1

FM PRINCIPLES

Frequency Modulation

The type of modulation in which the instantaneous frequency of the carrier is varied according
to amplitude of modulating signal is called frequency modulation. Frequency modulation is
widely used in VHF communication systems e.g. FM broadcasting, transmission of sound
signal in TV, Satellite Communication etc.

Figure 1 Frequency Modulated wave

Frequency modulated wave is shown in Fig.1. The instantaneous frequency varies about the
average frequency (carrier frequency) at the rate of modulating frequency. The amount by
which the frequency varies away from the average frequency (carrier frequency) is called
frequency deviation and is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal.

Analysis of FM waves

Equation of a sine wave in the generalised form is

e = A sin θ. (1)

Where e is instantaneous amplitude, A is peak amplitude and θ is total angular displacement

at time t.

A frequency modulated wave with sinusoidal modulation has its frequency varied according to
the amplitude of the modulating signal. If ∆f is the maximum deviation of frequency from
average, then instantaneous frequency is

STI(T) Publication 1 007/2003

FM Transmitter

f = fc + ∆f cos ωm t
or, ω = ωc + 2π ∆f cos ωm t (2)
dθ
Now ω =
dt

Integrating both sides

∫ ω.dt = θ
2π∆f
θ = ωc t + sin ωm t
ωm
2π∆f
∴ e = A sin (ωc t + sin ωm t )
ωm
∆f
= A sin (ωc t + sin ωm t )
fm
∆f
Let = mf
fm
∴ e = A sin( ωc t + m f sin ωm t ) (3 )

Where m f is called the Modulation Index of the FM wave.

Thus for a given frequency deviation modulation index varies inversely as the modulating
frequency.

The frequency components actually contained in the FM wave can be determined by

expanding RHS of equation (3), then we get

e = AJ0( m f ) sin ωct

+AJ1( m f ) [sin (ωc+ωm)t-sin (ωc-ωm)t]
+AJ2( m f ) [sin (ωc+2ωm)t+sin (ωc-2ωm)t]
+AJ3( m f ) [sin (ωc+3ωm)t-sin (ωc-3ωm)t]
+AJ4( m f ) [sin (ωc+4ωm)t+sin (ωc-4ωm)t]
+AJ5( m f ) [sin (ωc+5ωm)t+sin (ωc-5ωm)t]
+……………….. (4)

Where Jn ( m f ) is the Bessel function of first kind and nth order with argument mf. Bessel
functions Jo to J8 are shown in fig. 2.

Equation (4) shows that an FM wave corresponding to sinusoidal modulation is made up of

several frequency components spaced apart by the modulating frequency. Thus an FM wave
has in addition to the side bands present in an AM wave, higher order sidebands as well.
Amplitudes of different frequency components depend upon mf, the modulation index. When
the modulation index is less than 0.5 that is when the frequency deviation is less than half the
modulation frequency the second and higher order components are relatively small and the
frequency band required to accommodate the essential part of the signal is the same as in

STI(T) Publication 2 007/2003

 FM Principles

amplitude modulation. This is called Narrowband FM and is used for speech communications.
When mf is larger than one (frequency deviation greater than modulating frequency) there are
important higher order sideband components contained in the wave and it is called wide band
FM.

Fig. 2 Bessel Function Jo to J8

Practical values of modulation index vary considerably with frequency. If fm = 15 kHz and
∆f = 75 kHz
∆f 75
mf = = = 5
fm 15

Value of Bessel functions J0, J1 etc. for mf = 5 are plotted in fig. 3. It is clear that the amplitude
of sideband pair decreases for pairs of order greater then 5 and becomes less than 1% of the
unmodulated carrier amplitude beyond the 8th sideband pair.

+0.5
AMPLITUDE OF CARRIER
& SIDEBAND PAIRS

-0.5
J0(5) J3(5) J6(5) J9(5)

ORDER OF SIDEBAND PAIR

Figure 3 Relative Amplitudes of Carrier and Sideband Pairs for Modulation Index of 5

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FM Transmitter

If the amplitude and frequency of a modulating signal are increased in the same ratio, value of
mf remains the same and the number of sidebands also remains unchanged. The relative
amplitudes of the carrier and sidebands is the same, giving the spectrum pattern but the
sideband spacing is greater because of the increased modulation frequency.

A typical spectrum pattern for a FM wave for a modulation index of 5 is shown in figure 4. It is
seen that modulating frequency does two things:

1. Fixes the separation of sidebands.

2. Determines the rapidity with which the sideband distribution changes.

0.5
mf = 5 CARRIER
AMPLITUDE OF CARRIER

0.4
& SIDEBAND PAIRS

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

ORDER OF SIDEBAND PAIR

Figure 4 Spectrum of FM Wave for a Modulation Index of 5

Sideband Power

In FM signal, the carrier power diminishes during modulation and it is possible for one or more
sidebands to contain more power than the carrier. The power withdrawn from the carrier
during modulation is distributed among the various sidebands. The louder the modulating
signal, the greater will be the energy that is taken away from the carrier. It is therefore,
possible for the carrier, during one of these modulation sweeps, to contain no energy at all.
This is quite logical because the FM signal does not vary in amplitude. The only way to satisfy
this condition during modulation is to transfer part of the energy to the sidebands. The power
transfer is a characteristic of frequency modulation.

When the intensity of the audio signal is increased the total number of sidebands also
increases i.e. the energy of the FM wave is shifted away from the carrier with every sideband
and the carrier affected. Thus, energy is taken by some and given up by others. The total
energy under all conditions remains constant.

The number of significant side bands corresponding to some of the common values of
modulation index is given in table below. Thus with an index of 5, there are 8 important
sidebands on each side of the carrier with an index of 7, the sidebands increase to 10.

STI(T) Publication 4 007/2003

 FM Principles

Modulation Number of significant Bandwidth

Index sidebands Required
Above carrier Below carrier (fm = frequency of
audio signal)
0.1 1 1 2 fm
0.4 1 1 2 fm
0.5 2 2 4 fm
1.0 3 3 6 fm
2.0 4 4 8 fm
3.0 6 6 12 fm
4.0 7 7 14 fm
5.0 8 8 16 fm
6.0 9 9 18 fm
7.0 10 10 20 fm

It is interesting to note that when the modulation index is of the order of 0.5 or less, only two
sidebands are formed, which is similar to AM operation with one modulating frequency.

It is quite confusing to note that although the carrier frequency in the FM transmitter is not
shifted beyond the 75 kHz limits, sidebands do appear beyond these limits. As a physical
analogy, consider a man moving his finger back and forth at the centre of a small pool of
water. Although the man may move his finger only slightly, water ripples will appear far
beyond this little area. The greater the distance covered by man’s moving finger, the larger
will be the spread of ripples. In FM, the greater the carrier swing, the greater the number of
sidebands obtained.

In actual practice, it rarely happens that a 15 kHz note will have enough amplitude to spread
the carrier to +75 kHz limits.

As the frequency of the modulating signal is lowered the number of sidebands that extends
beyond the 75 kHz limits also decreases until at 50 Hz a full carrier swing will just produce
sidebands up to the 75 kHz limits.

Bandwidth in FM

In FM, the BW is based on the number of significant sidebands, which depends upon
modulation index mf. In practice, the number of significant sidebands is determined by
acceptable distortion. These contain about 98% of the radiated power. By way of best
approximation, the Carson’s Rule (rule of thumb) gives a simple formula for bandwidth as

BW = 2(1+mf)fm
= 2(∆f + fm)

STI(T) Publication 5 007/2003

FM Transmitter

Guard band

fc-100 kHz fc-90 kHz fc fc+90 kHz fc+100 kHz

Fig. 5 BW of FM signal

For modulation index of 5 and maximum modulating frequency of 15 kHz, we have:

BW = 180 kHz

A guard band of 20 kHz (10 kHz on each side) is provided to prevent adjacent channel
interference. Thus the maximum permissible BW in FM broadcasting is 200 kHz. For narrow
band FM (mf<0.5), the BW is the same as in AM i.e. 2 fm. When the modulation index is very
large (say>20), then the BW becomes 2∆f i.e. 150 kHz. For example, if fm = 100 Hz and ∆f =
75 kHz.

∆f 75000
then m f = = = 750
fm 100

In this case the BW will be 150 kHz, but for fm = 15 kHz, BW will be 180 kHz.

Noise Considerations In FM

FM offers the advantage of a much better noise performance as compared to AM, the reasons
for which are analysed here.

The main parameter of interest at the input to the FM detector is the carrier-to-noise ratio
(C/N). Since both the carrier and the noise are amplified equally by the various stages of the
receiver from antenna input to the detector input, this gain can be ignored and the input to the
detector can be represented by the voltage source Es, which is the carrier rms voltage as
shown in fig 6(a). Also the thermal noise is spread over the IF bandwidth at the input to the
FM detector.

δf

R
C/N
FM S/N
ES Detector
f c-w fc f f c+w

fn
(a) (b)
Fig. 6 Noise consideration in FM

STI(T) Publication 6 007/2003

 FM Principles

2
Es
At the input to FM detector, carrier power available =
4R
Available noise power = k TsBN
Where Ts = Temp in degrees Kelvin, BN = IF bandwidth and
k = Boltzmann’s constant

2
C Es
Therefore, input carrier-to-noise ratio, = (1)
N 4RkTsB n

The noise voltage, being random, cannot in general be represented by a sinusoid. However,
for a very small bandwidth δf, the noise voltage approaches a sinusoidal variation. The
phasor diagram for the carrier and noise is shown in Fig.7. Here, it is assumed that the carrier
is unmodulated except by the noise. This allows the noise to be shown as a phasor rotating at
angular frequency ωn wrt the carrier, where fn = f-fc, and fn =noise frequency as shown in figure
6(b) . It may be seen that the noise produces two types of modulation of the carrier :-

a) It changes the resultant amplitude of the signal thereby resulting in AM noise which is
filtered out by the amplitude limiter in FM receiver (before detection).
b) It produces phase modulation as the phase of the resultant signal is different from the
phase of the original signal. The instantaneous value of phase modulation is φn(t), its
maximum value being (refer to rt. Angle ∆ ABC)

En
φ max = sin −1 (2)
Es
If Es >> En,

En
φ max ≅ (3)
Es

Hence the phase modulation due to noise is given by

En
φn (t ) = sin ωn t (4)
Es

90° En
φ Es - En Es
A Es + En
φ B
90°

Fig. 7 Noise Produces Both Amplitude and Phase Modulation

As we know that phase modulation results in indirect frequency modulation, therefore,

the noise indirectly frequency modulates the carrier. The equivalent frequency
deviation is given by

1 dφ n En
∆fn = (t) = fn cos ωn ( t ) (5)
2π dt Es

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FM Transmitter

The peak frequency deviation due to noise is given by

En
∆Fn = fn (6)
Es

Thus the corresponding noise voltage at the output of the detector will be proportional
to f, the amount by which the noise frequency is away from the carrier frequency, fc as
shown in fig 8. In other words, we can say that the noise at the detector output

∆Fn

fn
Fig. 8 Noise characteristics at the detector output

increases linearly as the modulating frequency increases. This straight-line

relationship plays an important role in the application of pre-emphasis and de-
emphasis to the audio signal.

Detector Processing Gain

The processing gain of the detector is defined as

S/N
KR = (7)
C/N

where S/N is signal-to-noise power ratio at the output of the detector and C/N is the
carrier to noise power ratio at the detector input.

It can be shown that

KR = 3(1+mf) mf 2 (8)

Where mf is the modulation index for the highest modulating frequency. If mf >> 1,
then KR = 3 mf 3. If mf << 1, then KR = 3 mf 2. As shown by equation 7, the output
signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio can be increased by increasing the processing gain, the C/N
remaining constant. Equation (8) shows that a high processing gain can be achieved
by having a high modulation index.

FM is a superior type of modulation system mainly because of its noise suppressing

qualities. In an AM system noise can interfere even with the desired signal 100 times
stronger and render the reception poor but in FM a noise signal half as strong as the
desired signal can be suppressed completely. This effect becomes more and more
pronounced as the frequency of the interfering signal approaches that of the desired
signal so much so that the weaker noise signal is completely overpowered when their
frequencies become equal. This is known as CAPTURE EFFECT.

Let us assume that in the worst case, the noise amplitude En is half of the signal
amplitude.

STI(T) Publication 8 007/2003

 FM Principles

1
i.e. En Es =
2
Then in the right angled triangle ABC of Fig. 7,

En 1
sin φ = =
Es 2
En 1
φ = sin−1 = sin−1
Es 2
= 30o or 0.52 radians

At the highest modulating frequency of 15 kHz, the frequency deviation due to noise
will be
∆fn = 15 x 0.5 = 7.5 kHz
But maximum frequency deviation due to signal = 75 kHz.
Therefore, the output S/N = 75/7.5 = 10

Thus the 2:1 C/N is transformed into 10:1 S/N at the output of the detector.

FM, mf = 5 FM, mf = 5
With 13dB FM, mf = 1
50 Pre-emphasis
4.5 4.75dB
OUTPUT SNR, dB

dB

40
AM, ma = 1
14
dB
30

20 THRESHOLD (13dB)

Not to scale
10 All levels are in terms
of power ratio

10 20 30 40 50

INPUT CNR, dB

Fig. 9 Detector Processing gain in FM

We have seen that noise output of an FM receiver is directly proportional to phase

deviation and also modulating frequency (difference in frequency of signal and noise).
In case desired frequency and noise frequency are same or in other words fc –f = 0
the resulting indirect frequency deviation and consequently noise output is zero. As
already stated this is known as the capture effect. In case two signals (the desired and
the interference signal) are at the same frequency or Co-channel, the stronger of the
two completely overpowers the weaker, which is not heard at all in the output. As the
frequency difference increases the noise output also increases proportionately
resulting in what is known as Triangular Noise Response of an FM receiver. Only at a
point where difference in frequency becomes equal to direct frequency deviation of
the carrier at the transmitter end, S/N at the output of FM receiver becomes equal to

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FM Transmitter

S/N at its input. What is heard in the output is the difference in frequencies of the
desired and the interfering/noise signals. As audible range of human ears ends at
about 15 kHz a noise signal differing in more than 15 kHz in frequency is not heard
and hence this is to be neglected. The other important factor is that with the increase
in frequency difference, the interfering/noise signal suffers rejection at tuned circuits at
the input of the receiver.

Taking these factors into consideration noise/interference above 15 kHz has to be

neglected. This factor is however applicable equally to AM also. This phenomenon
has been depicted pictorially in figure 9.

Noise in Narrowband FM

Assuming that noise is uniformly spread over the receiver bandwidth, the noise output
of an AM receiver remains constant and will be a rectangle. But in FM, the noise
output is triangular and increases as we move away from the carrier frequency as
shown in Fig.10

Rectangular AM
distribution
FM Noise
Triangle

Fc fc+15 fc-75 fc-15 fc fc+15 fc+75

a) Narrow band FM (mf=1) b) wideband FM (mf =5)

Fig. 10 Comparison of Noise performance of FM over AM

It is seen from Fig.10(a) that the average improvement for narrow band FM over AM
(point A) will be 2:1 at the average audio frequency of 7.5 kHz at which FM noise
appears to be half of the AM noise voltage. But in reality, the picture is more complex
and in fact the FM improvement is 3 :1 as a voltage ratio. This gives an increase of
3:1 in power signal-to-noise ratio for narrowband FM as compared to AM. This is
equivalent to 4.75 dB improvement, which is quite worthwhile.

Noise In Wideband FM

In AM, the maximum permissible modulation index m= 1, but in FM there is no such

limit. It is the maximum frequency deviation that is limited to 75 kHz in wideband VHF
sound broadcasting service. At the highest audio frequency of 15 kHz the modulation
index in FM is 5. It will be much higher at lower audio frequencies e.g. if modulating
frequency is 1 kHz, the maximum value of modulation index in FM will be 75.

It may be seen from figure 11 that as the modulation index is increased from mf =1 to
mf = 4, the signal-to-noise voltage ratio will increase proportionately. Thus the S/N
power ratio in a FM receiver is proportional to the square of the modulation index. For
mf = 5 and modulating frequency of 15 kHz, there will be a 25:1 (14 dB) improvement
for FM, as compared to when mf = 1. No such improvement is possible in AM. For an

STI(T) Publication 10 007/2003

 FM Principles

adequate C/N ratio at the detector input, an overall improvement of 18.75 (4.75 + 14)
dB is achieved with wideband FM as compared with AM.
mf = 4 mf = 3 mf = 2 mf = 1
AM
NOISE

INAUDIBLE
AUDIBLE
FM NOISE
FM NOISE
fc +15 +60 fc +15 +45 fc +15 +30 fc +15

Fig. 11 FM noise increases with reduced modulation index, mf

Threshold Effect

The above analysis is not applicable to the case when noise and signal levels are
comparable because then the rotating noise phasor En may encircle the origin of Es
with the result that the phase modulation is no longer limited to a maximum value as
given by equation (3), nor can the noise modulation be assumed to be sinusoidal as in
equation (4). In this case there is a sudden decrease in output S/N when the C/N
drops below a certain level called the threshold level. For conventional FM detectors,
threshold occurs for about 10 to 12 dB as shown in figure 12.

Equation 7 can be rewritten as

S C
10 log10 = 10 log10 + 10 log10 K R
N N
S  C
or N =  N  + [K R ]dB
  dB   dB

This equation applies only for C/N values above threshold can be used to calculate KR
for a given value of modulation index.

Thus if we want to have the benefits of better noise performance of FM, the input
CNR(power) should be greater than about 12 dB. This is called threshold effect.

Threshold

For practical reasons, the threshold is defined as the value of (C/N) at which the actual
curve drops 1 dB below the straight line projection as shown in figure 12.

30dB
Operating
point
20dB
(S/N)
1 dB
10dB Threshold
margin

10 20 30
Not to
scale
(C/N) dB
Fig. 12 Threshold Effect

STI(T) Publication 11 007/2003

FM Transmitter

Threshold Margin

The difference in dBs between the operating point (C/N) and the threshold (C/N) is called the
threshold margin as shown in figure 12.

Impulse Noise

When a pulse is applied to a tuned circuit, its peak amplitude is proportional to the square root
of the bandwidth of the circuit. Similarly, if a noise impulse is applied to the tuned circuit in the
IF section of an FM receiver, a large noise pulse will result. When the noise pulses exceed
about one-half the carrier size at the amplitude limiter, the limiter fails. When noise pulses
exceed carrier amplitude, the limiter limits the signal having been “captured” by noise.
Therefore, the maximum deviation and bandwidth cannot be increased indefinitely. As a
compromise, the maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz has been permitted. It can be
shown that under ordinary circumstances (En<Es/2), impulse noise in FM is reduced to the
same extent as random noise.

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

According to noise triangle, the noise output of FM detector increases linearly as the
modulating frequency increases. Also we know that in a complex audio signal, the higher
audio frequencies are weaker in amplitudes. Thus it is a double tragedy for the high audio
frequencies, their amplitudes are small but they have to face higher noise levels as compared
to lower audio frequencies. To overcome this problem, the higher audio frequencies are given
an artificial boost at the transmitter in accordance with a pre-arranged curve. This process is
called pre-emphasis.

In the FM receiver, the higher audio frequencies are restored to their normal levels through a
reverse process called de-emphasis. The de-emphasis curve is the mirror image of pre-
emphasis curve as shown in figure 13.

13 dB

Pre-emphasis
+3dB

0dB

-3dB
De-emphasis

3.180 kHz
-13 dB
2kHz kHz 15 kHz
Frequency

(Not to scale)
Fig. 13 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

STI(T) Publication 12 007/2003

 FM Principles

+V

R Cc
L/R = 50 µ sec. L
AF output

R AF in from FM C
Detector RC = 50 µ sec.

AF in Pre-emphasised
AF output

a) Pre-emphasis circuit b) De-emphasis circuit

Fig. 14 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis Circuit

Two types of curves i.e. 50 µ sec and 75 µ sec are in vogue in FM sound broadcasting
but AIR has adopted 50 µ sec curve which gives about 13 dB boost at 15 kHz and is 3
dB at the frequency of 3.180 kHz (f = 1/2πRC, where RC = 50 µ sec Figure 15 (a) & (b)
illustrate the effect of pre-emphasis on the modulating signal frequency response at
the transmitter whereas (c) & (d) show the effect of de-emphasis on the modulating
signal and noise at the FM receiver. The de-emphasis cancels out the pre-emphasis
on the signal and also attenuates the noise at the receiver. The overall effect is to
leave the post detection signal levels unchanged while the high frequency noise is
attenuated. Subjective tests with 50 µ sec pre-emphasis and de-emphasis give an
improvement of about 4.5 dB. However, one should be cautious that the pre-
emphasised signal does not over modulate the carrier by exceeding the 75 kHz
deviation. Typical pre-emphasis and d-emphasis circuits are shown in Figs. 14(a) & (b)
respectively.

Modulating
V Signal V Modulating Signal
after pre-emphasis

f f
a) b)

Signal Signal
V V
Output Output
before after
de- de- Noise
emphasis Noise emphasis

f f
c) d)

Fig. 15 Effect of pre-emphasis and De-emphasis on Modulating signal

If we compare a 100% AM system with a 100% (mf = D=5) FM system it can be shown
that

STI(T) Publication 13 007/2003

FM Transmitter

S ( fm)
N = 3(D)2 = 75
S (am)
N

Or in decibels S/N improvement in FM over a corresponding AM system is

10 log 75 = 18.75 dB

S/N improvement in FM over a corresponding AM system with pre-emphasis/de-

emphasis (18.75 + 4.25) = 23.25 dB. (Fig. 16)

212 23.25
2.83 times increase due to pre
emphasis at TX & DE at receiver
75 18.75
25 times increase due to
wider modulation pass
band (mf = 5)
Improvement
in S/N Power
3 4.75
Ratio 3 times increase due to
phase modulation by noise
1 0
Improvement
Amplitude Modulation S/N
(dB)

Fig. 16 S/N Improvement due to FM Transmission

Other Forms of Interference

FM offers not only an improvement in the S/N ratio but also better immunity against
other interfering signals.

a) Co-channel Interference

In an FM receiver, the amplitude limiter works on the principle of passing the stronger
signal and eliminating the weaker one if the stronger signal is at least twice the
amplitude of the weaker signal. In a similar fashion, a relatively weak interfering signal
(in the same channel) from another transmitter will also be eliminated.

Suppose we are carrying a FM receiver and moving from the coverage area of one
transmitter towards that of another co-channel transmitter. The interesting
phenomenon of capture will be noted in this case.

The second transmitter is virtually inaudible till its signal is less than about half of that
from the first. After this, the second transmitter becomes quite audible in the
background and eventually dominates, ultimately finishing the first transmitter signal.
Thus the moving receiver has been captured by the second transmitter. But in AM, the
effect would be totally different, the stronger signal will dominate but the weaker one
will also be heard in the background as quite significant interference.

STI(T) Publication 14 007/2003

 FM Principles

b) Adjacent-channel Interference

We have seen that FM signal with maximum deviation of 75 kHz and 50 µ sec pre-
emphasis gives a rejection of 23 to 24 dB better than AM, for noise as well as
interfering signals. A guard band of 10 kHz provided on each side of the FM channel
also serves to reduce adjacent channel interference.

Advantages Of FM over AM

1. Amplitude and hence power of FM wave is constant and independent of depth of

modulation. But in AM, modulation depth determines the transmitted power. Thus
additional energy is not required as modulation is raised.

2. FM is more economical than AM due to following reasons :

(a) It is possible to have Low Level Modulation in FM as the intelligence is in the

frequency variations only and the modulated signal can be passed through class C
amplifiers. But since the AM signal contains information in amplitude variations, so
only high level modulation is possible in an AM transmitter.

(b) All the transmitted power in FM is useful whereas in AM most of it is in the carrier which
contains no useful information.

(c) Antenna gain is possible in FM due to the reason that directive antennas are used in
VHF range where the physical dimensions of the antenna are very easy to manage.

3. Better Noise Performance

• Amplitude variations caused by noise are removed by having limiter in FM receiver.

This makes FM reception lot more immune to noise than AM reception.
• Noise can further be reduced in FM by increasing the frequency deviation. This is not
possible in AM as modulation cannot exceed 100 % without causing severe distortion .
• Less adjacent- channel interference due to better planning as the commercial FM
broadcasts began in 1940s (much later than AM) ------ a guard band has been
provided as per CCIR standard frequency allocations.
• FM broadcasts operate in the VHF and UHF ranges in which there happens to be less
noise than in the MF and HF ranges occupied by AM bands.
• Due to the use of space wave propagation in which the range of operation is limited to
slightly more than line of sight, it is possible to operate several independent
transmitters with much less co-channel interference.

4. Stereo transmission is possible with FM due to its wider bandwidth

5. Additional information such as RDS, SCA can be sent along with the stereo signal

STI(T) Publication 15 007/2003