdom
the Philippines the Netherlands

 Here is a list of some proper nouns and common nouns that do not need an
article before them :
Noun Example
roads We are going shopping along Jubliee Road.
Flower street is a famous street in Hyderabad.
suburbs, villages, towns, cities My office is in Sankarapalli.
Kuala Lumpur is the capital of Malaysia.
lakes Lake Kolleru is in India.
The deepest lake in the world is Lake Baikal.
individual mountains (Note that Everest is the highest mountain in the world. (Everest
mountain ranges take the article.) is in the Himalayas.)
continents Thailand is in Asia.
Lions come from Africa.
states, and most countries Pune is in Maharastra, a state in India.
U.P is a state in India
games She can play chess better than her older brother.
How about a game of badminton this afternoon?
illnesses The old man suffers from high blood pressure.
They were off school with chicken pox for two weeks.
festivals Christmas is always celebrated in December.
I love visiting family and friends at Pongal.
languages He speaks English and Telugu.
She can count to ten in Russian.

 But these proper nouns need the definite article the:

Proper Noun Example

seas and oceans The South China Sea has a lot of coral reefs.

rivers
mountain ranges
(not individual mountains)
important buildings
The Pacific Ocean is the largest ocean in the world.
Many Indians think the River Ganges is holy.
The Nile is the longest river in the world.
Mount Everest is part of the Himalayas.
Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in the Alps.
The National Library has a lot of books.
I'd love to see the Eiffel Tower in Paris.

6. We usually do not use articles with uncountable nouns.

For example :
a. People need food and water to stay alive.
(NOT: People need the food and the water to stay alive.)
b. Flour is used to make bread.
(NOT: The flour is used to make the bread.)
Note:
But in some cases, uncountable nouns do need to take an article.
For example :
a. Have you got a shampoo for oily hair?
(This sentence talks about a type of shampoo.)
b. The water in this place is not safe to drink.
(This sentence talks about particular water, not water in general.)

C. The Zero Article

There are other times when we can leave out articles. Some books call this the zero article.
Here is a list of when no article is needed before the noon :
No article needed Example
common expressions 1. to/at/from/in school (church, hospital, college,
about place, time and university)
movement 2. to/in/into/out of bed
3. at/from/leave home
4. by day (car, bus, bicycle, train, plane, boat, letter,
mail, phone)
5. at night
6. to/at sea
7. leave/start/enter school (university, college)
 8. all day (night, week, year, summer, winter)
double expressions knife and fork, husband and wife, day after day, from
top to bottom
food and meals talked My dad likes curry, my mum prefers salad, but I love
about in a general way hamburgers.
Come for dinner tonight.
Both (the) girls are good at football.
after ‘both’
Both (the) letters were from my pen pal in the USA.
What kind of animal is it?
after kind of and similar
What sort of behaviour is that?
expressions
What type of car did you buy?
The scouts collected a large amount of cans.
after amount and number The large number of people at the meeting was
unexpected.
Men and women over twenty one can see the movie.
man and woman (plural,
Man lived in caves in prehistoric times. (The word
and man as a singular
man here is used in a general way and means all
noun)
male and female people.)
days, months and Meet me on Wednesday.
seasons when used in a My birthday is in August.
general way In spring, birds make nests.
She can play chess better than her older brother.
games
How about a game of badminton this afternoon?
The old man suffers from high blood pressure.
illnesses
They were off school with chicken pox for two weeks.
when we talk about I went on a course to learn how to write programmes
television as for television.
entertainment
when we talk about radio, Theatre and cinema can be similar.
cinema and theatre as art She works in radio.
forms or jobs

4. VERBS
 Verbs are words or groups of words that refer to actions and states (including our
thoughts and feelings).
 Verbs are sometimes known as doing words.
 Let's look at some examples of verbs:
 a. John threw the stick for the puppy to catch.
b. My brother is a lawyer.
c. Tidy up your room immediately!
d. I was getting out of the bath when I slipped on the wet floor.
e. Mother won't be very happy when she discovers this mess.
f. Janie hasn't finished her homework yet.
g. You can help me, can't you?
h. Shall we meet at 6 p.m.?
 The words in bold are all verbs.
 Verbs come in many different forms.
 Let's take a closer look at the different types of verbs we commonly use.

A. Primary Verbs (Helping or Auxiliary verbs)

 The verbs be, have and do are the primary verbs.
 They can work by themselves as main verbs or they can work with other verbs.
 This is what the verbs be, have and do look like in their different forms:

Simple Simple Past Present Past

Verb
Present Tens Tens Participle Participle
be am, is, are was, were being been
have has, have had having had
do does, do did doing done

Some of the MODAL verbs are also helping verbs. They are discussed in later pages.

B. The Infinitive
 The infinitive is the base form of a verb.
 It is often used with to in front of it. We can add different endings to the infinitive to make
new verb forms.
 The infinitive is the most basic form of a verb.
 It is how a verb looks before we add any endings, for example, to walk, which can be
changed to walked or walking when we add endings.
 Let's look at some examples of the infinitive form of the verb in sentences :
 a. Paul has learned to swim.
b. I want to pass my exams, so I'm studying very hard.
c. It's starting to rain.
 All these infinitives follow another verb.
 The infinitive can also follow a noun in a sentence.
 Here are some examples :
a. I went to the market to buy some food.
b. Take a book to read in case you get bored.
c. Sally hasn't got anything to wear to the party.

C. Participles
 A participle is a form of a verb.
 There are two main types: the present Participle usually ends in -ing, and the past
participle usually ends in -ed.
 Here are some examples of participles in sentences:
a. I heard a noise coming from the kitchen.
b. Walking the dog was his favourite pastime.
c. They have booked to go to France next summer.
d. Frightened by the storm, I hid under the blankets.
1. The present participle is the -ing form of a verb.
We can use the present participle in several ways :
a. The present participle makes the continuous verb form.
For example:
a. I am writing a letter to June about my travel plans.
b. We will be going to our grandmother's house on Saturday.
c. They have been planning to meet up since last month.
b. Sometimes, present participles serve as adjectives.
For example:
a. Please tell the screaming child to be quiet !
b. The braking dogs woke up most of the neighborhood.
c. Sally is reading an interesting book.
c. Present participles can also serve as nouns.
For example:
a. I like swimming as a form of exercise.
b. The barking of the dogs kept the Whole neighborhood awake.
 c. Dancing is a really enjoyable hobby.
2. The past participle usually takes an -ed ending.
However, there are many irregular verbs which have different endings for their past
participles (see D. Irregular Verbs).
Let's look at the different ways in which we can use past participles:
a. The past participle makes the perfect verb form.
For example:
a. Mark has not replied to my letter.
b. They will have started their tour by mid June.
c. We have been to Kuala Lumpur three times already.
b. Sometimes, past participles serve as adjectives.
For example:
a. He is wearing ripped blue jeans.
b. The doctor put her broken arm in a plaster cast.
c. Past participles can also serve as nouns.
For example:
a. The tortured will never forget their terrible experience.
b. The doctors cared for the most wounded first.
3. The perfect participle
It is formed adding ‘having’ or ‘having been’ or ‘being’ before the past participle form of
the verb (V3).
For example:
a. Having finished his work, he went home.
b. Having heard the sad news, she fainted.

D. Gerund
 A participle is a non-finite verb form that is used in compound forms of verbs or as an
adjective.
 So participles are called verbal adjectives.
 A gerund is a verb form that resembles a present participle but is used as noun.
 For example:
• Walking is a perfect exercise. Swimming is my hobby.
Uses of Gerunds
1. AS SUBJECT OF A VERB
• Drinking causes lot of accidents. Driving needs much care and
attention.
2. AS OBJECT OF A VERB
• Stop talking rubbish. Start doing the work. I am tired playing.

3. AS THE OBJECT OF A PREPOSITION

o She is good at dancing.
o Children are fond of playing.
o Aren’t you interested in learning music?
o I felt cold after coming out of the water.
o The police charged the arrested person with rioting.
4. AS THE COMPLEMENT OF A VERB
o Seeing is believing Giving is getting.
5. IN SHORT PROHIBITIONS
o No smoking No talking
6. IN POST-VERBIAL ACTIVITIES
o We shall go boating tomorrow Mummy went shopping yesterday.
o The water began boiling. The child started weeping.

E. Regular and Irregular Verbs

 Most verbs are regular, and we can add endings such as -s and -ed to change their forms
in the present and past tenses.
 Here are some examples of how regular verbs are formed:
Simple Present Simple Past Present
Infinitive Past Participle
Tense Tense Participle
to jump jump / jumps jumped jumping jumped
to look look / looks looked looking looked
to like like / likes liked liking liked

 However, some verbs are irregular and form their simple past tense and past participles in
a different way.
 Here are some examples of the most common irregular verbs :
Simple Present Simple Past Present Past
Infinitive
Tense Tense Participle Participle
to run run / runs ran running run
to go go / goes went going gone
to eat eat / eats ate eating eaten
to fly fly / flies flew flying flown
to get get / gets got getting got
 to find find / finds found finding found
to buy buy / buys bought buying bought
to do do / does did doing done
to be am / is / are was / were being been
to ride ride / rides rode riding ridden
to keep keep / keeps kept keeping kept
to catch catch / catches caught catching caught
to know know / knows knew knowing known
to fall fall / falls fell falling fallen
to leave leave / leaves left leaving left
to choose choose /chooses chose choosing chosen
to sell sell / sells sold selling sold
to think think / thinks thought thinking thought
to say say / says said saying Said

 Some verbs remain unchanged in every other form except the third person singular
and the present participle.
 Notice how the infinitives, simple past tense and past participles of the verbs in the table
do not change :
Simple Present Simple Past Present Past
Infinitive
Tens Tens Participle Participle
to hit hit / hits hit hitting hit
to put put / puts put putting put
to cost cost / costs cost costing cost
to shut shut / shuts shut shutting shut

 Remember that all verbs in the simple present tense change form in the third person
singular, when an -s is usually added.
 Beware the third person singular when using the simple present tense !

F. Action Verbs
 Verbs that refer to actions or things that happen are called action verbs.
 For example:
I was riding my bike when suddenly a car drove up behind me and hit me!
Tell me what happened.
 The words in bold are verbs which refer to actions.
 We use action verbs to refer to the physical movement carried out by a person or thing,
or to describe something that happens to a person or thing.
 Here are some examples of action verbs :
 a. I cook two eggs every morning, put them on a piece of toast and give them to
my cat!
b. He closed and locked the windows before he went out.
c. The scouts pitched their tents, unpacked their gear, made a fire and prepared
their dinner.
 There are many action verbs because, most of the time, a person or thing needs to carry
out a physical action in order to do something.
 The table below shows us some more common action verbs:

G. Stative Verbs
 Verbs that refer to states or conditions - that is, what a person or thing is like, or thinking
or feeling, at a particular time - are called stative verbs.
1. We use stative verbs to explain how a person feels and what a person says and
thinks, as well as to refer to other information about a person that does not involve
physical
eat sleep pull push write

walk run jump move read

drink hold sit stand drive

look touch help take go

do make dress prepare clean

work play climb bend search

come bring close buy open

movement.
 For example :
a. I am nine years old.
b. My parents seem to be very proud of my excellent results.
c. Jimmy got angry when his friend didn't show up as planned.
d. You look pretty in that new dress.
2. In the same way, stative verbs can also refer to the state or condition of a thing, how it
feels, what it is like etc.
For example:
a. The cat's fur feels soft and fluffy.
b. The milk is in the fridge.
c. The road appeared to be held up by traffic.
d. The salmon remembers the exact stream that it was born in and will
always be able to find its way back there to die.

H. Saying Verbs
 Verbs that express what we or other people say are called saying verbs.
 There are many saying verbs which can explain in more detail the words we speak.
 Say is the most c9mmon of these verbs, but there are many others that give us more
information about the manner in which we say something.
 Let's look at some examples of saying verbs :
a. “Go to your room!” My mother Shouted.
b. “Go to sleep now, it’s late,” whispered Ben.
c. “I’ll meet you there at 5.30 p.m.,” Katie replied.
d. The policemen reported that the burglar had been caught.

I. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

 Transitive verbs are verbs which take an object.
 Here are some examples of transitive verbs:
a. Let’s invite Tom and Jonathan. (Not : Let’s invite.)
b. She surprised us. (Not : She surprised.)
c. He introduced me to his mother. (Not : He introduced.)
• Notice how the sentences with transitive verbs do not sound right without the object in
each case. Each verb needs the object to make sense.
 Intransitive verbs are verbs which do not take an object.
 Here are some examples of intransitive verbs :
a. Please sit down. b. I slept. c. We paused.
 These short sentences make sense without an object because the verbs are
intransitive, and so do not need an object.
 Some verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.
For example:
a. Singapore won. OR (Singapore won the game.)
b. Let's eat. OR (I can't eat fish.)
c. They are playing. OR (They are playing chess.)
• Double objects: Certain transitive verbs such as give, ask, offer, promise, tell, etc, have
two objects after them – a direct object and an indirect object.
o A direct object is usually the name of something and
o An indirect object is the one which denoted the person to whom something is
given or for whom something is done.
o For example
 The teacher gave him a book.
 The young man offered her a seat.

J. Phrasal Verbs
 A phrasal verb consists of a verb and adverb or a preposition which gives it a special
meaning.
 Did you know that the verb put has a different meaning to the verbs put off or put on?
But why?
a. Mother put the cake in the oven to bake for thirty minutes.
b. I hope Miss Lang will put off the test until next week.
c. She should put on two jackets because it's very cold today.
 In these sentences we see three different examples of the verb put.
 First, it is used as a main verb, and then, to change its meaning entirely, an adverb
or preposition is added to form two completely different verbs from it :

Put off verb + adverb

put on verb + preposition

 In the examples, put off has the same meaning as postpone or delay, and put on
 means the same as wear.
 Some phrasal verbs are made up of both an adverb and a preposition.
 For example :
 “I won’t put up with your bullying anymore!” cried the young boy.

put up with verb + adverb + preposition

Another meaning for put up with is tolerate.

Note:
 Phrasal verbs are clever because they help us form many different verbs from the same
infinitive or base verb.
 In fact, there are even more phrasal verbs that we can make from put.
 Let's take a look at some examples :
a. The old lady puts away some money each month. (puts + away = saves)
b. Can you put me up for two nights? (put + up = accommodate)
c. After three difficult hours, they finally managed to put out the fire.
(put + out = extinguish)
d. He puts in fifty hours every week. (puts + in = works)
 Remember that the infinitive form of the verb will change its form to indicate the tense, but
the adverb or preposition remains the same.
 Here are some more examples of phrasal verbs:
a. She went on singing after the music had stopped. (go + on = continue)
b. Everyone says that I've taken after my father. (take + after = resemble)
c. We stopped a thief from breaking into the house. (break + into = burgle)
d. I shall look up the meaning in the dictionary. (look + up = find)
 There are so many phrasal verbs in English that it's impossible to show them all in this
unit.
 But here are some of the many meanings that we can create from the verbs get and go in
the meantime!

Phrasal Verb Meaning Example

get on progress; succeed He is sure to get on in life as he is a very
talented boy.
get over forget; recover from My grandmother is finding it very hard to
get over the death of my grandfather.
get away escape The burglar got away empty-handed
 because he was disturbed by the return of
the owners.
get through complete and come to an I don't think I can get through this alone.
end
get off alight; dismount; We must get off at the next stop.
disembark
get round find time or occasion to I still haven't got round to visiting Jane at
do something her new house.
go on continue I’m so tired, I don’t know if I can go on.
go off explode The bomb went off in the early hours of
the morning.
go through endure; suffer; My grandfather went through some hard
experience times as a boy.
go up increase The price of textbooks has gone up.
go over revise; study Go over units 3 and 4 for your homework,
please.

DICTIONARY ACTIVITY
 If you look up the infinitive of a verb in the dictionary, there will usually be a list of all the
phrasal verbs connected with that verb, along with their meanings.
 Why not check the dictionary for phrasal verbs related to these common verbs - there are
many of them!
take look come give call make break

5. SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT

 When we write or speak, we must be sure that the subject and the verb in our sentences
agree with each other in person and in number. This is known as agreement.
 When the subject is singular, the verb must also be singular.
 When the subject is plural, the verb must also be plural.
 Let's look at some examples of agreement:

Singular Subject Singular Verb

She studies hard for her exams.
Jimmy loves going to the cinema.
The thief is stealing from the little old lady.
A dog doesn't like cats.
Swimming is a good form of exercise.
Mum has gone shopping.

Plural Subject Plural Verb

We study hard for our exams.
 Jimmy and Johnny love going to the cinema.
The thieves as stealing from the little old lady.
dogs don't like cats.
Swimming and tennis are good forms of exercise.
Mum and Dad has gone shopping.
 Notice how the verbs need to change to agree with the subjects depending on the
number of people or things that the sentence is referring to.
WHEN TO USE A SINGULAR VERB FOR AGREEMENT
1. We use a singular verb with singular countable nouns.
For example:
a. This book is very interesting.
b. The child has done well in school this year.
2. We use a singular verb with uncountable nouns.
For example:
a. Whole meal bread is good for you.
b. The water in the stream was polluted.
3. We use a singular verb with nouns that have no singular form.
For example:
a. Mathematics is a difficult subject for many students.
b. The news about the spreading virus has alarmed the entire
country.
4. We use a singular verb with collective nouns that have a singular meaning.
For example:
a. A chest of drawers is useful for storing clothes.
b. My class was first in the competition.
c. The band plays beautifully.
5. We use a singular verb with singular pronouns.
For example:
a. He lives in Hong Kong.
b. Nobody knows the answer.
c. Everyone watches the game with excitement.
6. We use a singular verb with singular demonstratives.
For example:
a. This is where the accident happened.
b. That was the best book I've ever read!
7. We use a singular verb with quantifiers used with uncountable nouns.
 For example:
a. A little sugar is enough for me, thanks.
b. Some of the oil has left a stain on the tablecloth.
c. Much of the trouble was caused by two naughty children.
8. We use a singular verb with pairs of words that usually go together.
For example:
a. Fish and chips is a favourite of the British.
b. The pulley and chain was a simple invention that made moving
things much easier.
9. We use a singular verb with money and other numbers.
For example:
a. Fifty dollars is too much to pay for a pair of shoes.
b. Ten kilometres is not so far by bicycle.
c. Two weeks at the beach is perfect for a relaxing holiday.
Note:
Even if we have a million dollars, we still refer to money as a singular subject,
so it always takes a singular verb.

There is one million dollars in this suitcase!

WHEN TO USE A PLURAL VERB FOR AGREEMENT
1. We use a plural verb with plural countable nouns.
For example:
a. The dogs are chewing their bones.
b. The boxes have been delivered to your house.
2. We use a plural verb when two or more singular nouns are joined by the
connector ‘and’.
For example:
a. Mary and Alice are excellent singers.
b. Those gloves and the hat and scarf were essential for my trip to
Europe last February.
3. We use a plural verb with certain nouns that have no singular form.
For example:
a. Your glasses are broken.
b. My trousers were ripped at the knee, so I sewed them.
Note:
 Other nouns in this category include binoculars, pliers, tongs,
scissors, shears, pants, jeans, clothes, pyjamas, spectacles etc.
4. We use a plural verb with plural quantifiers.
For example:
a. Few people know basic first aid.
b. Many have not heard about the factory closing down.
5. We use a plural verb with collective nouns that have a plural meaning.
For example:
a. The police want information about the man who used to work
here.
b. The authorities have put a stop to the protest.
c. Packs of wolves hunt in the forest at night.
Agreement of nouns and pronouns
 It is important to remember that it is not only the subject and the verb of a sentence that
changes in agreement, the rest of the sentence must also agree.
 So nouns and pronouns need to match too.
 Here are some examples :
a. Every girl is entitled to her share of the food when she has done her work.
b. Criminals with guns often put their hands in the air when they surrender.
c. This pair of binoculars has a scratch on its lens.
d. We have been living in our house for two years now and it suits us fine.
e. My parents bought me a computer for doing so well in my exams.
Note:
1. The following words must be followed by a singular verb.
Each, either, neither, everyone, anyone, no one, one, someone, anybody,
somebody, everybody, many, a.
2. Two nouns qualified by ‘each or every’ even though connected by ‘and’ take a
singular verb.
For example: Every boy and every girl was given a packet of biscuits.
3. None is constructed in the singular or plural as the sense may require.
4. The following words always take a plural verb.
Both, few, a few, many, several
5. Much and a little take a singular verb
6. The following words take a singular verb when they stand for countable nouns. They
 take a plural verb when they stand for countable nouns.
All, most, none, some

6. MODAL VERBS
 Modal verbs or modals are helping verbs.
 We use them with other verbs to help express meanings such as ability, possibility,
permission and obligation.

can could may should ought to must

 This is how modal verbs look in sentences:

a. I can do that.
b. We must not be late.
c. You may leave the room.

CAN
1. Can is used to express permission.
For example:
Raju: Can I go out to play with my friends now?
Raju is asking his parents for permission to go out to play with his
friends.
The main verb in the question is go and, with the help of can, this verb
expresses permission in Raju's question.
Here are more examples using can for permission:
a. Can you open the window, please?
b. Can we leave school early today?
c. You cannot go out to play. You have to finish your dinner first.
d. Jenny can stay up until 11 p.m. on a school night.
Note:
 When can is used to express permission, it means that somebody is either allowed
to or not allowed to do something.
 In the question form, can asks permission to be allowed to do something.
2. Can is also used to express ability or inability.
For example:
Boy: I cannot write neatly, but I can speak well.
 ability can
inability cannot
Note:
In the negative form, we put can and not as one word to form cannot; it can also be
expressed as can't.
Here are more examples using can for ability or inability :
a. He can carry that heavy box all by himself.
b. Johnny cannot play tennis very well.
3. Can is also used to express possibility.
For example:
Teacher: You can come and visit tomorrow if you like.
The teacher is saying that it will be possible for the boy to visit him again.
Here are more examples using can for possibility:
a. We can finish the job by tomorrow if we're paid more money.
b. They can't be there already. They've only just left!
c. You can't do it like that!

Note:
The negative ‘can't’ suggests that it is not possible to do something in these
sentences.

COULD
1. Could is used to express permission.
 When we want to express permission in a more polite way, we use the modal
could.
 Here are examples using could for permission :
a. Could you shut the door, please?
b. Could we hand our homework in tomorrow instead, please?
 Could is more polite to use than can when asking for permission to do something.
We can also add please to the end of such questions to make them sound even
more polite.
2. Could is also used to make an offer or a suggestion. For example:
Man: I could give you a lift, if you'd like.
 Here are more examples using could :
a. I could do that for you. (offer)
 b. We could go to the cinema. (suggestion)

MAY
1. We can use may as another way of expressing an offer politely.

2. Just as can and could are used to express permission, may can also be used as a
more polite form of asking for permission to do something.
3. Another use of the modal may is to express possibility.
4. When we use may in its negative form, it expresses the meaning of not being allowed
to do something.
Note:
It is important to know that may not cannot be shortened. We must always use the
two words separately.
1. ‘Might’ is used as the past tense of ‘may’.
For example:
a. You may not leave the table until you have finished your dinner.
b. "No, you may not watch television. It's getting late," my mum said to me.

SHOULD
1. Should is used to express advice.
 We can use should to express advice in these ways.
 Here are more examples using should for advice:
• Asking for advice:
a. Which way should I go to get to the post office?
b. Do you think we should lock the door after you've gone out?
• Giving advice :
a. You should be more careful.
b. Johnny looks very tired. He should go to bed early.
2. We also use should to express obligation or duty.

OUGHT TO
1. Ought to has the same meaning as should, but often sounds more polite. We use
ought to in the same way as should to ask for and give advice.
For example:
 a. You ought to be more careful.
b. Which way ought I to go to get to the post office?
2. We also use ought to to express obligation or duty.
For example:
a. We ought to show respect to our elders.
b. We ought not to talk loudly in the library.

MUST
1. ‘Must’ can also be used to express advice.
For example:
Girl: This book is so good. You really must read it!
⇒ We use must to give very strong advice to someone.
⇒ Here are more examples using must for advice :
a. You must go to the hospital immediately.
b. You must tell me the truth if you want me to help you.
2. We use must to talk about things that either we have to do or should never do,
because it also expresses obligation or duty.
For example:
a. Cinderella must leave the ball at midnight.
b. I mustn't be late for class today.

OBLIGATION OR DUTY
 Have you noticed that modals are often used to express obligation or duty?
 We have seen that one of the uses of the modal verbs should, ought to and must is to
express obligation or duty.
 But how do we know which one to choose?
Must is stronger than should and ought to.
 These sentences show how must has a stronger meaning than should and ought to :
a. You should / ought to go to bed early because there's school tomorrow.
b. You must go to bed early because there's school tomorrow.
 Sentence a. suggests that the person goes to bed early,
 But sentence b. demands that the person goes to bed early because must has a
 stronger meaning than should/ought to.
 Here are some more examples using must, should and ought to :
a. You ought to visit your grandmother at the weekend.
b. We must pay ten dollars for entry.
c. You should always lock the door when you go out.
d. We must not tell lies.
NOTE:
It is important to remember that should and ought to suggest that we have a choice about
what we do, whereas must really does not allow for choice, it requires that something is done
(or not done if the sentence is negative).

WOULD
 You use ‘would’ to express desires and requests politely, often adding ‘please’.
 For example:
Would you speak more quietly, please?
We would take the room for three nights.
We would love to meet up with you in Hyderabad.
 You use ‘would you like’ to make offers.
 For example:
Would you like a piece of cake?

7. ADJECTIVES
 Adjectives are describing words that tell us more about the people or things they
describe.
 There are lots of adjectives which we can use to make our stories more interesting.

A. DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES
 Descriptive adjectives tell us about the colour, shape, size, texture and condition of a
noun.

1. Here are some more examples of adjectives that describe people or things:
 the blue sky a yellow submarine a pink carnation
a happy occasion a colossal monument a enormous burger
a tiny hairpin a narrow alley slimy skin
rough edges silky hair a bumpy road
a fierce battle a polite child a cruel king

For example:
a. Mary is messy.
b. Mary seems disorganised.
c. Mary's room appears untidy.
3. Sometimes, we may want to use more than one adjective to describe something.
For example:
a. A cute little puppy
d. A huge, long, black and yellow, African snake
 When we use more than one adjective in this way, we need to place the adjectives
in the right order before the noun.
 This table shows us the correct order of adjectives:
Quality or opinion – size – shape – age – colour – nationality or origin –
material

quality or opinion gorgeous, awful, happy, nice, bossy, warm, handsome

size huge, small, tall, short, towering
shape circular, triangular, rectangular, square, fat, skinny, slender
age ancient, new, modern, two-month-old
colour black, brown, yellow, white, pink
nationality or origin Egyptian, Australian, Thai, Vietnamese
material paper, plastic, metal, wooden, glass

 Here are more examples of the order of adjectives :

a. Pinky is a beautiful, tall, slender, green mermaid who lives in a
kingdom at the bottom of the ocean.
b. An ugly, short, fat, Australian man chased the pretty, young, fair lady.

B. ADJECTIVES OF QUANTITY
 We use adjectives of quantify to show the amount or number of things.
 They often answer questions such as "How much ... ?" and "How many ... ?".
For example:
 Read the following conversation among pirates when they found a treasure chest.
Pirate 1: Ahha! There are several diamond necklaces.
Pirate 2: Here's another gold cup!
Pirate 3: I can’t see any crowns.
Pirate 4: There’s a lot of gold coins.
 The words in bold are called adjectives of quantity or quantifiers.

1. The table lists some of the common adjectives of quantity that we use when we speak
and write :
several many much a lot (of) some any
(a) few (a) little each every all (the) half
both (of) none (of) (the) other(s) another no either
neither fewer less (a/the) whole plenty of enough

 Here are examples of these quantifiers in use :

a. Several pupils failed the exam because it was very difficult.
b. I ate so many cakes at the party that I was sick!
c. We don't have much money left after our trip.
d. We spent a lot of money on our trip.
e. Could I borrow some glue, please?
f. Do you have any friends in London?
g. I know a few people in London.
h. It took a little time, but he was pleased with the finished result.
i. Each boy wears a tie to school.
j. I play tennis every day.
k. All the girls play in the netball team.
I. Greedy Gordon ate half the cake.
m. Both of the twins are good at football.
n. None of the parents wanted their child to lose.
o. Do you have other clothes to change into?
p. I have another pair of trousers, but no shirt.
q. No teacher wants to see a student fail an exam.
r. Either Bob or Harry will win.
s. I was surprised that neither Bob nor Harry won.
t. There are fewer empty seats than when I arrived.
u. There are less empty seats than earlier.
 v. I saw the whole performance. It was fantastic.
w. We saw plenty of monkeys at the zoo.
x. He hasn't got enough money for the ticket.
2. Countable nouns refer to things that can be counted and uncountable nouns to things
that cannot be counted.
In the same way, some quantifiers can only be used with countable nouns, and others
can only be used with uncountable nouns.
However, there are some quantifiers that can be used with both.
The table shows us which quantifiers we can use with countable and uncountable
nouns:
Countable Noun Uncountable Noun Both
several much a lot (of)
many (a) little some
(a) few any
each all (the)
every half
both (of) no
another (the) other(s)
either less
neither plenty of
fewer enough
none (of)
(a/the) whole
this that these
those the former the latter

NOTE:
 Money is an uncountable noun, but cent is countable.
 That is why these examples show that certain adjectives of quantity are used to
describe the amount of money, and others are used to describe the number of
cents talked about.

C. DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES

 We use demonstrative adjectives to help us point out the exact noun we are referring to.
I think I'll buy that car.
 Here are some of the more common demonstrative adjectives :
 Let's look at some examples of demonstrative adjectives :
a. I think I'll buy this watch instead of that one.
b. I do not approve of these new laws.
c. You have given two reasons for not doing your homework. The former is not
acceptable. The latter I can allow just this once!

D. INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES
 We use interrogative adjectives to ask a question with reference to a particular noun.
 These adjectives are wh-question words such as which, what and whose.
 Let's look at some examples of interrogative adjectives :
a. Which house will you buy?
b. What drink would you like?
c. Whose book is that?
 We put interrogative adjectives before a noun, as these examples show.
 The interrogative adjective which can also take of after it when the noun is plural.
 For example :
a. Which of the houses will you buy?
b. Which of the books belongs to you?
c. Which of the girls is celebrating a birthday today?

E. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

 Possessive adjectives indicate ownership.

 We use them to show that certain objects or things belong to someone or something.
 The words my, your, our, his, her, their and its are possessive adjectives.
 Let's look at some examples of possessive adjectives:
a. Paul has borrowed my favourite CD.
b. How is your uncle Charles?
c. We are going to visit our grandparents tomorrow.
d. His jeans are too small for him!
e. She has studied hard for her exam on Friday.
f. They saw their favourite film at the cinema.
g. The bird caught its wing in the cage.
 Note:
 Observe that the possessive adjectives are used before nouns.

F. FORMING ADJECTIVES

1. We usually form adjectives from other words like nouns, verbs or even other
adjectives.
Most of the time, it's easy to tell what these other words are.
For example:
2. We usually add a group of letters to the end of a word when forming an adjective.
We call these letters a suffix.
Here is a list of the most common suffixes used in forming adjectives:

Suffix Adjective
-y messy, funny, dirty
-Iy lonely, weekly, friendly
-ary primary, secondary, imaginary
-able lovable, admirable, agreeable
-ible possible, sensible, terrible
-al musical, international, natural
-ed astonished, excited, bored
-en golden, wooden, rotten
Adjective Formation
-ful wonderful,
lovable playful,
love beautiful
(noun/verb)
-less careless,
imaginary hopeless, cheerless
imagine (verb)
-ic idyllic,
lonely artistic, atomic
lone (adjective)
-ing shocking, boring, exciting
-ish brownish, childish, Scottish
-ive expensive, creative, destructive
-ous tremendous, marvellous, nervous
-some quarrelsome, troublesome, meddlesome

3. Some words can be used to form more than one type of adjective.
 What's the difference between exciting and excited?
 If we look at the table of forming adjectives again, we can see that the -ed and -ing
suffixes produce two adjectives from the verb excite: exciting and excited.
  These adjectives do not have the same meaning, even though they come from the
same word:
a. Adjectives ending in -ing such as exciting, boring or interesting describe
what we think about something or someone.
For example:
a. It was such an exciting film.
b. Amy is a very boring girl.
c. I am reading an interesting book about space at the moment.
b. Adjectives ending in -ed such as excited, bored or interested describe our
own or another person's feelings.
For example:
a. They were so excited to see the film.
b. She is always bored with Amy.
c. I am interested in books about space.
4. Some adjectives are formed from two words. These are known as compound
adjectives.
For example:
a. My mother needs to wear glasses because she is long-sighted.
b. That vase is handmade so it is rather special.
c. Maggie wears such old-fashioned clothes.
d. The blond-haired boy is a keen cyclist.
e. She has a two-year-old brother.
5. Sometimes, we can use a noun as an adjective.
For example:
a. We use cane to make baskets. (The word cane in this sentence is a
noun.)
b. The cobra jumped out of the cane basket. (The word cane in this
sentence is an adjective.)
 Here are more examples of nouns used as adjectives:
a. Robin Hood stole from the rich to give to the poor.
(Rich and poor in this sentence are nouns.)
b. The woman driving the Roils Royce is very rich. The man wearing rags is very
poor.
(Rich and poor in these sentences are adjectives, because they describe
 Noun Adjectival Phrase
house across the street
boy with the blond hair people.)
girl in the red dress
flower shop next to the bakery
baby wearing the blue outfit G. ADJECTIVAL PHRASES
 An adjectival phrase is a group of words used to describe a noun. An adjectival phrase
usually starts with a preposition. It usually comes after the noun it describes.
 Here are some examples of adjectival phrases:
a. My friend lives in the house across the street.
b. The boy with the blond hair is a keen cyclist.
c. The girl in the red dress is my cousin.
d. The flower shop is the one next to the bakery.

e. The baby wearing the blue outfit is my new little brother.

 The adjectival phrase describes the noun in each sentence.
 A phrase is a group of words that make up a part of a sentence; it also adds
meaning to the sentence.

H. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
 We use the comparison of adjectives to compare two or more people, places or things.
 For example read the following conversation among three persons
Person 1: I am as strong as a tiger.
Person 2: I am stronger than you.
Person 3: I am the strongest of all.

⇒ Person 1 compares himself to a tiger, a strong animal. He uses the adjective

strong in its positive degree to show that he is as strong as a tiger.
 ⇒ Person 2 compares himself to the first boy. He uses the adjective stronger, the
comparative degree of strong, to show that his strength is greater. The
comparative degree is used to compare two people, places or things that are not
equal.
⇒ Person 3 compares himself to the two boys. He uses the adjective strongest, the
superlative degree of strong, to show that his strength is the greatest of the three.
The superlative degree is used to compare more than two people, places or
things that are not equal.
 Let's look at another example of comparison:
The weather in France is cold in winter. It is colder than Spain. However, Sweden is
the coldest of all.
HOW TO FORM COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES?
1. It is very simple to form regular adjectives in the comparative and superlative degrees.
For example:
comparative add -er to the end of the adjective in the positive degree
superlative add -est to the end of the adjective in the positive degree

Positive Comparative Superlative

fast faster fastest
nice nicer nicest
slow slower slowest
pretty prettier prettiest
clean cleaner cleanest

2. When the positive degree of an adjective is a word that is generally longer than two
syllables, we need to form the comparative and superlative degrees by adding the
words more/less or most/least before the positive degree.

For example:
Positive Comparative Superlative
intelligent more intelligent most intelligent
 less intelligent least intelligent
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
less beautiful least beautiful
difficult more difficult most difficult
less difficult least difficult

Let's look at more examples of comparison:

a. Rashinda is more obedient than Kamsiah.
Kamsiah is less obedient than Rashinda.
b. Xiulin is the most obedient student.
Raman is the least obedient student.
3. Some adjectives have irregular forms and cannot follow the regular pattern of forming
the comparative and superlative degrees.
For example :
Positive Comparative Superlative
good better best
far further/farther furthest/farthest
bad worse worst
little less least
much/many more most

o Here are some examples using irregular forms :

a. Jason's behaviour is bad, but Justin's behaviour is worse. Johnny's behaviour
is the worst of all.
b. I am good at drawing, but I think Sally is better than me. However, Susie is the
best in our class at drawing.

8. ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES

 Adverbs are words that tell us more about verbs.
 Adverbial phrases work like adverbs. They also tell us more about verbs. They usually
start with a preposition.
 For example:
a. The lion roared angrily at the tourists.
b. The lion roared in a fierce way at the tourists.
 The above two sentences have the same meaning. The words in bold describe
the verb in each sentence.
  The adverb angrily describes the verb roar. It tells us how the lion roared.
 The adverbial phrase in a fierce way describes the verb roar. It also tells us how
the lion roared.

A. ADVERBS OF MANNER
 Adverbs that tell us how an action or situation is carried out are called adverbs of
manner.
 Let's look at some examples of adverbs of manner:
a. He ate his food hungrily.
b. She drank her water noisily.
 The adverbs in bold describe the verbs in each sentence.
 They also tell us more about the manner or way in which the actions of eating, drinking,
sitting and working are carried out.
 Here are some examples using adverbial phrases :
a. He ate his food with great gusto.
b. She drank her water in a noisy way.
Formation of adverbs of manner
 Many adverbs of manner are formed by adding the suffix-Iy to the end of an adjective.
 But sometimes an adverb can look just like an adjective ...
 Can you work out which fast is the adjective and which fast is the adverb in the following
sentences?
That’s a fast car.
Yes, that man drives fast.
 Did you guess correctly?
 If you remembered that an adverb describes a verb and an adjective describes a noun, it
should have been easy.
• Fast is an adjective that describes the noun car in the first sentence.
• Fast is an adverb that describes the verb drives in the second sentence.
 Let's look at more examples of adverbs of manner:
a. Write your name clearly at the top of the page.
b. The rain is falling heavily.
c. I stopped suddenly when I heard the noise.
d. You look different to when I last saw you.
B. ADVERBS OF PLACE
 Adverbs that tell us where an action or situation takes place are called adverbs of place.
 Read the following conversation between two ship captains.
Ship captain 1: The ship sank in this place, but I think some of them escaped
and buried the treasure over there.
Ship captain 2: The ship sank there, but I think some of them escaped and buried
the treasure here.
The ship captains are talking about where the ship sank and where the treasure could
be buried, so there and here are adverbs of place, and in this place and over there
are adverbial phrases relating to place.
 These are some of the more common adverbs of place :
here there near away
inside outside indoors outdoors
somewhere anywhere everywhere nowhere

 Let's look at some examples of adverbs of place:

a. The doctor told me to wait outside.
b. I can't find my bag. Can you see it anywhere?
c. Don't go outdoors when it's raining heavily.
d. We play indoors when it rains.
• The adverbs in bold describe the verbs in each sentence. They also tell us
more about the location or whereabouts of the action or situation.
 Here are some examples using adverbial phrases :
a. The doctor told me to wait in the reception area.
b. I can't find my bag. I might have left it in the car.
c. Don't go out of the house when it's raining heavily.
d. We play in the house when it rains.

C. ADVERBS OF TIME
 Adverbs that tell us when an action or situation takes place are called adverbs of time.
 Read the following conversation between a detective and a witness.
Detective: Tell me the truth now. When did you last see the murdered man?
Witness: I saw him yesterday.
The detective is trying to work out when the murder took place.
 These are some of the more common adverbs of time :
 today yesterday tomorrow now
early late soon already

 Let's look at some examples of adverbs of time:

a. My favourite television programme is on soon.
b. Tomorrow I'm going to visit my grandfather.
• The adverbs in bold describe the verbs in each sentence. They also tell us
more about the duration or the time of the action or situation.
 Here are some examples using adverbial phrases :
a. My favourite television programme is on at 7 p.m.
b. I'm' going to visit my grandfather after school tomorrow.

D. ADVERBS AND ADVERBIALS OF FREQUENCY

 Adverbs that tell us how often or not an action or situation takes place are called
adverbs of frequency and adverbials of frequency.
 Read the following conversation among three children.
Child 1: I always eat lots of fruit and vegetables.
Child 2: I sometimes eat fruit and vegetables.
Child 3: I never eat fruit and vegetables.
The children are telling us how often they eat fruit and vegetables.
 Adverbials are made up of more than one word.
 These are some of the more common adverbs and adverbials of frequency :

more frequent less frequent

always often sometimes seldom never
every day frequently occasionally rarely (not) at all
daily usually; normally now and again hardly ever
all the time weekly monthly yearly; annually
once a week once a month once a year

 Here are some examples using adverbials of frequency:

a. May and Mary talk in class most of the time.
b. I wake up at 8 a.m. five days a week.

E. ADVERBS OF DURATION
 Adverbs that tell us how long something is done for or how long an action or situation
lasts are called adverbs of duration.
 Let's look at some examples of adverbs of duration:
a. I won't be gone long.
b. The post office in High Street is temporarily closed.
• The adverbs in bold describe the verbs in each sentence. They also tell us
more about how long an action or situation will take or will last for.
 Here are some examples using adverbial phrases :
a. I won't be gone a very long time.
b. The post office in High Street is closed for the time being.
c. I saw her for half an hour at the weekend.

F. ADVERBS OF DEGREE

 Adverbs that tell us to what extent something happens are called adverbs of degree.
 Read the following conversation between mother and the child staying at different places.
Mother: What's the weather like? Is it cold?
Girl: It's very cold – so cold I'm freezing! I want to come home!
The girl is telling her mother how much she feels the cold where she is.
 These are some of the more common adverbs of degree :
absolutely so very
terribly slightly too
extremely quite Rather

 Let's look at some examples of adverbs of degree :

a. I damaged my leg slightly in a motorcycle accident.
b. She is rather boring. She never wants to join in our games.
c. My sister is absolutely thrilled to be having a baby.
f. The weather in Singapore can be too hot at times.
• The adverbs in bold describe the verbs in each sentence. They also tell us
more about how much or to what degree someone or something is boring,
happy, hurt etc.
 Here are some examples using adverbial phrases :
a. I damaged my leg just a little in a motorcycle accident.
b. She is not very eager to join in our games.
c. My sister is over the moon to be having a baby.
 d. Sujeeta passed the end of term exams with flying colours.

G. ADVERBIALS OF REASON
 Adverbials that tell us why an action or a situation takes place are called adverbials of
reason.
 Read the reason given by a girl to her teacher.
Girl: It's true. I did not complete my homework because of my dog. He ate it!
• The girl is telling her teacher why she was not able to do her homework.
 Let's look at some examples of adverbials of reason :
a. This is a good location for a photograph as the sun can be seen setting over the
mountains.
b. I won't be needing the extra lessons since I have already passed the exam.
c. Owing to the train crash, no more trains were allowed to leave the station
yesterday.
d. I missed school today due to the fact that I had a stomach-ache.
• The adverbials in bold give us the reason or explanation for why
something has happened.

9. PREPOSITIONS
 Prepositions show us the relation between a noun or pronoun and another word or
phrase.
 They tell us if the words are related by place, direction, time, purpose etc.
 For example:
I am on my bicycle.
I am riding over a speed bump.
I am riding between two cars.
 Let's look at these examples of prepositions in use :
a. The children are playing in the park.
b. The children are playing on the roundabout.
 These sentences link the noun children with where they are and what they are
doing.
 The preposition in is used to link the children and the park, and the preposition on
is used to link the children and the roundabout.
A. PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE

 Prepositions of place show us the location of a person or thing in relation to other

people or things.
 For example:
a. The bird is on the television set.
b. The lion is in the cage.
c. The bird is flying over the hill.
d. The bag is under the table.
e. The boy is behind the gate.
f. My friend is in front of the theatre.
g. He has stopped next to/beside the school.
h. The school is between two tall buildings.
 There are many prepositions of place. Here is a table of examples:

in on over behind in front of any next to/ beside

at beneath under (neath) before above below
near after opposite by against between
along (side) beyond up down past among

 Here are some tips about when to use the most common prepositions of place.
1. We use in with cities, countries and continents.
For example:
in Nellore in Andhra pradesh in Asia

2. We use at with addresses and named buildings and places.

For example:
a. She lives at No. 75 Kingly Road.
b. I'll meet you at Orchard MRT Station.
3. We use on with islands.
For example:
a. I live on Singapore Island.
b. There is only one shop on the remote island.
 Of course, there are many more uses for in, at and on, as well as all the other
prepositions of place.
 You will learn in higher classes.

B. PREPOSITIONS OF DIRECTION
 Prepositions of direction show us the way in which a person or thing moves or is
directed in relation to other people or things.
 Let's look at some examples using prepositions of direction:
The boy is jumping into the water.
He is trying to swim past his opponent.
The crocodile is swimming around the boat.
The boy is swimming towards the shore.
As we drove out of the tunnel, we saw the beautiful view before us.
The lion crept silently through the bushes in search of its next meal.
The ambulance travelled along the highway at full speed.
A flock of birds flew over the hills and into the distance.

C. PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
 Prepositions of time show us the time relation between two events or situations.
 Let's look at some examples using prepositions of time :
a. The concert will be held on Saturday 5th April.
b. We like to go skiing during the holidays.
c. I have been living in Kuala Lumpur since 1999.
d. You have to get there by 6 p.m. or they won't let you in.
e. I got here at nine o'clock this morning!
f. I have been waiting in this queue for two hours!
 There are many prepositions of time. Here is a table of examples:
in on at about
around before for after
between since during to
past until from by
over ahead (of) up to Behind

 We use different prepositions of time for different relations of time.

 Here are some tips on when to use the most common prepositions of time.
1. We use in for parts of the day, a particular period of time, and with months, years and
seasons.
 For example:
I always come skiing in February.
 The table shows us some examples using in :
in five minutes in half an hour in the afternoon
in a week in August in the year 2000
in spring in ten days in the month of May
 Here are some more examples using in :
a. Mrs Chan was born in the month of September, in the year 1900.
b. I will be there in about an hour.
c. Trees lose their leaves in autumn.
d. We always go jogging in the mornings and play tennis in the afternoons on a
Sunday.

2. We use on for dates and days.

For example:
It's my 95th birthday on Christmas Day.
The table shows us more examples using on :
on National Day on Monday on 1st January
on my birthday on the last day of term on the 15th

3. We use at to talk about particular times.

For example:
School finishes at 3 p.m.
Here are more examples using at :
at lunch time at midnight at dusk at sunset
at that time at New Year at five o'clock

4. It is important not to confuse during and for.

 They both talk about a period of time, but in different ways.
 We use during when a period of time happens, and we use for to say how long a
period of time lasts.
 For example:
During the school holidays, I'm going to ice skate for three hours every day.
Here are more examples using during and for :
a. We have lived in Singapore for five years.
 b. There was a lot of damage caused during the storm.
c. During the month of January, I'm going on holiday to Australia for two
weeks.

5. The prepositions before and after are opposites.

For example:
a. Tuesday is before Wednesday, but after Monday.
b. We left after the party had finished.
c. John arrives at work before 8 a.m. every morning.
d. I meet my friends for coffee after work on Thursdays.
6. We use ‘until, since and by’ to refer to periods of time that give us an idea of when
something starts or finishes.
For example:
a. The teacher asked us to finish our projects by the end of the week.
b. I have loved horse riding since I was a child.
c. You cannot watch television until you have finished your homework.

D. OTHER USES OF PREPOSITIONS

 Some prepositions have different meanings depending on how they are used.
 For example, read the following passage
On 25th May, the general pinned the medal on Lee's uniform. She received the
medal based on reports of her bravery. She had walked on foot through the jungle for fifty
kilometres to get help for her injured comrades.
In the first sentence on is used as a preposition of time - on 25th May, and as a
preposition of place - on Lee's uniform.
 We have already looked at prepositions of time and place.
 But what about the uses of on in the second and third sentences?
1. We can use prepositions to refer to the reason why something is done.
For example:
a. She received the medal based on reports of her bravery.
b. The teacher was surprised at the rude way in which the pupil answered
her back.
c. As the heavy rains started, we ran for shelter in a nearby doorway.
d. Ann has gone to play with Shreya's new pet kitten.
 e. He is studying hard with the hope of getting into university.
2. Another use of prepositions is to refer to what we use to do something.
For example:
a. She had walked on foot through the jungle for fifty kilometres.
b. We go to school by bus.
c. We will fish with nets not fishing rods.
d. I prefer to eat with chopsticks.
3. Prepositions can also be used to refer to where we get something.
For example:
a. This dress is a gift from my sister who lives in France.
b. The poor dog hasn't been given any food by 'its owner for days.

E. MARRIED PREPOSITIONS

 Prepositions don't exactly get married, but they do sometimes appear together with
certain adjectives, nouns or verbs.
 For example:
They were so busy with their work that they almost didn't get married!
 In the above sentence, busy is an adjective and with is the preposition.
 Here are more examples using married prepositions :
(A) adjective + preposition
a. She is very good at Maths.
b. I am always polite to my teacher.
(B) noun + preposition
a. What is the reason for the delay?
b. Your new hairstyle is an excellent example of the latest trend.
(C) verb + preposition
a. How did the convict escape from prison?
b. Julin and Lizhen agree with each other.
Note:
 Prepositions really do appear everywhere!
 Here are some final examples to add to the list of prepositions we've already learned
about:
a loaf of bread a piece of paper a cup of tea
 at high speed with great care in danger
on the radio most of the boys a book of mine

CONJUNCTION
DEFINITION:
 Conjunctions are ‘joining’ words.
 A conjunction is a word used to join two words, phrases or clauses.
 They can also join two sentences together.
Read the following sentences:
1. Amy stitched and hemmed her dress.
2. Did she use a pair of scissors or a blade to cut the thread?
3. She worked quickly but neatly.
4. This dress can be found in various colours or in stripes.
 In sentence 1, the conjunction and joins the verbs ‘stitched’ and ‘hemmed’.
 In sentence 2, the nouns ‘scissors’ and ‘blade’ are joined by ‘or’.
 In sentence 3 the adverbs ‘quickly’ and ‘neatly’ are joined by ‘but’.
 In sentence 4 the phrases ‘ in various colours’ and ‘in stripes’ are joined by ‘or’.
 So the words and, but, or are conjunctions.
 Besides these, the other commonly used conjunctions are nor, for, yet, so.
 Conjunctions not only join sentences but often make them shorter too.
FOR Example:
1. Bob and Tom are good bowlers.
This is a short way of saying – Bob is good bowler and Tom is a good
bowler.
2. This man is poor but honest.
This is a short way of saying – This man is poor but he is honest.
CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
• Certain Conjunctions are often used pairs; since they have mutual relationship. These are
called Correlative Conjunctions. The commonest are:
1. Either…or.
2. Neither…nor.
3. Not only…but also.
 If the verbs of the two clauses are the same, ‘either’, ‘neither’, ‘not only’ are used after
the verb.
 If the verbs used in the two clauses are different, ‘either’, ‘neither’, and ‘not only’ are put
before the verbs or the first clause.

 Some examples of the above three pairs:

(1) You return either the book or pay its cost (either return)
(2) He neither is an employee nor a student of this college. (is neither)
(3) He neither did it for money nor for fame. (did it neither)
(4) He neither applied for permission nor for leave. (applied neither)
(5) He denied neither the statement nor approved of it. (neither denied)
(6) They praised not only him but also criticized. (not only praised)
(7) He sold not only his house but even his lands. (but also)
(8) He scolded not only his wife but also beat her. (not only scolded)
(9) She not only is a dancer, but also a good singer. (is not only a dancer)
(10) They looted not only the shop but also set fire to it. (not only looted)
4. Though…yet.
 ‘Though’ and ‘although’ are followed by ‘yet’.
 But ‘Yet’ may be used or may not be used
• Though He slay me, yet I will trust in Him.
• Though he is poor, yet he is contented.
5. Both…and.
 Both is followed by ‘and’; (‘as also’ or ‘as well as’ should not be used)
• Suresh is both clever as well as cunning. (and cunning)
• His speed is both impressive as also inspiring (and inspiring)
• He is both a poet and a philosopher.
• We both loved and honoured her.
6. Such…as.
o There is no such country as you mention.
o She is not such a woman as you admire.
7. So, as…as,
 ‘So’ is followed by ‘as’
• People are not so ignorant like some politicians think. (as some)
 • His wife is not so foolish that he thinks of her (as he thinks)
• He is not so rich as you think.
• It is as clear as the sun.
8. As…so.
o As you sow, so shall you reap.
o As the child is, so is the man.
9. Scarcely…when.
 ‘Scarcely’ or ‘Hardly’ is followed by ‘when’
 The auxiliary verb ‘did’ or ‘had’ is used before the subject.
• Scarcely had he come to the Office than I met him. (when I)
• Scarcely did I open the door than the chief escaped. (when the chief)
• Hardly did she hear the news then she fainted. (when she)
• He had scarcely recovered from fever when he caught a bad cold.
10. No sooner…than.
 ‘No sooner’ is followed by ‘than’.
 The auxiliary verb ‘did’ or ‘had’ is used between ‘no sooner’ and the subject.
• No sooner did he receive the message when he went away (than he)
• No sooner had I got the cheque when I cashed it. (than I cashed)
• No sooner the bus stopped than he got down. (did the bus stop)
• No sooner did the bell ring than the boys left the class.
11. SO, SO ... THAT, SUCH ... THAT
 Read the following sentence.
It was an awful experience. He will never go to the beach again.
a. It was an awful experience, so he will never go to the beach again.
b. The experience was so awful that he will never go to the beach again.
c. It was such an awful experience that he will never go to the beach again.
 We use the connector so, and the connector pairs so ... that and such ... that,
to express the intention of an action. They tell us the purpose of doing something.
 The purpose of the boy’s action to never go to the beach again is because it
was such an awful experience!
 Here are some more examples using these connectors:
a. We left early so we could get to the theatre on time.
b. He was so thirsty that he drank all my lemonade!
 c. There was such a noise coming from next door that I couldn't get to sleep all
night.
When to use so ... That and such ... That?
 If the connector comes before an adjective we use so ... that, and if it comes
before a noun (with or without an adjective) we use such ... that.
• The snowman's experience was so awful that ... puts the connector before the
adjective, awful.
• It was such an awful experience that ... puts the connector before the noun,
experience (even though it also takes the adjective awful).

CO-ORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS ARE OF FOUR KINDS

(1)CUMULATIVE OR COPULATIVE
 By these Conjunctions one statement or fact is simply added to another; as,
‘AND’
 ‘And’ is used as a connector when there is a relation between words, phrases
or sentences.
 Sentences that are joined by and should never have an opposite meaning.
 For example:
a. Bobby is a twin. Robby is a twin.
Bobby and Robby are twins.
 In the sentence Bobby and Robby are twins, the two original
sentences have been combined to make one sentence because they
are related.
 ‘And’ is used to connect the sentences because the sentences
tell us similar things.
b. Jum is wearing a hat. Jom is wearing a hat.
Jum and Jom are wearing hats.
 Again, the sentences about Jum and Jam are related. They are
both about hats, so we can connect them using and.
 Here are some more examples using and :
a. I love my mother very much. I love my father very much.
I love my mother and father very much.
b. Mandy is tall. She is also skinny.
Mandy is tall and skinny.
 SOME MORE CUMULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS
Both…and. – He was both fined and imprisoned.
As well as. – He as well as his brother is intelligent.
No less than. – He no less than his brother is guilty.
Not only…but also. – He was not only fined but also expelled.

ALTERNATIVE OR DISJUNCTIVE
 By these Conjunctions an alternative or choice is offered between one statement
and another; as,
OR
 Or is used as a connector when the words, phrases or sentences indicate a
choice.
 Sentences that are joined by or show a choice or a possibility between two or
more things.
 For example:
a. Is a tomato a fruit? Is a tomato a vegetable?
Is a tomato a fruit or a vegetable?
 In the question Is a tomato a fruit or a vegetable?, the two
original questions have been combined to make one question because
they link a choice.
 Or is used to connect the questions because there are two
possible answers.
b. Shall I buy the spotted shorts? Shall I buy the striped shorts?
Shall I buy the spotted or striped shorts?
The questions are related because they are both about shorts, but the
flamingo is deciding between the two pairs of shorts. He is making a
choice so or is used to join the questions.
 Here are some more examples using or :
a. You can pay for the tickets in cash.
You can pay for the tickets by credit card.
You can pay for the tickets in cash or by credit card.
b. It isn't very wise to play on the railway tracks.
It isn't very clever to play on the railway tracks.
It isn't very wise or clever to play on the railway tracks.
 There are many other connectors too, as this table shows.
 and but or as so because
since unless when while before although
after until how for whether moreover
wherever whereas where till though nevertheless
if provided as ... if so ... that both ... and consequently
not only ... either ... or neither ... nor such ... that therefore furthermore
but also

 SOME MORE ALTERNATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Either…or, - Either he is mad or he feigns madness.
Neither…nor. – Neither a borrower nor a lender be.
Otherwise, else. – Work hard, else (or otherwise) you will not pass.

(2)ADVERSATIVE
 These Conjunctions express opposition or contrast between two statements; as,
BUT
 ‘But’ is used as a connector when the relation between words, phrases or
sentences contrast with one another.
 Sentences that are joined by but have different or opposite meanings.
 For example:
a. I like coffee. I don't like tea.
I like coffee but I don't like tea.
 ‘But’ is used to connect the sentences because the sentences
have contrasting meanings.
b. Molly ran very fast. She did not win the marathon.
Molly ran very fast but she did not win the marathon.
 The sentences about Molly are linked because they are about the
marathon, but they give contrasting ideas so we use but to join them.
YET, STILL, HOWEVER
 But isn't the only connector that we can use to show contrast.
 For example:
Molly ran very fast. She did not win the marathon.
a. Molly ran very fast, yet she did not win the marathon.
b. Molly ran very fast, still she did not win the marathon.
c. Molly ran very fast, however, she did not win the marathon.
 We can use the connectors yet, still and however instead of but.
  The meaning of the sentence does not change. It still contrasts Molly running
fast with her not winning the race.
 These connectors sound a little more formal than but, so we usually use them
when we write.
 But is a more informal connector of contrast, and can be used for both
speaking and writing.

 SOME MORE ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS

Nevertheless. – He had no chance of success ; nevertheless he persevered.
Whereas, while. – Wise men love virtue ; whereas (or while) fools shun it.
Only. – You may stay in the room; only make no noise.

(3)ILLATIVE
 By these Conjunctions one statement or fact is inferred or proved from another ;
as,
Therefore. – He was found stealing ; and therefore he was arrested.
So, consequently. – He did not work; so (or consequently) he failed.
For. – He will pass; for he works very hard.
SUB-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS:
 Sub – ordinate conjunctions are such link-words that point to time, place, manner,
cause, result, purpose, contrast etc.
 A list of commonly used sub-ordinate conjunctions is given below.

CONJUNCTIONS OF TIME
 These conjunctions indicate time while linking two sentences ; as ---
1. Hold these pigeons till I come back.
2. The patient had died before the doctor came.
3. I shall visit the Taj when I go to Agra.
4. Make hay while the sun shines.
5. I take my breakfast after I have taken my bath.
 All the words in bold type are sub-ordinate conjunctions of time. Each of them joins two
sentences of unequal ranks, one of which is dependent on the other.
 When there are more than two sentences showing a sequence of actions or situations,
we can combine them using the connectors first, next and then.
 For example : I opened the door slowly. I looked around to make sure it was
safe. I took a step inside the room.
First, I opened the door slowly, next I looked around to make sure it was safe,
then I took a step inside the room.

CONJUNCTIOINS OF PLACE
 A sub – ordinate conjunction of place joins two sentences of unequal ranks pointing to
manner of extent of the action/fact stated in one of those two sentences; as ---
1. He did exactly as we told him to do.
2. I do not know how I should reach there.
3. Let me know what way I should solve this sum.

CONJUNCTIONS OF COMPARISON
 A sub – ordinate conjunction of comparison joins two sentences of unequal ranks
indicating a comparison ; as ---
1. Ram is more intelligent than Sohan ( is ).
2. Amar singh Rathore was bold as a lion.
3. She walks gracefully like an elephant.
4. He talks majestically as if he were a king.
5. You order me as though you were the boss here.

CONJUNCTIONS OF CAUSE:
 A sub-ordinate conjunction of cause joins two sentences of unequal ranks pointing to the
cause of the action stated in one of the clauses ; as
BECAUSE, SINCE, AS, FOR
 Read the following sentence
Ann went to Shreya's house. She wanted to play with Shreya's new kitten.
• There are several ways of combining the two sentences about the
picture.
a. Ann went to Shreya's house because she wanted to play with Shreya's new
kitten.
b. Since she wanted to play with Shreya's new kitten, Ann went to Shreya's
house.
c. As she wanted to play with Shreya's new kitten, Ann went to Shreya's house.
 d. Ann went to Shreya's house for she wanted to play with Shreya's new kitten.
 The connectors because, since, as and for explain why something happens or
why we do something.
o In this case, each one of them can be used to combine the sentence that tells us
Ann went to Shreya's house, and the sentence that tells us the reason why Ann
went there.
 Because is the most common connector of reason. We use it for both speaking
and writing.
 Since and as are a little more formal, and are usually used for writing.
 For is very formal and quite old-fashioned these days. We rarely use it for
speaking.

CONJUNCTIONS OF RESULT OR PURPOSE

 A sub-ordinate conjunctions of result joins two sentences of unequal ranks through a
resultful link ; as ---
1. He is so weak that he cannot move about.
2. Place triangle DEF on triangle ABC so that they may coincide.
3. This is such a fault as cannot be pardoned.
4. He worked hard so that he might not fail.
5. Walk carefully lest you should stumble and fall.

CONJUNCTIONS OF CONDITION
 A sub – ordinate conjunction of condition joins two sentences of unequal ranks thorough a
link – word pointing to a condition ; as –
1. I shall come to see you if you invite me.
2. You cannot be successful unless you work hard.
3. I can lend you my car provided that you drive it carefully.
4. He will help you get this job only if you please him.

CONJUNCTIONS OF CONTRAST
 A sub-ordinate conjunction of contrast joins two sentences of unequal ranks indicating
contrast between the two linked sentences ; as—
1. You cannot succeed however hard you may try.
2. He is very miserly though he is quite rich.
3. I must go up the hill however difficult it may be.
 COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS
1. As if and ‘as though’ are followed by the past form of the verb.
(1) He talked as if he has known everything. (He had known)
(2) She behaves as if she is the principal. (she were)
(3) He seemed as though he has lost everything. (had lost)
(4) It rains as though it is the dooms day. (as though it were)
2. ‘In order that ‘ and ‘so that’
 After ‘in order that’ and ‘so that’---- ‘may’, ‘might’, ‘shall’ and ‘should’ are generally
used.
 ‘Will’ is not used.
(1) He takes an umbrella in order that he will not get lost (may not get)
(2) Let us start early so that we will not miss the train. (we may not)
3. ‘Such as’ indicates the result.
(1) His ambitions were so as to offend everyone. (such as)
4. ‘No other’ is followed by than
(1) She has no other helper but you (than you)
(2) She has no other book but this. (than this)
5. ‘Unless’ means ‘if not’, ‘Not’ should not be introduced in the following clauses.
(1) Unless you do not give the keys of the safe you will be shot. (you give)
(2) You will be suspended unless you do not pay your fees. (unless you pay)
6. ‘Lest’ means ‘so that not’ or ‘otherwise’.
 ‘not’ should not be used in the following clause.
 The auxiliary verb ‘should’ may be used after ‘lest’.
(1) Take care lest you do not fall (lest you fall)
(2) Book early lest you do not miss the chance. (You miss)
7. ‘As is’ often confused with ‘like’
 When there is a verb denoting some action ‘as’ is used.
 When there is a noun or pronoun ‘like’ is used.
(1) He did like he was told. (as he was)
(2) Can you pour wine straight down your throat like they do in Spain (as they do)
(3) He fought as a tiger in the battle. (like a tiger).
11. TYPES OF SENTENCES
 A sentence is a group of words put together in a way that makes sense.
 A sentence always has a subject and a verb.
 Let's look at some examples of sentences :
a. I love pizza.
b. Rahim is playing football.
 The words in bold make up the subjects and verbs of these sentences.
 There are four types of sentences:
• The declarative sentence
• The interrogative sentence
• The imperative sentence
• The exclamatory sentence

A. THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE (Assertive sentence)

 A declarative sentence is actually a statement. Its purpose is to provide information.
 Declaratives usually follow this simple pattern :
Subject + verb + predicate
 Here is an example of a declarative sentence :
My brother is a soldier.
subject = My brother
verb = is
predicate = a soldier
 Can you spot the subject, verb and predicate in each of these sentences?
a. We live in a small apartment in Yishun.
b. I am going on holiday soon.
c. They enjoyed their game of football.
d. She's going shopping on Saturday.
• The subjects of the sentences are we, I, they and she.
• The verbs are live, am going, enjoyed and is going.
• The predicates are apartment, holiday, game of football and shopping.

B. THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE

 An interrogative sentence is actually a question.
 There are two basic types of interrogative sentences :
• questions that start with wh- words
• questions that need a yes/no answer
 Let's look at some examples of these question types:

Question (interrogative sentence) Answer (declarative sentence)

Who are you? My name is John.
What are they doing? They're baking a cake.
Where is the post office? It's opposite the bank.
Are you thirsty? Yes, I am.
Do you like lemonade? No, I don't.
Have you read this book? Yes, I have.

1. Wh- questions are formed with a wh- word followed by either a primary verb (be,
have, do), or a modal verb (can, may, should, must etc) or a main verb.
For example :
a. Where are you going? (where + be)
b. Why has he left so early? (why + have)
 The question word how also follows the form of the wh- question.
For example :
a. How do you feel today? (how + do)
b. How can I help you? (how + can)
 Negative wh- questions follow the same form as well.
For example :
a. Why don't you come? (why + do + not)
b. Where mustn't we play? (where + must + not)
Rules to form questions starting with ‘Wh-’ words
Rule 1: Wh- word + helping verb or main verb + …………. + ?
Example: What scratched you?
What = Wh word
Scratched = main verb
Rule 2: Wh- word + noun or pronoun or adj + helping verb or main verb
…. ?
Example: Which book are you reading?
 Which = Wh word
book = noun
are = helping verb
2. Yes/no questions require the answers yes or no.
They are formed with helping verbs.
We put the primary or modal verb before the subject, and the main verb comes after
the subject.
For example :
a. Is she tired? (be)
b. Have they arrived yet? (have)
c. Do you like coffee? (do)
d. Can Lisa come to my party? (can)
 The answers to the yes/no questions can either be yes or no, or an unsure statement like
I don't know or I'm not sure.
 We can answer yes/no questions with full sentences as well.
 Let's look at possible answers to the yes/no questions :
a. No, she isn't tired.
b. Yes, they arrived ten minutes ago.
c. No, I hate coffee.
d. I don't know.
e. Of course, it's the second door on the left.
f. Okay, let's go.
g. Yes, it will be a very interesting experience for you.
 Negative yes/no questions simply add not after the primary verb or modal verb. For
example :
a. Hasn't she arrived yet? (has + not)
b. Can't you come? (can + not)
Rules to form questions starting with ‘helping verbs’
Rule 1: Helping verb + noun or pronoun + main verb …………. + ?
Example: Are you coming to class?
Are = helping verb
You = pronoun
Coming = main verb
C. THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
E. The Imperative
 The imperative form of a verb is used to give orders or instructions, and to make
suggestions.
 The imperative is made from the base form of the verb without using to.
 Here are some examples of the imperative:
a. Open the window.
b. Have a lovely time.
c. Go home!
d. Do exercises one and two for homework.
e. Feel free to call at any time.
 Imperatives are direct, aren't they?
 We can make an imperative sentence sound more polite by using please.
a. Please clean up that mess.
b. Listen to your teacher, please.
 We only use the imperative form when we are talking to another person or other people.
We do not need to include the personal pronoun you in our imperative sentences.
 An imperative sentence gives a command, an order, directions, instructions or a request.
 Imperative sentences use the infinitive form of the verb without to.
 For example :
a. Command: Leave me alone!
b. Order: Don't touch the hot stove!
c. Directions: Turn left, then take a right.
d. Instructions: Take one teaspoon three times a day.
e. Request: Turndown the sound on the television, please.
 Here are some more examples using orders and commands:
a. Don't lie to me!
b. Answer the door, please.
c. Let's go to the beach.
d. Close your books now.
 When we write orders and commands, we sometimes put an exclamation mark at the end
of them because they are often spoken in a raised voice.
 In an imperative sentence, we usually drop the pronoun you.
D. THE EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE
 An exclamatory sentence uses words that express strong feelings such as surprise,
delight, excitement, horror and pain.
 There are different ways to write exclamatory sentences.
 Here are some examples:
1. Sometimes, they are made up of just one word.
Exclamatory sentences made up of just one word are also known as one-word
interjections.
For example:
a. Great!
b. Fantastic!
c. Wow!
2. Sometimes, exclamatory sentences begin with question words like what or how.
For example:
a. What a clever person you are!
b. What beautiful weather!
c. How well you speak Spanish!
d. How kind of you!
e. How wonderful to see you!
3. Exclamatory sentences also look like questions when formed with primary verbs or
modal verbs.
For example:
a. Wasn't it terrific!
b. Haven't you grown!
c. Did we have fun!
d. Am I hot!
 Do you notice that all exclamatory sentences have something in common?
 They all end with an exclamation mark!
 We always put an exclamation mark at the end of exclamatory sentences because they
are usually spoken in a raised voice to show our surprise, excitement, happiness, shock,
pain etc.