This essay offers an introduction other desiqn professionals to recent shifts 'in how architects conceive of this relationshlp. For many architects, landscape has become the model and medium through urbanism is best apprehended. 'Landscape is usurping architecture's historical role as the basic buillding block of city makinu advocatinq.
This essay offers an introduction other desiqn professionals to recent shifts 'in how architects conceive of this relationshlp. For many architects, landscape has become the model and medium through urbanism is best apprehended. 'Landscape is usurping architecture's historical role as the basic buillding block of city makinu advocatinq.
This essay offers an introduction other desiqn professionals to recent shifts 'in how architects conceive of this relationshlp. For many architects, landscape has become the model and medium through urbanism is best apprehended. 'Landscape is usurping architecture's historical role as the basic buillding block of city makinu advocatinq.
LANDSCAPE URBANISM:
A GENEALOGY
CHARLES WALDHEIM
This edition of PRAXIS and its focus on landscape point to one of the more
pressing issues facing contemporary designers of the built environment: the
relationship between natural environments and processes of urbanization
globally. This essay offers an introduction to recent shifts in how architects and
other design professionals conceive of this relationship. For many architects,
landscape has become the model and medium through which contemporary
urbanism is best apprehended. Across a range of disciplines, landscape is
the lens through which the contemporary city is represented and the mate-
rial from which it is constructed. These sentiments are evident in the emer-
gent notion of “landscape urbanism."' Landscape urbanism describes a
disciplinary realignment currently underway, in which landscape is usurp-
ing architecture's historical role as the basic building block of city making.
Among the architects currently advocating such an approach is Stan Allen:Sahn roe
—— autIncreasingly landscape is emerging as 2 model
for urbanism. Landscape has traitionaly been
Getined 2s the att of organizing Porizontal
surfaces....By payingclose attention tothese
surface condtons-not ony configuration xt
also materiality and pertormance-designers
‘an acthate space an produce urban effects
without the welanty apparatus of tracitional
Tis effcieney-theabily to produce urban
effects traditionally achieved through the
‘onstruction of bulidings through the organ
ination of horizentalsurtaces-recammends,
landscape as a medium for addressing the
increasingly common urban conditions of
e-densitication and spraw- Inte context
of the rapidly transtorming concitions of
contemporary urban culture, the "weighty
apparatus” of traditional urban cesign
roves costly, ton, and inleibe
‘The formulation of “landscape as uroan-
ism was first articulated by landscape
architect James Corner in his research in
the mig-90s. Corner, in partnership with
Stan Allen, difeets Fete Operations. prac:
tice directed toward developing new
syntheses among the various design aisc-
plines. Corner argues that only through
synthetic and imaginative re-ordering of
categories inthe built enviroment might
wwe escape our present precicament in the
Cukdesac of post-industrial moderity and
“the oureaucratic and uninspited tailings”
ofthe planning profession *Corner's work
2\s0 offers an explicit critique of landscape
architecture's recent professional evalu:
tion, which ne claims is marked by many
landscape designers engaged in the
creation of scenographic screening tor
otherwise harshly engineered and prot
‘optimized environments.» Corners critique
corroborated by any survey of recent
landscape projects that nave receives
national awards trom the Rmerican Society
of Landscape Architects, for example, oF
have been published in Landscape Archi-
tacture magazine. While many of these
projects are of obvious interest and great
value, tne average" work of contemporary
landscape arenitecture-tne ubiquitous
suburban office parks, the uneritically
‘reprosuced publi plazas, and the anachro:
nistic pastoral parks-reinforces discipi
nary stereotypes by engaging in stylized
and decorative scenography.°
Landscape urbanism benefits from the
long-standing lineage ot regional environ
mental planning-from Patrick Geddes
‘theough Lewis Mumtord to lan MeHarg-yet
‘remains dstne rom that tradltlon’ Comer,
himself a graduate student and facuity
member at the University of Pennsylvania
‘at the end of McHard’s tenure at Penn,
acknowledges the historical importance of
MeHarg's book Design with Nature. Yet
Corer refects the opposition of nature and
city implied in McHarg's regionally scaled
environmental planning practice For
Corner the narrow ecological agenda that
‘many McHargians subscribe to is nothing
more than a rear guard detense of 2
supposedly autonomous ‘nature’ conceived
toedsta prior. outside of human agency or
cultural construction. Given the face of
Slobal urbanization, current-day environ-
‘mentalism and pastoral ideas of landscape
‘appear to many as naive or lrelevant
Postmoocanish
In many ways, the origins of landscape
Uurvanism canbe traced to the postmodern
critiques of modernist architecture and
planning in the late 1970s and early 80s?
These critiques, championed by Charles
Jencks and other proponents of postmod-
fern architectural culture, tended to indict
‘modernism for its Inability to produce @
“axeaningful” of “veble” public rim. for
{ts failure to come to terms with the city as
1an historical construction of collective
Consciousness," and for its Inability to
communicate with multiple audiences in
fact the "death of moder architecture” as
proclaimed by Jencks in 1977, coincides
‘almost exactly with the greatest crisis
of industrial economy in the US, namely. the
‘shift toward the giversitication of consumer
markets" What postmodern architectural
scenography didnot, and in fact could not,
laaaress were the underlying structural
conditions of industaizee modernity tené=
ing toware the decentralization of urban
form. Especially in North America, this
rocess continues apace and has proved
remarkably indifferent to the superficial
stylsti oseitstions of arnitectualcuture.
Civen the enormity ofthe social and env
fonmental disasters left in the wake of
industriakzation over the course of the
twentieth century, postmodern architecture
retreated to the comforting forms of nostak
ia and seemingly stable, secure, and more
permanent forms af urban arrangement. 0
citing European precedents for traditional
Urban form, postmodern architects prac:
ticed aking of preemptive cultural regres-
Sion, designing individual bulaings 10
invoke an absent context, as if neighborly
‘architectural enaractr alone covletuen the
tide on a century of urban transformations.
The growth of the urban design ciseipline
uring this time sought to extend th’ work
of urban ordering througn tne aggregation
of arcitectural elements into ensembles of
ostalgle urban consumption. What ad
been planning abdicated altogether, seek
Ing rofuge in the ineffectual enclaves of
policy, procedure, ard public therapy."
The postmodern rappelie 3 ordre
Indicted mode ism for the supposed loss of
rineteenth-century urban values of peces
trian scale, sireet grid continuity and neigh
boriy architectural character OF course, as
has been weil documentee, the postmodern
‘moment was principally motivated by the
ese for communication with multiple
‘audiences and the commodification of
‘arketabie architectural images for sivrs:
fying consumer markets. Traditional urban
design's dependence upon a steady supply
of substantial sympathetically styled, and
spatially sequenced architectural objects
could not be sustained given the advent of
mobile markets, automobile culture, an the
‘decentralization of cultural norms. The very
indeterminacy and tus ofthe contemporary
city the bane of tracitional European city
‘making, in which buildings provide the basic
building blocks of urban order throug”
stability and permanence, have come to be
precisely the qualities evidenced in emer
Gent works of landscape urbanism. This
point is perhaps best exemplified in
‘Barcelona's program of public space ang
bulking projects inthe 1960s and early 908,
hich focused primariyon the center a the
{racitional Catalan capital. Today the pushin
‘Barcelona to redevelop the airport, olstical
zone, industrial watertront, metropolitan
‘vernays. ana water treatment facilities hasless too with buildings and plazas and alto
0 with larger-scale infrastructural land
scapes. Of course, many examples of nine
teonth-century urban landscape architec
ture integrate landscape with infrastructure
with Oimsteds Central Parkin New York and
his Back Bay Fens in Boston provicing
canonical examples. Contrasting this trad
tion, contemporary practices of landscape:
anism reject the camoutaging of ecotog
ical systems with pastoral images of nature
that intend to provide stylistic and spatial!
exceptions to the gridded urban fabric
Rathor, contemporary landscape urbanisin
recommends the use of infrastructural
systems and the public lanescapes they
engender asthe very ordering mechanisms
‘ofthe urban field itself, capable of shaping
{nd shifting the organization of urban
settlement rather than offering predictable
Images ot pastoral pertection,
LA VILLETTE: PROGRAM AS PROCESS
Landscape is a medium, as has been
recalled By Cotner, Allen, and others,
Uniquely capable of temporal change, trans
formation, adaptation, and svecession
‘These qualities recommendlandscapeas an
analog to contemporary processes of
Urbanization and as a medium uniquely
Suited to the open-endecness, indetermi
racy, and change demanded by contempor
rary urban conditions. As Allen putt:
landscope is not ony a formal medel for
urns ody out perhaps more norte,
nde for process
Among the first projects to orchestrate
urban program asa landscape process was
the competition for Pariss Pare ee la
Villette. In 1982, la Viltteiovited submis
sions fer an "Urban Park for the 2st
Century” to.design the 125-acre foxmer site
‘of Paris's largest slaughterhouse. The dma”
lition of the peripheral Parisian abattoire
‘and its replacement with intensively
programmed public spaces precisely the
Kind of project increasinoly found in post
Industrial ities aroun the one. Anticpat
ing mare recent design competitions in
North America (see Downsview and Fresh
Kill below), Villette proposod landscape
35 tho basic framowork for an urban trans
formation of what had formerly been a
working part of the city, et dereict by sites
in economies of production and consump
tion, The competition began a trajectory of
postmodern urban park making In which
lanescapeitsel was conceived as 2 complex
medium capable of articulating relations
among urban intastructure, pub events,
and indeterminate urban futures tor large,
ostindustil sites
(Of the more than 470 entries from 70
countries, the vast majority tended to
retrace familar profiles for public parks and
typologies forthe recovery ofthe tractional
City, while two submissions clearly signaled
paradigm shit stl underway inthe recon
ception of contemporary urbanism. Bernard
Tschumis winning scheme represented a
‘quantum leap inthe development of and:
scape urbanism by formulating andscane as
the most suitable medium through which to
order programmatic and politcal change
overtime, especially complex arrangements
of urban activities. This continue Teehum's
long'standing interest in reconstituting
‘event and program as feitimate arenitec:
tural concerns ine of the superficial stylis
licisues which had dominated architectural
scours in the postmodern era
The 70s witnessed a period of renewea
Interest inthe formal constitution of the
City its typologies and its morphologies.
While ceveloping analyses focused on the
history ofthe city, thie attention was large
devoid of programmatic justification. No
analysis addressed the issue of the active
ties that were to accurin the city. Nordic
any properly address the fact that the
‘organization of functions and events was as
‘much anarciteetural concern as the elabo-
ration of forms or styles”
Equally significant was the impact of the
second place entry by the Offic for Metro
politan Architecture (OMA) ang Rem Koo
has. Kooinaas's unbult second piace entry
Proposed the justaposition of unplanned
relations among various park programs as
its primary organizing concept. Koolhaas’s
by now clienéd organizational conceit of
parallel strips of landscape radically juxtar
sed irreconcilable contents, invoking the
vertical uxtapesition of various programs
om adjacent floors of Manhattan skyscrap-
fs as described in Delirious New York As
Koolhaas conceived i the infrastructure of
the park was strategically organized tosupport an indeterminate and unknowable
set of future uses overtime:
itis safe to predict that during the ite of
the park, the program will undergo constant
change and adjustment. The more the park
works thermore wil bein perpelut state of
revision... The underiving principle of
programmatic indeterminacy as a basis of the
Format concept allows ay shit, moitcation,
replacement, osubstutions to occur without
‘eamaging te initial hypothe
The projects for la Villette by Tsehumi and
Koothaas effectively introduced postmad-
‘ermieas of apen-endedness and indeterri
racy and signaled landscape’s emergent
role as 9 primary conceptual medium of
postmodern urbanism: layered, nonnierar-
chical tlexible, and strategic. Both entries
olfered a form of nascent landscape urban
Ismand advocated open works that endeay
ored to accommodate all manner of urban
ctivtes, planned and unplanned, imagined
and unimagined, overtime
Inthe wake a Vette’ intuence, pestmod
fxn architectural culture has grown increas
Inaly aware of andscape's role as a vlaole
framework forthe contemporary city. Across
Aagiverse spectrum of cultural postions, and
scape has emerged as the only medium with
tho potential to construct 2 meaningful and
able public ean in North imerican cites,
‘The writing of Kenneth Frampton atests to
this awareness. In the 1980s, Frampton
lamented the impossibity of making mean-
Ingfl urban form nthe context of specula
tive capital andthe atomotile:
tioned by optimizes techneoay thatthe pos
billy of ereting significant urban form has
become extremely limited. The restrictions
Jointly imposed by automotive distribution ana
tne wolatte pay of ane speculation serve to
limit the scope of wroan cesion to such adearee
nat an incervention tends tobe reduced ener
to tne manipulation of elements presetermines
tne imperatives of production or toa kind of
superic'al masking which modern éevelopment
‘quires or the facition ot marketing anne
Over the course of the following decade,
Frampton’s argument for architecture as an
instrument of local resistance to glonal
culture concedes the unigue role of land
Scape in providing a mocicum of market
based urban order in his ater formulation,
landscape, rather than object formalism,
affords the greatest (albeit stil sim prose
pect of constructing meaningful relations
the cetritus of market production:
‘The dystopia ofthe megalopolis aireacy an
inrvetsble historical fat: thas ton since
Instaieg anew way oe, net to say a new
nature... woul submit nat nsead we need
to conceive of a remecialiandscane that is
capable ot plying acetal and compensatory
role in relation to the ongoing, destructive
commosiiction ofthe manvmade word
OF course, Frampton's int
cultura resistance to globalization covla not
be further afield rom Kachaas's professed
engagement with the very mechanisms of
Global capita. Kooinaas's practice of spi:
hing a so-called neo-avant gaat position
{rom global brands is by now well docu:
‘mented. inspite of their divergent cultural
plc, by the end ofthe last decade, Koo
has and Framoton nad concurred that lan
scape had usurped arenitecture’s role as the
only medium capable of ordering urbanism,
AAs Koolhaas put iin 1998:
Architecture sno longer the primary element
of urban order, increasingly urban order fe
Given by a thin horizontal vegeta plone
Increasingly anoscape isthe primary clement
of ursan end
Arguably a third significant cultural potion,
arealpoltik’ofkisez-faie econemic dee!
‘opment and public-private engagement in
planning processes. is articulated ny Peter
Rome in Making a Mice Landscape? Inter
stingy Rowos conclusions are not ssi
advocating acritical ole or the design disc
blines in constructing a meaningful ublic
feaim cut ofthe exurkan “mile” between
raditional urban centers ane 9}
‘Suburbs Frampton summaries andincarpo
ales Rowe's position: “Two salent factors
may be derived from Rowe's thesis: frst,
that priority should now be accorded to
landscape, rather than t freestanding built
Form, and second, that there is pressing
nee to transform certain megalapoltan
types such as shopping mals, parking lots,
and tice pars ito iandeeapt but forms!LANDSCAPE URBAMISM AS LENS
Another dimension of landscape urbanism
concerns the use of landscape asa cultural
Category oF lens fr describing the conte
porary city. Seeminaiy without intervention
by designers. and certainly without the
benefit of anything that might be thought
of as planning, contemporary cities are
seen fo emulate natural systems. Again,
the work of KooInaas is natable here, bu
agains echoed by a host of other authors
no deploy landscape as a descriptive
‘metaphor for contemporary urban condi
tlons.” An example ofthis tendency can be
found in Koothaas's essay on Attanta from
SMU Xt
‘Alnta doesnot have the classical symptoms
Of the city tis not lense: itis a spars, thin
carpet of habitation, a hind of suprematist
Composition of tle Fels. its strongest
Contextual givens are vegeta and intrasteue
tural ores and eoads. lana is nt a yet
Isalandseape.®
This tendency to use landscape as a repre-
sentational ens to descr the contempo-
rary city reminds us that landscape first
existed as a genre of painting, a way of
‘seeing, belore it became actively engaged
‘neither designing bul environments or
‘reordering natural ones, The description of
contemporary metropolitan areas. in
ecological terms is most evident in work
which appropriates the terms, conceptual
categories, and operating methodologies of
field ecology: the study of species as tney
Felate to their natural environments.” One
of the implicit advantages of landscape
urbanism over urban desiga or civil engi
neering is that it avoids the laeologica|
‘opposition of environmental and infrastruc:
tural systems. In ou of modernist engineer:
Ing “solutions through the civil engineer-
Ing of natural environments, or postead-
ernst urban design desires for a mythical
return to origins, landscape urbaniem advo
cates the contlatian, integration, an Fuld
‘exchange of environmental ang infrastruc:
tural systems. Corner describes the poetic
4nd imaginative potential of this aiseiol-
nary breaksiown 35
the iyical play between nectar and
Nutrasweet, between birdsong and Beast
Boys, between the springtime eed surae and
rip of tap water, between mossy heats and
hot asphaltic suriaces, Between controled
spaces and vast, wld eserves...
LANDSCAPE PROFESSION
iile tendencies to account for uraan conc
tions in terms of landscape first emerged in
the research and proguction of architects,
they are quickly ifilrating the profession of
landscape architecture. Although the domi
nant, mainstream culture of landscape
architecture may stil) marginalize such
‘eas, they are increasingly recognized as a
Viable aspect ofthe professions future, This
shifts possibiein part, due to fact thatthe
lisciptine is prosently benefiting trom the
kind of critical reassessment that architec-
tural culture experienced in tne wake ot
‘madernisms demise. Landscape fs enjoying
renemed and broadened relevance on 2
variety of fronts through the increased
amareness of mass audiences with regard to
environmental anc urban problems, as well
4 8 critical reexamination of the field's
historiesl and theoretical construction. The
profession of landscape architecture has
Denetited trom this critical recovery and
froma newround relevance forthe problems
facing cities today. Many landscape acl
tectsin the United States haveinerited the
professional activities that were once the
domain of planners, as planning has largely
‘opted out of physicat design. For exam
landscape architects have become increas:
‘ingly activo nthe reclamation of pes indus
{tal sites andi the design of infrastructural
siles. wile such activities were once the
Work of ciuil engineers and land planners
the uniaue training ana interdsciptinary
sensitivities of landscape architects natu-
‘ally position them to address the most
pressing urban issues facing the design
Aisciptines. Australian landscape architect
Richard Weller describes the landscape
profession's newfound relevance:
Postmodern landscape arcriecturs has done a
boom trade in cleaning up after madecn intra
structure as socities-in the fst world at
least-shil from primery industry to post
Industrial information societies. In common
landscape sractic, work is more often than
‘ot conducted inthe shadow of te infas ue
tural object. whichis given priority over the
field nto which i tobe nserted. Homey, 2s
‘any landscape architect knows, the landscape
Its isa media though whicn all ecological
transactions must pas, isthe infrastructure
othe tutore™
CONTEMPORARY LANDSCAPE PRACTICE
The work of many contemporary landscape
practices evidences the tendency to use
landscape as 2 remedial salve for the
wounds of the industrial age, Peter Latz's
Work for abandoned industrial sites, such as
the Duisburg Nord Steelworks Park in
Germany and Richard Haag’s Gas Works
Park in Seattle are both primary examples.
‘Many landscape arenitects nave taken up
{his work inthe wake of public funging for
browntleld remediation in North America,
2 seen in projects by Hargreaves Assoc!
tes and Julie Bargman, among athers.
‘Another by now well-established landscape
proctce isthe integration of transportation
infrastructure with public space, This Is
‘exemplifiod by Barcstona’s program of
public space ard peripheral road improve:
‘ents in the late 80s and early 90s, includ
Ing the Teintat Cloverleaf Park by Enric
Batlle and Joan Roig, and Park Fobienou by
Xavier Vendrell and Manvel Ruisanchee.
While this genre of work-the use of land
Scape in the stitching of infrastructure into
urban fabries-has wall-estabished prece-
‘ents, tne Barcelona peripheral roadwork is
‘out intervening in their ecological surround:
ings in any substantial way Likewise, West
18% ambitious scheme for the Schiphol
Amsterdam Airport Landscape abandons
the professional tradition of specifically
{detailed plating plans in favor of 3 general
botanical strategy of sunflowers, clover and
bechives. By avoiding detailed composi
tional designs and planting diagrams. the
project is able to respond to Schiphot's
Programmatic and political futures: land
scape is conceived as a strategic partner in
the complex pracess of airport planning
rather than (2 s usualy the case) simply an
unfortunate victim oi. Antner example ot
landscape urbanism asa professional ame:
work's West a recevelopment plan tor the
Borneo and Sporenburg Harbor. This large-
scale redevelopment is conceived as an
enormous landscape urbanism project
orchestrated by West 8 nto whic tne work
of numerous ather architects and designers
's organized. The project simultaneously
maximizes eiversity of entity through the
Insertion of countiess landscaped courts
and yards and the commissioning of ume
ous architects and designers, Taken
together, the diversity of West 8's recent
production illustrates the potential for anc
scape architecture to overtake planning as
the discipline responsible for reordering
postindustria urbanism.
Several recent international design compet
tions for the reuse of enormously scaled
industrial sites in North American cities
have used landscape as thelr primary
‘medium. Downsview Park, oeated on the
site of an abandoned military airbase in
Toronto, and Fresh Klis, sited on the wora's
largest landfil on Staten Island, New York
‘offer perhaps two ofthe mast fully-formed
‘examples ot contemporary landscape ura
Jsm as apoied to the detritus ofthe inaus~
tral city While significant astnetions exist
between the two commissions, as do doubts
‘ato their eventual realization, the body of
work produced for them represents an
‘emerging consensus that designers ofthe
built environment, across dlscipines, would
‘do weilto examine landscape as the medium
trough which to conceive the renovation of
the postindustrial ity, Schemes for
Downsview and Fresh Kills by Corner and
Allen/Field Operations, for example,
propose the accumation and orchestration
‘of absolutely diverse and atentialy nar:
‘Gruous contents. Typical of this wor, and by
now standard fae for projects of ths type.
‘are detailed diagrams of phasing, animal
habitats, succession planting, hydrological
systems, and programmatic and planning
regimes While these slagrams may initially
‘overwhelm with information, they present
_anunderstanding ofthe enormous complex
ities confronting any work at this scale
Perticularty compelling i the complex inter
weaving of natural ecologies with the soa
cultural, and Infrastructurat layers of the
contemporary city
‘ile botn KooInaas/OMA (in partnership
with graphic designer Bruce Mau) and
‘schum) suomittes entrlas a5 tinalsts at
Downsview, thistine they found their histor
«al fortunes mare or less precisely reverse.
The iconic and sound bite friendly Kool
haas/OMA and Mau scheme “Tree City” was
awarded frst prize and the commission,
while the moro sublime layered, ang inteloc:
tually challenging scheme of the office of
Beroare Techuri wit doubtless eno oreater
influence within architectural cutee, partic:
Lary as te information age transforms our
Understanding and use of the natural
Tschum's "The Data andthe Coyote” pro
ect for Downsview presented an electronic
analog this iongrstanding interest in urban
events, with richly detailed diagrams of
succession planting and the seeding of amb
ent urbanity in the mist of seemingly deso
late prairies. Tschumni's positions at
Downsview and Ia Villette are strikingly
Consistent in ther indictments ofthe nine-
teenthrcentury Oimstedian model and thelr
_advoeation of landscape informed by 3 ube
tous, universal urbanism:
Neither theme park nor witite preserve,
Donnsvien does not seek to ene using the
conventions of raitlanal park compositions
seh a8 those of le YauK oF Olmsted. The
combination of agvanced miltry teemnolies
ith watercourses and ows ans downstream
suggests another thi, quid dita sensi
ty, Aistris, information centers, pubic per
formance spaces internet and worldwide meb
_cessalpalt toward a redefinition of received
ideas about parks, nature, an recreation, ina
twenty fest century seting where everythings
‘urban even in the mgt ofthe widernes.22
Each ofthe Downsview and Fresh Kils pro
fects is notable forthe presence of lan:
scape architects on interaiscipinary tears
fof consultants. whereas the la Villette
competition named a sinale lead architect
to orchestrate the entire projec. Striking
‘and consistent in this regard are the central
involvement of ecologists a5 well as infor
‘mation oF communication designers on
virtually ail teams. This is clear aistinet
{rom the overarching role of architects In
previcus regimes of urban design and plan
ning, where such periphe
c’ltner absent altogether (ecology) or simaly
‘subsumed within the professional practice
of the architect information design,
While remains unclear if either of the
winning schemes by Koatnaas/OMA and Mau
for Downsview or Corner and Allen/Fiek!
‘Operations for Fresh Kills is actualy imple
‘mented should be understood as a taiure
‘of politcal imagination ana cultura leader
shiprather than ofthe competition processes
(or the projects they generated. Taken call
tively, these projets and the work of thelr
competitors attest to the profound transor
‘mations ofthe dsciptinary and professional
assumptions that currently drive the design
ofthe built environment, Particularly evident
Is the fact that projects of this scalo and
significance demand professional expertise at
{the intersections of ecology and engineering
{and socal policy and politcal process. The
-synthsis of tis range of knowledge and its
fembosiment in public design processes
recommens landscape urbanism sa ascot
inary framework for reconceiving where we
lveand row welive there. «