Flow Theory

P1: KKK/dat P2: MBL/plb QC: MBL/ABE T1: NBL
November 15, 1997 11:18 Annual Reviews AR049-16
Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1998. 30:469–505

Copyright c 1998 by Annual Reviews Inc. All rights reserved
COMPUTATIONAL HYPERSONIC
RAREFIED FLOWS
Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1998.30:469-505. Downloaded from arjournals.annualreviews.org
M. S. Ivanov and S. F. Gimelshein

Computational Aerodynamics Laboratory, Institute of Theoretical and Applied
by WIB6097 - University of Mainz on 11/03/08. For personal use only.
Mechanics, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia; e-mail: ivanov@itam.nsc.ru
KEY WORDS: rarefied hypersonic computational fluid dynamics, Boltzmann equation, direct
simulation Monte Carlo method, high-altitude aerothermodynamics, real-gas
effects
ABSTRACT
Recent considerable progress in the field of rarefied hypersonic computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) gives reason to address its evolution to an independent
CFD branch that covers many fundamental and closely related applied problems
of high-altitude aerothermodynamics of space vehicles. The primary purpose of
this review is to describe the main numerical methods and real gas models for
investigation of problems of rarefied hypersonic flows, and to review results that
we believe demonstrate most clearly the achievements and capabilities of the field
of rarefied hypersonic CFD in the last years.
INTRODUCTION
Up-to-date approaches to the study of hypersonic flow are based on the synthe-
sis of gas dynamics with chemical kinetics, quantum mechanics, and radiation
physics. Most of the problems of hypersonic aerothermodynamics arise be-
cause of extremely high velocities, and can be conventionally divided into two
groups: gas-dynamic and physicochemical. Gas dynamic effects are mani-
fested by the fact that at high Mach numbers the shock wave is located close to
the body surface (thin shock layers). In the region between the shock and the
body surface, the flow is viscous and heat conducting. Physical and chemical
effects that take place at hypersonic speeds are related to the fact that at high
Mach numbers the flow temperature increases rapidly behind the shock. It can
reach values when excitation of the molecular vibration degrees of freedom and
469
0066-4189/98/0115-0469$08.00
470 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN
chemical reactions occur, as well as ionization and radiation. Of course, there is

interconnection between the gas dynamics and the physics of hypersonic flow,
wherein each affects the other.
Currently, practical needs demand the investigation of rarefaction phenomena
during hypersonic flight. Local rarefied regions can exist, for example, near
sharp leading edges of promising winged space vehicles, while the vehicle as a
whole is in the continuum regime. There are some flow regions in the hypersonic
flowfield, such as the interior of shock waves or wall layers, where it is not
sufficient to use continuum gas dynamics methods, and means and methods of
rarefied gas dynamics (RGD) should be employed. Only RGD methods can be
used to study aerothermodynamics of space vehicles from orbital altitudes down
to about 80 km, where rarefied hypersonic flow transitions into the hypersonic
continuum.
Calculations of aerodynamic characteristics in the free molecular regime
are required to predict the orbit and the lifetime of various space objects. For
precise prediction of aerodynamics in this regime, one should use the up-to-date
models of gas-surface interaction and take into account the shadowing of some
parts of a vehicle by others as well as multiple particle reflection on complex
structures of large space objects.
In the transitional regime, the increased contribution of friction forces with
flight altitude causes considerable changes in aerodynamic characteristics as
compared to their continuum behavior.
These changes affect the trajectory of descending spacecraft very slightly
during ballistic descent. That is why the determination of aerodynamic forces
and moments in rarefied gas for such reentry vehicles has limited application.
For ricocheting spacecraft using aerodynamic braking in the upper atmo-
sphere, the determination of aerodynamic forces and heat loads becomes the
main goal. Aerodynamic moments, center of pressure, and trim angle must be
determined with the highest possible accuracy for such vehicles as well.
For descent of reusable vehicles (such as Shuttle, Buran, Hermes, Hope,
etc), knowledge of moment characteristics, center of pressure, trim angle, and
efficiency of control surfaces in the transitional regime is important.
For promising winged spacecraft with sharp leading edges (e.g. NASP) the
influence of gas rarefaction must be taken into account when computing heat
fluxes on the edges at moderate flight altitudes. At small angles of atmo-
spheric reentry, the flight of such vehicles in the rarefied hypersonic regime is
of fundamental importance. In this case, small aerodynamic forces will have
considerable impact on the whole flight trajectory during a long gliding descent.
Many other problems of rarefied hypersonic aerodynamics can be mentioned
here, but we omit these because of space limitations. Detailed study of all these
HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 471
problems requires comprehensive simulations for various geometrical models

of reentry vehicles in a wide range of Knudsen and Mach numbers, incidence,
and slip angles.
What Is Rarefied?
In gas dynamics studies, the basic criterion of the flow regime is the Knudsen
number Kn= λ/L, where λ is the mean free path in a gas and L is the reference
flow scale. The flow regime is continuum when a Knudsen number tends to zero.
While studying the gas flow in this regime, one can disregard its microscopic
structure and consider only its macroparameters such as density, velocity, or

temperature. For a Knudsen number tending to infinity the flow regime can
be considered as free-molecular. In this case, particle collisions with the body

surface play the determining role.
There is a transitional regime between the free-molecular and continuum
regimes, where not only gas-surface collisions but also intermolecular colli-
sions are important. Free-molecular and transitional regimes are the subject of
study of RGD. Besides viscosity and other important viscous effects (includ-
ing heat conduction, relaxation, diffusion, and irreversible chemical reactions),
strong thermal nonequilibrium of the flow is an important feature of rarefied hy-
personic flows. That is to say, the velocity distribution function is substantially
non-Maxwellian. Thermal and chemical relaxation lengths in such flows be-
come comparable to or larger than the reference flow scale, and the difference
in temperatures of translational, rotational, and vibrational molecular modes
becomes determining.
Why Computational?
The study of physical phenomena in rarefied hypersonic flows is a challenging
problem directly related to the development of new aerospace technologies.
Substantial difficulties arising in the study of such flows are caused by both the
problems related to rarefaction and by hypersonic gas dynamic and physical
effects. It is commonly known that experimental simulation of high-enthalpy
low-density flows is problematic. The problems arising in up-to-date high-
enthalpy wind tunnels such as HEG (Eitelberg 1994), F4 (Eitelberg et al 1992),
and LENS (Holden 1993) associated with modeling of hypersonic continuum
flows are widely known. These problems become even more complicated
with decreasing flow density. The difficulty of experimental modeling of low-
density, high-enthalpy hypersonic flows, where various physical and chemical
collision processes are relevant, has stimulated intense development of vari-
ous approaches for numerical simulation of these flows. These approaches
mainly concern creation of various models for describing the excitation of the
molecular internal degrees of freedom and chemical reactions in the framework

of RGD. Computational methods are, therefore, the principal means to study
rarefied hypersonic flows.
Numerical approaches to the study of hypersonic high-altitude aerodynamics
have been continuously improved over the last two decades, and now rarefied
hypersonic computational fluid dynamics (RHCFD) is identified as an inde-
pendent branch of CFD. The main problem and principal task of RHCFD is
the examination and elucidation of basic physical peculiarities of hypersonic
rarefied flows, such as rarefaction and thermophysical nonequilibrium effects
on aerothermodynamics.
The primary purposes of this review are to describe the main numerical
methods and real-gas models for investigation of problems of rarefied hyper-

sonic flows, and also to present results that demonstrate most clearly, from our
viewpoint, the capabilities and achievements in the field of RHCFD in recent
years.
COMPUTATIONAL APPROACHES
Many numerical approaches for solving the problems of rarefied hypersonic
aerothermodynamics exist, and the choice of this or that approach depends
usually on flow rarefaction, the problem dimension, and the presence of real-
gas effects.
For a near-continuum flow, it is usually sufficient to take into account the
effects of rarefaction through the boundary conditions of slip velocity and tem-
perature jump on the surface. Navier-Stokes or viscous shock layer equations
are commonly used with these conditions. Navier-Stokes equations can be de-
rived from the Boltzmann equation with the assumption of a small deviation of
the distribution function from equilibrium. Therefore, they become unsuitable
for studying rarefied flows with finite Knudsen numbers where the distribution
function, especially in shock waves, becomes considerably nonequilibrium.
Interest in the use of Burnett equations based on the second term of the
Chapman-Enskog expansion for calculating rarefied hypersonic flows has re-
cently increased. However, their application faces additional difficulties related
to a correct formulation of the boundary conditions and linear instability of
these equations to short-wave disturbances. A detailed description of the use of
Burnett equations as a CFD model for rarefied hypersonic flows can be found
in Cheng & Emanuel (1995).
In this connection, when studying such strongly nonequilibrium hypersonic
flows, one should consider directly the Boltzmann equation—the basic equation
that describes rarefied gas flows—and operate within the kinetic framework.
A detailed description of its properties can be found elsewhere, for example,
in Chapman & Cowling (1958), Kogan (1969), and Cercignani (1975). The
Boltzmann equation is a nonlinear integral-differential equation closed with
respect to a one-particle distribution function f (t, x̄, ξ̄ ), which in the simplest
case of monoatomic gas determines the numerical density of particles in a six-
dimensional phase space (x̄, ξ̄ ) of particle coordinates and velocities. For a gas
consisting of unstructured molecules, the Boltzmann equation can be written
as
Z
∂F ∂f
+ ξi = J ( f, f ), J ( f, f ) = ( f 0 · f 10 − f · f 1 )gbdbdd ξ¯1 .
∂t ∂ xi
Here, f 0 ≡ f (t, x̄, ξ¯0 ), f 10 ≡ f (t, x̄, ξ¯10 ), f 1 ≡ f (t, x̄, ξ¯1 ); g is the modulus
of the relative velocity of molecules colliding with each other with velocities ξ̄
and ξ¯1 ; ξ¯0 and ξ¯10 are the molecules’ velocities after collision; and b and are
the impact parameters.
Quadratic nonlinearity of the collision integral J ( f, f ), dependence of the in-
tegrand function on postcollision velocities, and high multiplicity (equal to five)
of integration are the reasons for the mathematical complexity of the Boltzmann
equation, which differentiates it from other known gas dynamics equations and
complicates the use of classical numerical methods for its solution.
To construct a specific solution to the Boltzmann equation, one has to set
the boundary and initial conditions. On surfaces that bound a flow region, it is
necessary to assign a distribution function to the molecules moving from the
boundary into the region. The boundaries of the computational domain are
usually selected far enough from the body, and a local Maxwellian distribution
function is specified there for incoming molecules. On the body surface, some
model of gas-surface interaction that yields a distribution function for reflected
molecules should be used. This can be, for example, a specular-diffuse model
(Kogan 1969), Nocilla model (Nocilla 1963), or Cercignani-Lampis model
(Cercignani & Lampis 1971). A distribution function is set for all velocities
and coordinates inside the flow region at the initial time moment t0 . Then the
distribution function at any moment t inside the flow region and at its boundaries
is determined by solving the Boltzmann equation.
The existence and uniqueness of a solution to the Boltzmann equation in
the general formulation for unsteady multidimensional flows has not yet been
demonstrated; however, the existence and uniqueness of a solution to the
Boltzmann equation in some specific cases has been proved (Cercignani 1988).
The following approaches are mainly used for numerically solving the
Boltzmann equation: direct numerical integration, the molecular dynamics
method, and the direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method. Approaches
based on the combined continuum and DSMC methods (Bourgat et al 1996),
on solving model equations (Shakhov 1974), and on test particles (Haviland
& Levin 1962) should also be mentioned here. At present, the last method
is mainly used for solving special problems of rarefied gas dynamics in the
transitional regime and for modeling free-molecular flows.
Consider in more detail the methods that are intensively used for simulation
of two- and three-dimensional hypersonic rarefied flows.
The method of direct numerical integration (Yen 1984) is one of the first
methods of RHCFD. It incorporates two basic stages: the evaluation of the
collision integral and the integration of the differential portion of the Boltzmann
equation. The strategy of solution of the differential portion of the Boltzmann
equation is conventional. An important feature of the integral evaluation is the

simulation of molecular collisions according to the Boltzmann formulation and
the verification of statistical errors (if the Monte Carlo method for calculation
of the collision integral is used).
Some important steps have been made recently in this direction. First, the
existing method has been considerably improved by a new technique of evalu-
ation of the collision integral. It had been long supposed that it is impossible
to carry out this evaluation while preserving the conservative variables, and
an artificial correction of the solution has been used to avoid parasitic accu-
mulation of the error (Aristov & Tcheremissine 1980). New methods have
been proposed by Rogier & Schneider (1994), and Buet (1995), based on spe-
cial quadrature integration formulas for the collision integral that preserve the
conservative properties. Second, an approach based on a special projection
technique has been developed by Tcheremissine (1996). The advantages of the
method of direct numerical integration are a uniform accuracy of computing
both low- and high-density regions, and also an easy and effective parallelization
of the computational code. Some limitations of the method are mainly related
to the considerable dependence of the computational cost on the problem di-
mension, and to the complexity of the simulation of chemically reacting gas
mixtures.
In the molecular dynamics method (Alder & Wainwright 1958), the gas is
considered as a collection of molecules, and intermolecular collisions occur
whenever the spacing between any pair of molecules decreases to the assumed
limit of their force field. Probabilistic procedures are required only for setting
the initial state of a gas system, while all subsequent procedures related to
particle motions and collisions have a deterministic nature.
As has been noted by Bird (1988), the major advantage of the molecular
dynamics method is its ability to deal with dense gas phenomena, such as
the departure from the ideal gas equation state. However, because the gas—
consisting of a great number of real molecules—is modeled by a small set of
model particles, the size of these particles would be several orders larger than
real particles. The large size of the molecules would lead to equations of state
quite different from those for the real gas, and the impact parameters would be
unrealistically affected by the details of the flow geometry.
The basic difference between the DSMC method and the molecular dynam-
ics method is that, in the former technique, molecules are selected for collision
on a probabilistic basis, and while the molecule size appears when establishing
the collision rate, it does not affect the collision parameters. The fundamental
principle of the DSMC method is the splitting of continuous motion and colli-
sions of molecules at a time step 1 t into two sequential stages: free-molecular
transfer and collision relaxation.
The DSMC method is nonstationary in its nature, and the following proce-
dure is used to solve stationary problems: In the entire computational domain,
an arbitrary initial state of the gas is specified and boundary conditions corre-
sponding to desired flow are imposed at time zero. The boundary conditions
should be such that a steady flow is obtained as a large time state of an unsteady
flow. Realization of the DSMC method implies the dividing of the computa-
tional domain into a grid of cells. The size of these cells should be sufficiently
small so that the change in gas dynamic properties across each cell is small.
It is usually selected as 1t = min(τλ , τres ), where τλ is the mean collision
time, and τres is the mean residence time, so that the molecules did not cross
more than one cell during one time step. After a steady flow is reached, sam-
pling of molecular states within each cell is performed with sufficient time to
avoid statistical scattering. All macroscopic gas dynamic parameters are then
determined from these time-averaged data.
The DSMC method has become de facto the main tool for the study of
complex multidimensional flows of rarefied hypersonic aerothermodynamics.
This is primarily conditioned by several obvious merits: comparative simplicity
of transition from one-dimensional problems to two- and three-dimensional
ones; a possibility of using various models of gas particle interaction, including
the models of internal degrees of freedom and chemical reactions, without
substantial complication of the computational algorithm; and a possibility of
effective application of the method on up-to-date parallel computers.
There are two different approaches to generation and substantiation of the
DSMC method. The first approach (Bird 1994) can be defined as the physical
one, because it is based on physical concepts of rarefied gas and on physical
assumptions that form the basis for the phenomenological derivation of the
Boltzmann equation.
The second approach (the mathematical one) is represented by several pa-
pers that treat the DSMC schemes, different both in their substantiation and
in their numerical efficiency. We will note only (a) the paper wherein a rigor-
ous probabilistic analysis of the DSMC method is performed and approximate
schemes for modeling the collision relaxation stage are developed that allow
use of a small number of model particles (Belotserkovsky & Yanitsky 1975a,b);

(b) the paper based on the basic kinetic equation of Kac-Prigorin wherein its
finite-difference analog is used for generating numerical schemes of the DSMC
method (Deshpande 1978); (c) the papers wherein the DSMC scheme is gener-
ated on the basis of the Boltzmann equation (Kondurin 1986, Nanbu 1980); and
(d ) the paper wherein an efficient null collision scheme was proposed (Koura
1986).
Several economic numerical schemes for the DSMC method based on the
majorant frequency principle have been obtained from the Leontovich master
kinetic equation for the N-particle distribution function in the papers of Ivanov
& Rogasinsky (1988, 1991) on the basis of the general theory of Monte Carlo
methods (Ermakov & Mikhailov 1982).

These schemes are derived both from the conventional cell treatment and
from the new free cell one. In the free cell schemes, the distance between
two molecules is the main factor to determine if they will collide. An exact
scheme of the DSMC method with continuous time (without splitting time
into 1t) is also presented by Ivanov & Rogasinsky (1991). Owing to its high
computational cost it was used only for a one-dimensional problem of shock
wave structure (Gimelshein et al 1991).
In general, currently used numerical schemes of the DSMC method are very
close, both in their efficiency and in their numerical implementation. At present,
there are no essential internal resources for increasing the efficiency of the colli-
sion stage of the DSMC method, and the main effort of workers is directed to the
use of multizone approaches, the variable time step, grid-adapting procedure,
and different grid types (Wilmoth et al 1993, Cybyk et al 1994).
The DSMC technique is a pure form of computational fluid dynamics (Muntz
1989). In principle, it can contain all of the physics needed for any problem. In
practice, the technique is computationally intensive compared to its continuum
counterparts. However, with the appearance of up-to-date parallel computers,
this method acquires new areas of application, including flow computations in
the near-continuum regime.
A technique based on the coupled use of the traditional continuum and kinetic
approaches has been developed lately along with their separate usage. The
coupling between continuum and kinetic methods implies usually the dividing
of the computational domain into subdomains. A solution in one of them is
obtained by solving the Navier-Stokes equations, the DSMC method being used
in the other one.
An important question here is setting the interface between these subdomains.
Several approaches to coupling can be mentioned that have been used by the
authors for calculating two-dimensional hypersonic flows. A hybrid scheme is
used by Eggers & Beylich (1994, 1995) where in regions with strong deviations
from the equilibrium state the DSMC method is used, and in other regions a
continuum scheme is used based on the solution of Euler (Eggers & Beylich
1994) or Navier-Stokes equations (Eggers & Beylich 1995). In Bourgat et al
(1996) a coupled Navier-Stokes-Boltzmann strategy has been introduced that
uses locally a kinetic model in the boundary layer coupled through wall friction
forces to a global Navier-Stokes solver. Another approach has been proposed
by Bourgat (1997), in which the coupling has been realized for monoatomic
and diatomic gases, and an adaptive coupling algorithm has been developed
that takes into account both the automatic definition of computational domains
and the time marching algorithm to couple the models.

On the whole, the coupling approach is a promising technique that allows
for decreasing the computational time; however, some uncertainties are still
preserved there, related to the continuum/kinetic boundary conditions.
MODELING OF HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS

The primary computational tool used to support recent and ongoing space
projects for which a rarefied hypersonic regime is critical to spacecraft per-
formance is the DSMC method. Recent years have seen a very successful
application of this method as a predictive tool for many complicated problems.
Aerodynamics of Spacecraft
The study of aerodynamics of the Shuttle Orbiter during the early stages of
reentry trajectory has begun (Bird 1990), wherein the DSMC method is used
for flow calculations within the range of flight altitudes from 160–120 km,
and a comparison of computed and available experimental data (Blanchard
1986) for lift-to-drag ratio is presented. Good agreement of computations and
experiments was observed for all altitudes except for 120 km. This is likely
caused by the small total number of model particles.
A recent paper (Blanchard et al 1997) presented results on Shuttle Or-
biter aerodynamic characteristics in the free-molecule-flow and transition-flow
regimes that were obtained with different DSMC codes. These are described
in Rault (1994a) and Wilmoth et al (1996). Rault’s results (1994a) were com-
puted using an unstructured Cartesian grid, and an unstructured body-fitted
tetrahedral grid was used in the G3 code (Wilmoth et al 1996). In the new
DAC code (Wilmoth et al 1996) a structured Cartesian grid with an embedded
grid refinement was used. An excellent agreement between the flight values
for C N /C A ratios and all three numerical simulations from orbital altitudes
down to 100 km was obtained. There is only a slight trend to underpredict
the C N /C A ratios as the vehicle goes deeper into transition. Possible explana-
tions (Blanchard et al 1997) are the neglect of chemistry in the simulations and
inadequate cell resolution for the lowest (110–100 km) altitude points. How-
ever, overall comparisons are within about 5% of the flight data at all altitudes
simulated.
The study of the flap efficiency for a simplified model of Hermes is presented
by Pallegoix (1994a) for a flight altitude of 93 km. The same paper gives a
comparison of DSMC data for the full Hermes shape with SR3 wind tunnel
measurements for 30, 40, and 50◦ angles of attack. Generally, good agreement
between computed and measured aerodynamic coefficients is observed. How-
ever, it is noted that discrepancies between computations and wind tunnel data
are increasing with the angle of attack. The effectiveness of the Shuttle Orbiter
body flap at altitudes of 110, 120, and 130 km was computed by Rault (1994b).
The body flap has been deflected from −10◦ – +20◦ . It is shown that the body
flap gradually loses its effectiveness as a means to alter the vehicle pitching
moment when the altitude is increased.
The flow around the Russian reentry vehicle Buran has been computed by
Antonov et al (1991) for the initial stage of reentry trajectory from low earth
orbit down to 100 km. Good agreement is shown for computed and flight
ratios of normal to axial force coefficients. The surface temperature effect on
aerodynamic characteristics of a simplified Buran model has been studied by
Erofeev et al (1994).
The aerodynamic environment around the reentry module of a Chinese
FSW-1 satellite (launched in October 1993) has been examined (Gilmore &
Crowther 1994) over an altitude range of 70–150 km. The reentry module ge-
ometry is a blunt-ended cone with a base diameter of 1.6 m, and the computa-
tions have been mainly conducted for zero incidence. Good agreement between
the DSMC and test particle results is observed at the upper boundary of this
range, and agreement of the DSMC and Navier-Stokes computations has been
obtained at the lower boundary both for flow fields and drag coefficients CD.
To ensure the success of aerobraking maneuvers, the aerodynamic and aero-
heating characteristics of the spacecraft must be well characterized together with
the effectiveness of the reaction control system (RCS) in the relatively dense
atmospheric conditions prevailing at periapsis. The DSMC method has been
used (Rault 1996) to study RCS effectiveness during aerobraking of the Mag-
ellan spacecraft and the Mars Global Surveyor (launched in November 1996).
It was shown that, close to periapsis, the ambient density is large enough that
the gas plumes emitted by the RCS thrusters interact with the oncoming free
stream and alter the spacecraft’s aerodynamics.
Note here also the Galileo project, a NASA spacecraft mission to Jupiter,
designed to study the planet’s atmosphere, satellites, and surrounding magne-
tosphere. The mission consisted of both an orbiter and a probe (the orbiter
achieved an orbit about Jupiter, and the Galileo probe made a successful entry
into Jupiter’s atmosphere in December of 1995). The DSMC method has been
used (Haas & Milos 1994) to assess the drag coefficient for the Galileo probe
during entry from 750 km down to 350 km altitude. The DSMC calculations
have been extended (Moss et al 1996) to higher Reynolds number conditions
to cover the entire transitional flow regime. The flow about the Galileo probe
entering Jupiter’s hydrogen-helium atmosphere at a velocity of the order of 47
km/s has been simulated for altitudes from 833–230 km. The drag results are
shown to merge well with Navier-Stokes and experimental results at the lower
boundary of this range.
A recent example of an extensive application of the DSMC method to the

study of spacecraft aerodynamics is the paper (Moss & Price 1996) that presents
the results for the Japanese Orbital Reentry Experiment (OREX) vehicle, a 50◦
half-angle spherically blunted cone with a nose radius of 1.35 m and a base
diameter of 3.4 m (launched in February 1994). Computations have been
conducted for a higher-altitude position of entry into the earth’s atmosphere
(altitudes from 200–80 km) at a nominal velocity of about 7.4 km/s and zero
incidence. Comparisons of DSMC solutions with OREX measured or inferred
results are made for acceleration, surface pressure, and stagnation-point heating
rates. The comparisons show good agreement, especially for acceleration.
The Flow Around Slender and Convex Bodies

Apart from the study of hypersonic rarefied flows around full spacecraft models,
various simplified models and elements of space vehicles have recently been
examined in detail, the aerodynamics of these bodies in the transitional regime
being studied mainly by the DSMC method. Below are some of the results
obtained.
In the early 1990s, many workers carried out the computations of a delta-
wing in the transitional regime (Celenligil et al 1991, Rault 1991). This body
is a simple and convenient model of reentry spacecraft, and it was suggested
as a test case at the Workshop on Hypersonic Flows for Reentry Problems in
1990 and 1991 (Antibes, France). Detailed comparisons between computations
and experiments (Allegre et al 1990, Legge 1991) were performed for various
Mach and Knudsen numbers and angles of attack. Note a good agreement of
the numerical and experimental data as well as the data obtained with various
DSMC codes.
The flow over a flat plate has been studied by many authors (Bird 1991, Lord
1992, Lengrand et al 1992, Allegre et al 1992). Bird (1991) considered it along
with flow over a wedge and axisymmetric flow over a cone. The influence of
incomplete surface accommodation on a hypersonic flow over a flat plate for
different gas-surface interaction models was studied by Lord (1992). Compar-
ison of the DSMC, Navier-Stokes, and experimental results for different flow
conditions (M ≈ 20, Re = 2790 and 8208) can be found in Lengrand et al

(1992). The influence of rotational relaxation rate and accommodation coef-
ficient has been assessed there. Results of numerical investigation of rarefied
hypersonic flows over a flat plate with truncated leading edge are presented in
Allegre et al (1992). They are compared with experimental data for angles of
attack of 0 and 10◦ and flow conditions similar to Lengrand et al (1992).
Hypersonic flow over a flat-ended cylinder has been modeled by Gilmore
& Harvey (1994), Harvey et al (1992), and Celenligil (1994). In Gilmore
& Harvey (1994), the computations are carried for zero incidence, Knudsen
number 0.065, Mach number range of 6–25, and Twall /T∞ ratio of 0.2–25.
Various hypersonic similarity parameters are used there in order to clarify the
effects caused by Mach number and wall temperature variation. In Celenligil

(1994), which is a continuation of Harvey et al (1992), two angles of attack, 0 and
20◦ , are considered for M = 25.4 and Kn = 0.043. The data for zero incidence
are compared with experiments. It is noted here that the peak pressure and
heating occurring away from the stagnation point (observed in the previous
work) are due to numerical rather than physical reasons.
The problem of hypersonic rarefied flow over a sharp cone has also been stud-
ied by many workers. Here, we will note only the papers by Bird (1991), which
compare 2D and axisymmetric flows, and by Lord (1995a), which compute
the surface characteristics for different Knudsen numbers and accommodation
coefficients. The computed Stanton numbers are in reasonable agreement with
the experiment with the assumption of very low accommodation of the nor-
mal component of velocity, but the heat transfer rates are not in reasonable
agreement.
Simulation of the flow over a blunted cone in the transitional regime has
attracted much interest of researchers lately, primarily because such models
provide realistic generic shapes of promising space vehicles. The majority of
computations have been carried out for a 70◦ blunted cone, which is a generic
aerobrake configuration. In Dogra et al (1994a), the rarefaction effect on the
flow is studied. The flow rarefaction is examined by Gilmore et al (1995) for a
70◦ blunted cone with an afterbody (sting), and a comparison of numerical and
experimental data is presented. The computations in Gallis & Harvey (1995a)
are carried out for different free-stream conditions.
In 1994, a 70◦ blunted cone was suggested as a test case at the 4th Eu-
ropean High-Velocity Data Base Workshop (Coron & Harvey 1994, Pallegoix
1994b, Ivanov & Markelov 1994b), and also discussed within the framework of
AGARD Working Group 18 Activity. Computations were made in accordance
with experimental test conditions that were realized using four test facilities:
(a) SR3 wind tunnel of the CNRS at Meudon; (b) V2G wind tunnel of the DLR
at Goettingen; (c) LENS tunnel of CALSPAN at Buffalo; and (d ) HEG facility
of the DLR at Goettingen. This configuration was studied in detail in Moss

et al (1995), and also in Dankert & Legge (1995), which presents a comparison
of the DSMC and experimental results.
The Flow Around Concave Bodies

Numerical prediction of aerodynamics of concave bodies in rarefied hypersonic
flow presents many difficulties related mainly to the rarefaction of the shock
wave/boundary layer interaction and flow separation.
Detailed simulation of an air flow around a hollow cylinder-flare configura-
tion is presented in Moss et al (1994) along with results for the flow around a
hollow cylinder without a flare and for equivalent 2D configurations—a flat plate
and a plate with a ramp. The free-stream conditions are M = 10, T∞ = 52.5 K,
Kn = 0.001. Comparison of numerical and experimental data shows their good
agreement in surface parameters (Moss et al 1995).
Two-dimensional flows around a compression ramp were extensively studied
by the DSMC method in the early 90s (Moss et al 1991, Chpoun et al 1992).
The calculated flow structure and surface results were shown to be in good
qualitative agreement with experimental measurements at SR3 and V1G, V2G
conditions. In 1993, ONERA carried out experiments (R5 wind tunnel) for a
compression ramp, whose distinctive feature was the use of the CARS technique
that allows for obtaining the density and temperature fields with a fairly high
accuracy (Chanetz et al 1992).
A comparison of DSMC and Navier-Stokes results with these experimen-
tal measurements is presented in Ivanov et al (1996b) (ramp angle α = 15◦
and 25◦ , u ∞ = 1450 m/s, T∞ = 52.5 K, Re∞ = 30000). Some details
of this comparison follow. Figure 1 shows the distributions of pressure (Kp)
and Stanton number (St) coefficients along the body surface, and temperature
Figure 1 Pressure (a) and Stanton number (b) distributions along the ramp (Ivanov et al 1996b).
and density in three cross-sections for α = 25◦ are presented in Figure 2. The
computations show general agreement between numerical and experimental
flow fields, and the DSMC method gives more exact predictions for gas dy-
namic parameters in the region of shock wave interaction. Because of sat-
isfactory agreement between the Navier-Stokes and DSMC data for a near-
continuum flow around a concave body, one can speak about building a bridge
between the continuum and kinetic descriptions of complex flows of perfect
gas. Real-gas effects involve substantial additional difficulties and are discussed
below.
Other Applications
Apart from the problems mentioned above, the DSMC method has been used
to study the problems of hypersonic rarefied gas dynamics such as space debris
aerodynamic analysis, plume flows, shock wave reflection, and others.
Figure 2 Density (a–c) and temperature (d–f ) profiles in selected cross section (Ivanov et al
1996b). (circles), Experiment (Chanetz et al 1992); (solid lines), DSMC results; (dashed lines),
Navier-Stokes results.
Much human-made space debris has accumulated in near-earth orbits, and the
study and simulation of associated problems is an important problem of space-
related sciences. Space debris aerodynamics in free-molecular and transitional
regimes is examined by Ivanov et al (1995c), where the evolution of a debris
cloud under the impact of aerodynamic forces is computed in the altitude range
of 250 km down to 85 km. The DSMC analysis of formation and collisions of
space debris is presented in Stark (1995), and in Wang & Stark (1996).
The problem of plume flows has been and is being investigated by many
workers. Here we note three basic directions of recent research: (a) struc-
tures of the near and far fields on the jet and reversed flow (Bartel et al 1994,
Campbell & Wadsworth 1996); (b) jet-surface interaction and interference of
jets (Kannenberg et al 1995, Zhu & Dagum 1996); (c) simulation of control
thrusters and eigenatmosphere of space vehicles (Woronowicz & Rault 1993,
Rault & Chang 1997).
The wake flow problem has been extensively studied in 1993 and 1994 for
rarefied hypersonic flows around blunted bodies. Wilmoth et al (1993) consid-
ered a 70◦ cone for M ≈ 20 and Knudsen number of 0.03–0.001. In Moss et al
(1993), a 70◦ blunted cone with a sting is considered for similar free stream
conditions. The flow around a 70◦ blunted cone afterbody configuration is
modeled in Dogra et al (1994c) for M ≈ 25 and Kn number from 0.1–0.0005.
Shock wave interaction for a double wedge configuration in the near-contin-
uum hypersonic flow (Kn = 10−3 ) is considered by Ivanov et al (1995b, 1996c).
It is shown that the angles of transition from regular to Mach reflection obtained
in computations completely coincide with the corresponding values for inviscid
gas dynamics. In these papers, the hysteresis in transition from regular to Mach
reflection and back was revealed for the first time in the practice of numerical
investigation of this problem.
PROBLEMS OF RAREFIED HYPERSONIC CFD:

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FEATURES
The flow behind the shock wave formed around space vehicles that move at
high velocities differs strongly from that of a perfect gas. Molecules become
vibrationally excited, dissociated, and ionized. The hot gas may emit or adsorb
radiation; chemical reactions on the wall surface may also occur. These real-gas
phenomena cause considerable changes in the flow pattern.
Aerodynamic parameters—including lift, drag, and moment coefficients—in
real flight of space vehicles are different from those obtained from experimental
studies made in perfect-gas facilities (Deiwert 1995). The difference is particu-
larly prominent in the trim angles of attack of these vehicles at hypersonic Mach
numbers. High-temperature physicochemical phenomena and rarefaction ef-

fects are believed to influence the pressure distribution; the center of pressure
moves forward, as compared with a perfect gas flow. As a result, the trim angle
of attack generally increases.
Vibrational excitation and dissociation, which occur in the high-temperature
zone behind the shock wave, are the reason for transformation of the kinetic
energy of molecular motion into the vibrational energy and potential energy of
electron levels of newly formed atoms. Of relevant concern here is the vibration-
dissociation coupling, i.e. the influence of vibrational state on dissociation
rate. All these effects lead to a considerable redistribution of the heat transfer
coefficient over the body and usually to its noticeable reduction as a whole.
The reason for changes in aerothermodynamic characteristics in high-speed

flows can also be ionization of gas and radiation that become significant at
velocities greater than about 9 km/s in Earth’s atmosphere, and 7 km/s in the
Martian atmosphere. Another process typical of hypersonic flows around space
vehicles is the catalytic effects on the surface that contribute significantly to the
heat exchange between the flow and the body.
The degree of influence of physicochemical phenomena on aerodynamics
depends to a large extent on the geometric shape of the body—blunted such as
with Apollo, or slender such as with the Shuttle Orbiter. Also of importance is
the formation of separated flows near the control surfaces, because these high-
temperature phenomena can increase the flow separation region appreciably
and thus change the surface characteristics.
A precise prediction of hypersonic flight aerodynamics requires the use of
adequate models of physicochemical processes—so-called real-gas effects, and
effective numerical procedures. As has been noted above, the main method of
RHCFD that allows for gas modeling in thermochemical nonequilibrium is the
DSMC method. Models of real-gas effects developed for the DSMC method
are reviewed in detail in the next section.
In continuum gas dynamics, the real-gas effects are usually understood as
being such high-temperature phenomena as molecular vibration, dissociation,
ionization, surface chemical reaction, and radiation. In describing the prob-
lems of rarefied gas dynamics, with a typical large—often of the order of the
reference flow scale—shock wave width and rarefaction effects exerting the
determining effect on the flow structure, it is convenient to consider the “real-
gas effects” in a wider sense. As applied to kinetic methods based on the
microscopic approach, and used for studying RGD problems, it seems natural
to relate the real-gas effects with all phenomena associated with molecular col-
lisions, namely molecular interaction potential; rotational degrees of freedom;
vibrational degrees of freedom; chemical reactions in gas; ionization; radiation;
and gas-surface interaction.
All these processes have been somehow considered within the DSMC method,
and below follow some models for description of these processes. Certainly,
this review cannot pretend to be exhaustive: There is not enough room here
even to list all the models that have been suggested. The preference is given to
models that are actually used now in the DSMC method for hypersonic appli-
cations, and a possible influence of the choice of a model of a given process on
simulation results is evaluated on the basis of available data.
Molecular Interaction Potential

It is well known that an exact computation of molecular potential does not seem
possible except for the case of interaction of some of the simplest molecules.
Therefore, model potentials used in rarefied gas dynamics usually represent the
contribution of intermolecular attraction and repulsion to the potential function,
such as Lennard-Jones, Sutherland, and Kihara potentials, and the like. How-
ever, the use of these potentials in the DSMC method, where it is necessary to
calculate millions and even billions of molecular collisions, involves substantial
computational costs. This is the reason for the rare use of these potentials in
computations, their application being limited to simple flows.
The majority of computations are carried out now for potentials with a re-
pulsive part only. In principle, the inverse-power potential can be used in the
DSMC method, for which the cut-off of the deflection angle or the distance is
fulfilled. For small cut-off angles, the number of glancing collisions becomes
too large. This fact, and also extreme simplicity of the variable hard sphere
(VHS) model (Bird 1981) have been the reason for its use practically in all
applications of the DSMC method in the 1980s. The VHS model employs
the law of scattering of hard spheres, and diameters of the colliding parti-
cles are inversely proportional to the relative translational energy of the pair:
2
σT ≡ πd 2 ∼ ( m R2g )−α , b = d · cos(χ /2), where σ T is the total cross-section,
d is the molecular diameter, b is the impact parameter, χ is the deflection angle,
and α is a factor determining the potential stiffness.
The principal drawback of the VHS model is that the diffusion cross-sections
for VHS and the inverse-power potential do not coincide when their viscous
cross-sections are coincident. This is essential for simulating the flows of gas
mixtures.
The variable soft sphere (VSS) model (Koura 1991) is devoid of this draw-
2
back and is, therefore, preferable. In this model σT ≡ πd 2 ∼ ( m R2g )−α ,
b = d · cosψ (χ/2), and ψ is determined from the condition of coincidence of
diffusion and viscous cross-sections of the VSS and the inverse-power potential
models.
Because for a precise prediction of low-temperature flows such as plume
flows it is desirable to take into account not only repulsive forces but also
attractive forces, Hassan & Hash (1993) suggested a generalized hard sphere
(GHS) model.
The study of the influence of the molecular interaction model on the flow
structure in the DSMC method has been carried out mainly for a one-dimensional
problem of the shock wave structure (Gimelshein et al 1991, Muntz et al 1991),
and also for a two-dimensional flow around simple bodies (Koura et al 1991).
The main conclusion that can be drawn from available data is that the angular
part of the potential affects weakly the flow parameters for a one-species gas,
that the VSS model is preferable for gas mixtures in high-temperature flow
modeling, and that the GHS model can be used for low-temperature flows.
Molecular Rotations
The traditional Larsen-Borgnakke (LB) model (Borgnakke & Larsen 1975)

is most widely used in the DSMC method to describe the energy exchange
between the translational and rotational modes of colliding particles. In this
model, the energy spectrum of the rotational mode is assumed continuous, and
some fraction ϕ = 1/Z R of the total number of collisions takes place with the
energy exchange between translational and rotational degrees of freedom. The
postcollision rotational and relative translational energies are simulated in ac-
cordance with the local equilibrium distribution functions and are proportional
to the number of degrees of freedom of the mode.
Constant values of the rotational relaxation number ZR have been used in
modeling until the 1990s, which is obviously contradictory to the known fact
that the rotational relaxation rate depends on gas temperature. This bottleneck
has been overcome for the first time in Boyd (1989) where the energy-dependent
form ZR(E ) obtained on the basis of the temperature-dependent relation from
Parker (1959) is utilized. In general, either ZR(E ) or ZR(T ) can be used in
computations depending on specific features of the code used. Lumpkin et al
(1991) found a relation of ZR employed in the DSMC method with a continuum
analog Z DSMC
R = ξξtrt Z CONT
R , where ξ is the number of degrees of freedom,
and subscripts t and r denote translational and rotational modes. A new LB
selection methodology—particle selection—is proposed in Haas et al (1994),
which prohibits multiple relaxation events during a single collision and matches
Jeans’ equation for general gas mixtures.
Quantum effects can be essential for low-temperature flows, in particular
for molecules with a high rotational characteristic temperature such as H2 or
OH. Therefore, more adequate models for solving such problems are those that
take into account the discrete character of molecular rotations. Let us note
the following models here. In Boyd (1993) diatomic molecules are considered
as rigid rotators with the corresponding quantum values of rotational energy,
and postcollision rotational quantum numbers are determined in accordance
with the LB procedure. Koura (1992, 1996) has obtained statistically inelastic
cross-sections for rigid rotators, assuming statistical independence of pre- and
postcollision states, and using the microscopic reversibility relation and Parker’s
rotational energy gain function (Parker 1959).
There is little research of the influence of rotational model that deals mainly
with the analysis of the rotational relaxation rate effect. Generally, it is sufficient
to use the continuous particle-selection LB model with variable ZR for modeling
high-temperature flows, and it is desirable to take into account the quantum
nature of rotations for low-temperature flows, and to use Koura (1996) or similar
models.
Unfortunately, discrete rotational models for the DSMC method are limited
to diatomic molecules, and again one is forced to use the continuous LB model
for calculating polyatomic molecules.
Molecular Vibrations
The LB methodology with a fraction of vibrationally inelastic collisions ϕ =
1/Z V has been used until recently in most papers to describe vibrational degrees
of freedom. Both constant values of vibrational relaxation number ZV (usually,
ZV = 50) and ZV depending on energy (Boyd 1989) or temperature (Hash &
Hassan 1992) have been employed. A relation for ZV used in the DSMC with
a continuum analog has been found by Lumpkin et al (1991), and the particle
selection algorithm is described in Haas et al (1994). The number of effective
vibrational degrees of freedom for diatomic molecules is determined as for a
V /T
simple harmonic oscillator (SHO): ξV = e2θ θV /T −1 , where θ V is the characteristic
temperature of vibrations, and T is the local temperature.

The continuity of the vibrational energy mode assumed in the LB model is
obviously too approximate, because the vibrational spectrum of real molecules
is characterized by large gaps between the neighboring energy levels. In this
connection, a number of models taking into account a discrete nature of vibra-
tional spectrum have been suggested for the DSMC method. The temperature-
dependent transition rates from one vibrational level to another are not applica-
ble here because of the particle nature of the DSMC method. Energy-dependent
level-to-level cross-sections should be somehow specified in the model (a sim-
ilar problem arises also for a discrete rotational mode). Thus, the suggested
models differ considerably by way of determining the vibrationally inelastic
cross-sections, and also by whether anharmonicity of vibrations and VV tran-
sitions is taken into account. Only the models used for hypersonic applications
are mentioned here.
A discrete version of the LB model is presented in Bergemann & Boyd
(1992). Postcollision vibrational levels are determined there for SHO in ac-
cordance with the Boltzmann distribution function. In the model of Choquet
(1993), the probability of VT transitions is determined using the inverse Laplace

transformation for SHO from the temperature-dependent (Millikan & White
1966) relaxation rate. The approach (Marriott 1994) is based on the use of
the information theory (Levin & Bernstein 1987) for determining postcollision
states.
Both VT and VV transitions for SHO have been considered in the models
of Koura (1994, 1996). The vibrational transition probability for VV energy
transfer is taken as the two-state semi-classical probability Pii 0 , j j 0 (E) for res-
onant one-quantum transitions i 0 = i ± 1 and j 0 = j ± 1. The probability
for VT energy transfer is taken as the ITFITS (improvement to forced oscil-

lator, impulsive transfer semiclassical) probability extended to diatom-diatom
collisions with Pii 0 , j j 0 (E) = Pii 0 (E)P j j 0 (E).
An alternative approach to generation of the model of molecular vibrations

for the DSMC method is presented in Gimelshein et al (1995, 1996) where
the cross-sections for VT and VV transitions are used, obtained for an anhar-
monic oscillator from quasi-classical approximation of the scattering theory
(Bogdanov et al 1989). Note that the principal feature of the quasi-classical
approach is its ability to consider all aspects of internal energy exchange as well
as chemical reactions from one point of view. For VV transitions, only isoquan-
tum transitions were considered by Gimelshein et al (1996). The complexity of
relations for VT and VV cross-sections made it necessary to use special tables
for transition probabilities calculated prior to the DSMC simulation.
All these models of oscillations have been developed only for diatomic
molecules. Concerning polyatomic molecules, it seems most reasonable at
present to use the particle-selection LB model. A temperature-dependent vi-
brational relaxation rate has to be specified using one of the vibrational bending
mode temperatures of polyatomic molecules.
The study of the vibrational model effect can be found in Wysong et al
(1996), and in Gimelshein et al (1995, 1996). Discrete LB models with different
dependences of ZV on T and the model (Koura 1994) are compared by Wysong
et al (1996) for the isothermal heat bath problem. It is shown that the results
for the LB model with ZV (T ) taken from Losev & Shatalov (1970) coincide
with those obtained for the model (Koura 1994).
Computations in Gimelshein et al (1995) have been carried out for the con-
ditions when the vibrational model effect is close to maximum. A hypersonic
flow around a 2D concave body—a plate with a flap—has been considered here
for Kn = 0.01, M ≈ 25 with various models being used: an LB model with
constant and variable ZV, a one-step level-to-level model, and a quasi-classical
multistep model. An example of the model effect on the pressure coefficient
distribution for which the maximum effect is observed is presented in Figure 3.
Thus, it is not sufficient to use a simplified LB model for a precise prediction of

Figure 3 Pressure distribution along a plate with a flap for different models of molecular vibrations
(Gimelshein et al 1995).
aerodynamics of the flow around concave bodies, and the choice of an adequate
model becomes of principal importance. It is desirable that the model takes
into account anharmonicity of vibrations, multistep level-to-level transitions,
and both VT and VV exchange processes.
Chemical Reactions in Air

The DSMC method has been used for calculating rarefied hypersonic chemi-
cally reacting flows for more than two decades. The major problem in generat-
ing the model of chemical reactions is the determination of energy-dependent
cross-sections of chemical reactions. Note here that the temperature depen-
dences of chemical reaction rates, traditional for the continuum approach, can-
not be applied to the DSMC method, and energy-dependent reaction cross
sections are required to be used. Because the exact expressions for these cross
sections are not available now even for simple dissociation reactions in air,
some approximations have to be employed.
The first models, being too simplified, have been replaced by the model built
on the basis of the collision theory for chemical reactions (Bird 1979, 1981).
This model describes the dissociation and exchange reactions. The probability
of recombination reaction in rarefied flows is very low, and this reaction can
be neglected. The model (Bird 1981) has been often used before and is used
presently for calculating 2D and 3D flows. Its basic drawback is that it does
not take into account the vibrationally favored dissociation, i.e. the fact that
the vibrational mode makes the largest contribution to the dissociation reaction
cross section. The reaction probability Pr(E ) depends on the total collision
energy. In this connection, new, more accurate models for the DSMC method
have appeared lately.
In Haas & Boyd (1992) the reaction cross section is obtained on the basis of
the collision theory, and the VFD is taken into account through splitting Pr(E )
into translational-rotational, Pr (E tr ), and vibrational, Pr(Ev), terms. The level
of vibrational favoring is controlled by the parameter ϕ evaluated from the ex-
periment. In Hash & Hassan (1992) the probability form is complicated, the
limitation Pr ≤ 1 is set, and the parameter ϕ is determined without experimen-
tal input. In Boyd et al (1996) Pr(E ) is split into three terms, individually for
translational, rotational, and vibrational modes. In Gimelshein et al (1995) the
VFD is taken into account by means of expansion of temperature-dependent
reaction rates into a series with respect to vibrational levels, and a subsequent
use of the collision theory.
In Marriott (1994), the reaction probabilities are obtained on the basis of
the information theory, and the level of vibrational favoring is a free parameter
determined from experimental data. In Bird (1994) the vibrational level of
the molecules after collision is selected using the discrete LB procedure; the
molecule is considered to be dissociated if the energy of the after-collision
level is larger than the dissociation energy. As has been noted by Lord (1996),
Bird’s energy level scheme is incorrect, and using the correct energy level
scheme always leads to dissociation. The model of Lord (1996) is devoid
of this drawback; only vibrational kinetic energy is exchanged in a collision.
Vibrational potential energy (i.e. atomic separation) remains constant.
In Boyd (1996a), the model of Macheret & Rich (1993), for obtaining the
dissociation rate coefficients for given translation/rotation and vibrational tem-
peratures has been adapted for a DSMC implementation. Vibrational favoring
is taken into account by using one probability expression for dissociation from
high vibrational levels, and a smaller probability for low levels.
The influence of the model of chemical reactions has been considered lately
by Marriott & Bartel (1995), Gimelshein et al (1995), and Wadsworth & Wysong
(1996). The models of Bird (1994) and Marriott (1994) are used by Marriott &
Bartel (1995) for calculating the flow around a 70◦ blunted cone with a sting.
The difference is observed for distributed heat transfer coefficients, while the
pressure coefficients are practically coincident.
The effect of vibration-dissociation coupling has been studied by Gimelshein
et al (1995) for the flow around a concave body—a plate with a flap—at inci-
dence (Kn = 0.01, M ≈ 25). The influence of the chemical reaction model
is mostly pronounced in this case, and the main conclusions follow. Some
differences are noticeable both in flow fields and in distributed surface parame-
ters, although on the whole the effect of the model of chemical reactions is less
pronounced than the influence of the vibrational model. The distribution of Cp
along the body for various models is presented in Figure 4.
The role of vibrational favoring in the DSMC chemistry model is discussed
in detail by Wadsworth & Wysong (1996), and comparisons are shown for the
vibrational energy distributions for the N2 + O ↔ NO + N reaction, and H2
dissociation, and the comparisons with quasi-classical trajectory results (Bose
& Candler 1996) are made.
Ionization
The effect of ionization becomes noticeable at very high temperatures that are
observed, for example, behind the bow shock wave during reentry at 10 km/s. In
the general case, the modeling of ionized rarefied flows requires a self-contained
solution of the system of Boltzmann kinetic equations jointly with Poisson’s
equation for electric fields. Additional difficulties for simulation are caused by
a large difference in characteristic time of heavy particles and electrons, a large
number of required model particles, and a large difference in concentrations of
different species.
The study of ionization in hypersonic rarefied flows was initiated by Bird
(1987). In the model suggested there, the electrons are not allowed to move
freely but are kept in close proximity to the ions in order to enforce charge
Figure 4 Pressure distribution along a plate with a flap for different models of chemical reactions
(Gimelshein et al 1995).
neutrality. An alternate approach was developed by Carlson et al (1989) that

uses the concepts of quasi-charge neutrality in the flow and ambipolar diffu-
sion to include ionization and electric field effects directly within the solution
procedure. Another approach was proposed by Gallis & Harvey (1994a) for
weakly ionized flow. Electrons and ions occupy the same position in physical
space at all times, and the electron velocities are modified in a way to include
the effect of the electric field and of ambipolar diffusion. In the paper by Prasad
& Harvey (1996) a hybrid particle/fluid scheme was used where the motion of
the electron gas is simulated by solving the Euler equation, and heavy particles
are simulated by the DSMC method taking into account the influence of electric
and magnetic fields.
Thermal Radiation
Particle ionization of the gas is necessarily accompanied by electron excitation,
and the thermal radiation from bound-bound transitions between electron states
is significant for high-speed flows (U ∼ 10 km/s). For more highly energetic
flows, bound-free and free-free transitions become important.
A phenomenological model for bound-bound transitions was proposed by
Bird (1987) that is analogous to the LB model. According to this approach,
for a specified fraction of collisions, the electron states are sampled from the
equilibrium distribution appropriate to the effective temperature based on the
energy of colliding particles. Each molecule is assigned a distribution over all
the available electron states. Empiricism in the choice of electron excitation
numbers has been overcome by Carlson & Hassan (1992) where these numbers
have been calculated on the basis of existing data. A new model of radiation
absorption was developed by Taylor et al (1995) and corrected by Berghausen
et al (1995).
Gas-Surface Interaction
The majority of gas dynamic problems include the interaction of gas particles
with the body surface. The influence of the model of gas-surface interaction
on the flow parameters increases substantially as the gas rarefaction increases,
and a correct choice of the model for calculating hypersonic rarefied flows is
important.
Diffuse reflection with complete momentum and energy accommodation
is most frequently used in the DSMC method. It is assumed in this model,
suggested by Maxwell more than a hundred years ago, that the particles are
reflected equally in all directions, independent of their incident direction.
Specular reflection with zero accommodation or complementary fractions
of diffuse and specular reflections (so-called Maxwell model) are also often
used in computations. Generally, the Maxwell model is constructed on the
assumption that a fraction 1 − σ of the molecules is reflected from the surface

in a specular fashion, while the fraction σ is reemitted diffusely, with the
Maxwellian distribution. The parameter σ is called the tangential momentum
accommodation coefficient. The popularity of the Maxwell model is explained
apparently by its simplicity and by the fact that it satisfies reciprocity, i.e. the
principle of detailed balance.
A phenomenological model that also satisfies the reciprocity condition has
been proposed in Cercignani & Lampis (1971) for monatomic gas. This model
is improved compared to the Maxwell model. Two parameters, α t and α n are
introduced, which represent the accommodation coefficients for the tangential

component of velocity and the part of kinetic energy due to normal motion. Re-
cently, Lord (1991) has presented the implementation of the Cercignani-Lampis

(CL) model into the DSMC method. The CL model has also been extended for
simulating the accommodation of vibrational energy of a diatomic molecule
by Lord (1995b). The CL and Lord’s models are compared by Woronowicz &
Rault (1994) for the problems of molecular beam scattering and free-molecular
flow about a flat plate. A very good agreement of results is observed for the
two models, and also for numerical and experimental data. Thus, Lord’s statis-
tical implementation of the CL model seems preferable for use in the DSMC
method.
Note here also the multiparametric Nocilla (1963) model, wherein the veloc-
ity of reflected molecules is simulated by the function
© £ ¤2 ª p
f = n r π −3/2 cr−3 exp −cr−2 ξE − cr SEr , cr = 2 kTr /m, SEr = U E /cr .
The four parameters SEr ≡ (Snr , Sτr ), Tr, nr of this function for the molecule
reflected from the surface with velocity ξ and at the angle of incidence to the
normal θ i are determined from experimental data. This model is widely used
in free-molecular aerodynamics of satellites (Koppenwallner et al 1995).
DSMC surface chemistry models, including absorption, surface reactions,
and desorption, can be found in Bergemann (1994), and in Simmons & Lord
(1996).
MODELING OF CHEMICALLY REACTING FLOWS

Computation of rarefied hypersonic flows with real-gas effects and estimations
of these effects on aerodynamics were actively performed in the last decades,
predominantly by the DSMC method. The first studies were mainly confined to
computations of the stagnation line for a blunted body in a 1D formulation (Bird
1986). New high-performance computers that appeared in the 1990s expanded
the area of application of the DSMC method and allowed researchers to start
investigating 2D and 3D chemically reacting rarefied hypersonic flows.

Figure 5 Pressure (a–d ) and skin friction (e–h) coefficients along a flat plate and plate with a flap
for different gas models (Ivanov et al 1996a).
The influence of chemical reactions and excitation of the molecular inter-

nal degrees of freedom on aerodynamics of the transitional regime becomes
essential for spacecraft flight at altitudes of ∼90 km and lower. For blunted
bodies, this influence is mainly confined to considerable changes in the heat
flux with no significant impact on the aerodynamic coefficients. This effect is
more pronounced for the flow around concave configurations, such as aerody-
namic control surfaces. Thus, a number of papers (Ivanov et al 1994a, 1995a,
1996a) present a detailed investigation of the flow around a plate with a flap (the
simplest model of a control surface), around an elliptic profile with a deflected
rear part, around a double cone, and around a flat delta wing, for the purpose
of flap efficiency analysis.
To estimate the contribution of molecular rotations, vibrations, and chemical

reactions, the computations have been carried out for the following gas models:
TT gas—monatomic gas; TR gas—diatomic gas with rotations; TRV gas—
diatomic gas with rotations and vibrations; and O2—reacting oxygen (more
active component of the air). The free stream conditions were U∞ = 7600 m/s,
T∞ = 188 K, which correspond to H = 85 km and Kn = 0.01 for a plate 1 m
long. The flap deflection angle was δ = 30◦ . The molecular model effect on
distributed surface characteristics Cp and Cf is shown in Figure 5. Qualitative
changes in aerodynamics taking into account vibrations and chemical reactions
are observed. The pressure maximum moves toward the flap, and flow separa-
tion is observed. The pressure fields presented in Figure 6 show that the bow
shock wave is detached for TT and TR gases and attached for TRV gas and O2.
The center of pressure with respect to the center of gravity X cp − X cg and the
flap efficiency 1Cm = Cm (δ = 30◦ ) − Cm (δ = 0) are presented in Figure 7.
The center of pressure shifts forward by 6%, and the flap efficiency increases
threefold in comparison with TT gas. Thus, the real-gas effects exert not only
quantitative but also qualitative influence on the aerodynamics of a concave
body in the transitional regime.
The effect of chemical reactions on blunted-body wake structure was studied
by Dogra et al (1994c). A 70◦ blunted cone with and without afterbody with
a diameter of 2 m and U∞ = 7 km/s, H = 85 km was considered. The
effect of chemistry on surface pressure and skin friction is moderate, whereas
surface heating experiences a significant effect both in the forebody and the
base regions. The base heating rate for the nonreactive gas is 240% larger than
that of the reactive gas.
The effect of radiation has been mainly studied for the stagnation streamline
of the flow about convex bodies (Taylor et al 1994, Gallis & Harvey 1994b).
Significant numerical problems arise in the simulation of radiative emission for
trace species such as nitric oxide. Even if a special overlay procedure for the

Figure 6 Impact of a gas model on the pressure flowfields about a plate with a flap (Ivanov et al
1996a). (a) TT gas, (b) TR gas, (c) TRV gas, (d ) reacting oxygen.
Figure 7 Flap efficiency for different gas models (Ivanov et al 1996a).

DSMC method is used, numerical data differ significantly from experimental

results for altitudes higher than 80 km (Boyd et al 1995).
An ionized gas flow around blunted bodies is considered by Gallis & Harvey
(1993) (a 60◦ blunted cone, diameter 2 m, H = 80 km, U∞ = 12 km/s)
and Boyd & Gökçen (1994) (a sphere, diameter 2 m, U∞ = 10 km/s, ρ∞ =
1.54 · 10−4 kg/m3, T∞ = 300 K). The latter paper considered the problem of
matching the kinetic and continuum approaches for the simulation of chemically
reacting flows.
Simulation of ionized hypersonic rarefied flows is often associated in the last
years with electric propulsion thrusters, such as ion thrusters, magnetoplasma-

dynamic thrusters, and arcjets, that are extensively used in modern spacecraft at
high flight altitudes because of low cost of their use. Xenon ion thrusters were
modeled by Roy (1995) using the particle-in-cell technique, and the DSMC
method was used in Boyd (1996b) for calculating a hydrogen arcjet.
Rarefied hypersonic reacting flows around bodies moving with velocities of
about 8 km/s and lower, when ionization effects can be neglected, have been
considered by many workers. Only some results are noted here.
The flow around a 1.6-m–diameter sphere at flight altitudes from 200 to 90
km (U∞ = 7500 m/s) was considered by Dogra et al (1991). It was noted that
very little chemical activity is present above about 120 km altitude; appreciable
dissociation of molecular oxygen was observed at an altitude of 90 km.
A 70◦ blunted cone with a sting was suggested by AGARD Working Group
as a test case, and one of the test conditions used was that of the high enthalpy
case run by the LENS facility. The test gas was air of density ρ∞ = 7.2 · 10−3
kg/m3 at 273 K and velocity 3.145 m/s. The DSMC computations for these
conditions were carried out by Marriott & Bartel (1995) for different models
of chemical reactions. A comparison of experimental and DSMC results was
presented by Gallis & Harvey (1995b), and by Moss et al (1995) for the LENS
conditions (ρ∞ = 0.13 · 10−3 kg/m3, T∞ = 103.7 K, U∞ = 3.246 m/s).
There is good agreement between computed (Moss et al 1995) and measured
surface quantities, both in the separation region and toward the end of the sting,
but the agreement along the forebody is not as good. The experimental pressure
values are anomalously high and should be disregarded because the ranges of
the pressure sensors were not appropriate along the forebody for this test.
In conclusion, we present some results for the flow around a reentry capsule
obtained quite recently (Ivanov et al 1997). The computations were carried out
by the DSMC method and the engineering approach (local bridging approxi-
mation) for a wide range of angles of attack and flight altitudes from 130 to
85 km. It should be noted here that 3D DSMC computations of chemically
reacting flows at altitudes of 85–90 km are very time-consuming, and results

Figure 8 Pitching moment coefficient of a reentry capsule for different flight altitudes (Ivanov
et al 1997).
Figure 9 Translational temperature flowfields around a capsule for angle of attack α = 20◦ (Ivanov
et al 1997). (a) nonreacting air, (b) reacting air. Values are given in thousands of Kelvin.
for these conditions could be obtained only through effective use of modern
parallel computers.
The pitching moment coefficient Cm as a function of angle of attack for
different flight altitudes is shown in Figure 8. Both numerical approaches yield
similar qualitative behavior of the Cm coefficient. However, the local bridging
method gives a significant deviation near the trim angle. At high flight altitudes
the capsule is unstable at zero angle of attack, and its stabilization occurs at
an altitude of about 90 km. This is explained by the redistribution of pressure
and friction contributions (positive and negative, respectively) to Cm depending
on the altitude. The influence of chemical reactions on the flow structure is

given in Figure 9 for H = 85 km. A considerable difference is observed both
in shock standoff and in wake flow structure. DSMC aerodynamic coefficients

for reactive air are in very good agreement with flight measurements (Reshetin
& Semenov 1982) available for H = 85 km.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Considerable progress achieved lately in the field of RHCFD gives grounds
to speak about its evolution to an independent CFD branch that covers a wide
range of fundamental and closely related applied problems of high-altitude
aerothermodynamics of space vehicles.
The main numerical approach in RHCFD is the DSMC method. This tech-
nique captures the nature of rarefied hypersonic flow and has obvious physical
and numerical advantages. In our opinion, two topics deserve principal atten-
tion: simulation of near-continuum hypersonic flows, and modeling real-gas
effects. Modern parallel computers should be effectively used for simulation
of near-continuum flows. The coupling of kinetic and continuum approaches
seems promising from the viewpoint of computational efficiency. The study
of the domain of applicability of the Navier-Stokes equations is, therefore, a
topical problem. A question of no less importance is the use of adequate mod-
els for the description of real-gas effects, which can impact considerably the
aerothermodynamics in hypersonic rarefied flows.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Sergey Antonov, Alexei Kudryavtsev, Francois Mallinger, Gennadi
Markelov, Elena Medvedeva, and Felix Tcheremissine for their kind assistance
with the preparation of this article.
Visit the Annual Reviews home page at

http://www.AnnualReviews.org.
Literature Cited
Alder BJ, Wainwright TE. 1958. Molecular dy- ics, ed. S Fisher, Prog. Astronaut. Aeronaut.
namics by electronic computers. In Transport 74:239–55
Processes in Statistical Mechanics, ed. I Pri- Bird GA. 1987. Nonequilibrium radiation dur-
gogin, pp. 97–131. New York: Interscience ing re-entry at 10 km/s. AIAA Pap. 87–1543
Allegre J, Dubreuilh XH, Raffin M. 1990. Ex- Bird GA. 1988. Direct simulation of gas flows at
perimental density flowfields over a delta the molecular level. Comm. Appl. Num. Meth.
wing located in rarefied hypersonic flow. In 4:165–72
Proc. Workshop Hypersonic Flows Reentry Bird GA. 1988. Direct simulation of typical
Probl., Antibes, pp. 1–20 AOTV entry flows. AIAA Pap. 86–1310
Allegre J, Raffin M, Chpoun A, Gottesdiener Bird GA. 1990. Application of the direct simu-
L. 1994. Rarefied hypersonic flow over a flat lation Monte Carlo method to the full Shuttle
plate with truncated leading edge. In Rarefied geometry. AIAA Pap. 90–1692
Gas Dynamics: Theory and Simulations, ed. Bird GA. 1991. Shock wave-boundary layer in-
BD Shizgal, DP Weaver. Prog. Astronaut. teractions in rarefied gas flows. AIAA Pap.
Aeronaut. 159:285–96 91–1312

Antonov SG, Ivanov MS, Kashkovsky AV, Bird GA. 1994. Molecular Gas Dynamics and
Chistolinov VG. 1991. Influence of atmo- the Direct Simulation of Gas Flows. Oxford:
spheric rarefaction on aerodynamic charac- Clarendon. 458 pp.
teristics of flying vehicles. In Proc. Int. Symp. Blanchard RC. 1986. Rarefied flow lift-to-drag
Rarefied Gas Dyn., 17th, Aachen, ed. AE measurements of the Shuttle Orbiter. ICAS
Beylich, pp. 522–30 Pap. 86–1.10.2
Aristov VV, Tcheremissine FG. 1980. The con- Blanchard RC, Wilmoth RG, LeBeau GJ. 1997.
servative splitting method for solving of Rarefied-flow transition regime orbiter aero-
Boltzmann equation. Comp. Math. Math. dynamic acceleration flight measurements. J.
Phys. 21(1):273–84 Spacecraft 34(1):8–15
Bartel TJ, Sterk TM, Payne JL, Preppernau B. Bogdanov AV, Dubrovskii GV, Gorbachev YuE,
1994. DSMC simulation of nozzle expansion Strelchenya VM. 1989. Theory of vibra-
flow fields. AIAA Pap. 94–2047 tional and rotational excitation of polyatomic
Belotserkovsky OM, Yanitsky VE. 1975a. Sta- molecules. Phys. Rep. 181(3):121–206
tistical method of particles in cells for rar- Borgnakke C, Larsen PS. 1975. Statistical col-
efied gas dynamics problems. Z. Vich. Mat. lision model for Monte Carlo simulation
Mat. Fiz. 15(5):1195–1208 of polyatomic gas mixture. J. Comp. Phys.
Belotserkovsky OM, Yanitsky VE. 1975b. Sta- 18:405–20
tistical method of particles in cells for rar- Bose D, Candler GV. 1996. Thermal rate con-
efied gas dynamics problems. Z. Vich. Mat. stants of the N2 + O ↔ NO + N reaction
Mat. Fiz. 16(6):1553–67 using ab initio 3A00 and 3A0 potential energy
Bergemann F. 1995. A detailed surface chem- surface. J. Chem. Phys. 104:2825–31
istry model for the DSMC method. In Proc. Bourgat JF, Le Tallec P, Mallinger F. 1997.
Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., 19th, Oxford, Adaptive coupling between Boltzmann and
ed. J Harvey, G Lord, 2:947–53. New York: Navier-Stokes equations. J. Comp. Phys. In
Oxford Univ. Press press
Bergemann F, Boyd ID. 1994. DSMC sim- Bourgat JF, Le Tallec P, Tidriri MD. 1996. Cou-
ulation of inelastic collisions using the pling Boltzmann and Navier-Stokes Equa-
Borgnakke-Larsen method extended to dis- tions by friction. J. Comp. Phys. 127:227–45
crete distributions of vibrational energy. In Boyd ID. 1989. Direct simulation of rotation
Rarefied Gas Dynamics: Theory and Simu- and vibration nonequilibrium. AIAA Pap. 89–
lations, ed. BD Shizgal, DP Weaver. Prog. 1880
Astronaut. Aeronaut. 158:174–83 Boyd ID. 1993. Relaxation of discrete rotational
Berghausen AK, Taylor JC, Hassan HA. 1995. energy distributions using a Monte Carlo
Direct simulation of shock front radiation in method. Phys. Fluids A 5(9):2278–86
air. AIAA Pap. 95–2051 Boyd ID. 1996a. A threshold line dissociation
Bird GA. 1979. Simulation of multi-dimen- model for the direct simulation Monte Carlo
sional and chemically reacting flows. In Proc. method. Phys. Fluids 8(5):1293–300
11th Int. Symp. on Rarefied Gas Dynamics, Boyd ID. 1996b. Monte Carlo simulation of
Paris, pp. 365–88, ed. R Campargue, Com- nonequilibrium flow in low power hydrogen
mis. l’Energ. Atom. arcjets. AIAA Pap. 96–2022
Bird GA. 1981. Monte-Carlo simulation in an Boyd ID, Bose D, Candler GV. 1996. Monte
engineering context. In Rarefied Gas Dynam- Carlo modeling of nitric oxide formation
based on quasi-classical trajectory calcula- Numerical and experimental investigation of

tions. AIAA Pap. 96–1845 rarefied compression corner flow. AIAA Pap.
Boyd ID, Candler GV, Levin DA. 1995. Disso- 92–2900
ciation modeling in low density hypersonic Coron F, Harvey JK. 1994 Synopsis for test
flows of air. Phys. Fluids 7(7):1757–63 case 6—rarefied 70◦ spherically blunted cone
Boyd ID, Gökçen T. 1994. Computations flow. In Proc. Eur. High-Vel. Database Work-
of axisymmetric and ionized flows using shop, ESTEC, 4th, Noorwijk. In press
particle and continuum methods. AIAA J. Cybyk BZ, Oran ES, Boris JP, Anderson JD.
32(9):1828–34 1995. Application of the monotonic La-
Buet C. 1995. A discrete-velocity scheme for grangian grid in direct simulation Monte
the Boltzmann operator of rarefied gas dy- Carlo methods. AIAA Pap. 94–0354
namics. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dankert A, Legge H. 1995. Wake structure of a
Dyn., 19th, Oxford, ed. J Harvey, G Lord, 70 degree blunted cone. DSMC results and
2:815-21. New York: Oxford Univ. Press Patterson probe measurements. AIAA Pap.
Campbell DH, Wadsworth D. 1996. DSMC 95–2141
comparisons to rotational temperature mea- Deiwert GS. 1995. Importance of real gas ef-
surements in jet expansions with finite back- fects in entry technology. In Proc. 2nd Eur.
ground pressures. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Symp. Aerothermodyn. Space Vehicles, ES-
Gas Dyn., 20th, Beijing. In press TEC, Noordwijk, pp. 263–77
Carlson AB, Hassan HA. 1992. Radiation mod- Deshpande SM. 1978. An unbiased and consis-
eling with direct simulation Monte Carlo. J. tent Monte-Carlo game simulating the Boltz-
Therm. Heat Transf. 6(4):631–36 mann equation. Indian Inst. Sci. Rep. 78 FM4.
Carlson AB, Hassan HA, Moss JN. 1989. Monte 15 pp.
Carlo simulation of reentry plasmas. AIAA Dogra VK, Moss JN, Wilmoth RG, Price JM.
Pap. 89–0683 1994a. Direct Monte Carlo simulations of hy-
Celenligil MC. 1994. Rarefied flow simulations personic low-density flows about an ASTV
about a blunt-ended cylinder at incidence. In including wake structure. In Proc. Int. Symp.
Rarefied Gas Dynamics: Theory and Simu- Rarefied Gas Dynamics, 19th, Oxford, ed. J
lations, ed. BD Shizgal, DP Weaver. Prog. Harvey, G Lord, 2:199–208. New York: Ox-
Astronaut. Aeronaut. 160:323–30 ford Univ. Press
Celenligil MC, Wilmoth RG, Moss JN. 1991. Dogra VK, Moss JN, Wilmoth RG, Taylor JC,
DSMC simulation for the delta wing. In Proc. Hassan HA. 1994b. Effects of chemistry on
Workshop Hypersonic Flows Reentry Probl., blunt body wake structure. AIAA Pap. 94–
Antibes pp. 285–311, ed. JA Desideri, R 0352
Glowinski, J Periaux. Berlin: Springer Ver- Dogra VK, Moss JN, Wilmoth RG, Taylor JC,
lag Hassan HA. 1994c. Rarefaction effects on
Cercignani C. 1975. Theory and Application of blunt body wake structure for earth entry con-
the Boltzmann Equation. Edinburgh: Scot- ditions. AIAA Pap. 94–2016
tish. 292 pp. Dogra VK, Wilmoth RG, Moss JN. Aerodynam-
Cercignani C. 1988. The Boltzmann equation ics of a 1.6-m–diameter sphere in hypersonic
and its application. Appl. Math. Sci. 67:113– rarefied flow. AIAA Pap. 91–0773
207 Eggers J, Beylich AE. 1994. New algorithms
Cercignani C, Lampis M. 1971. Kinetic models for application in the direct simulation Monte
for gas-surface interactions. Transp. Theory Carlo method. In Rarefied Gas Dynam-
Stat. Phys. 1(2):101–14 ics: Theory and Simulations, ed. BD Shiz-
Chanetz B, Coet MC, Nicout D, Pot T. 1992. gal, DP Weaver. Prog. Astronaut. Aeronaut.
Shock wave-boundary layer interaction in 159:166–73
hypersonic two-dimensional laminar flow. Eggers J, Beylich AE. 1995. Development of
Colloq. Ecoul. Hipersoniques, ONERA, No. a hybrid scheme and its application to a flat
1992–182 plate flow. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas
Chapman S, Cowling TG. 1952. The Mathemat- Dynamics, 19th, Oxford, ed. J Harvey, G
ical Theory of Nonuniform Gases. New York: Lord, 2:1216–22. New York: Oxford Univ.
Cambridge Univ. Press, 2nd ed. 394 pp. Press
Cheng HK, Emanuel G. 1995. Perspective on Eitelberg G. 1994. First result of calibration and
hypersonic nonequilibrium flows. AIAA J. use of the HEG. AIAA Pap. 94–2525
33(3):385–400 Eitelberg G, McIntyre T, Beck W, Lacey J. 1992.
Choquet I. 1993. Modelisation des desequili- The high enthalpy shock tunnel in Gottingen.
bres thermiques dans les ecoulements de gas AIAA Pap. 92–3942
rarefies. PhD thesis. L’universite de Paris VI. Ermakov SM, Mikhailov GA. 1982. Statisti-
240 pp. cal Simulation. Moscow: Nauka. 296 pp. (In
Chpoun A, Lengrand JC, Heffner KS. 1992. Russian)
Erofeev AI, Nikolaev KV, Perminov VD. 1995. of reacting flows. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied
Some features of hypersonic rarefied gas 3D- Gas Dyn., 20th, Beijing. In press
flows. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., Gimelshein SF, Ivanov MS, Rogasinsky SV.
19th, Oxford, ed. J Harvey, G Lord, 2:1258– 1991. Investigation of shock wave structure
63. New York: Oxford Univ. Press by majorant cell and free cell schemes of
Gallis MA, Harvey JK. 1993. The maximum en- DSMC. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas
tropy approach applied to energy exchange, Dyn., 17th, Aachen, ed. AE Beylich, pp. 718–
chemical reactions and ionization in the di- 26
rect simulation Monte Carlo method for rar- Haas BL, Boyd ID. 1991. Models for vibra-
efied hypersonic flows. IC Aero Rep. 93–01. tionally favoured dissociation applicable to
London: Imp. Coll. Sci., Technol., Med. a particle simulation. AIAA Pap. 91–0774
Gallis MA, Harvey JK. 1994a. Ionization re- Haas BL, Hash D, Bird GA, Lumpkin FE, Has-
actions and electric fields in plane hyper- san H. 1994. Rates of thermal relaxation in di-
sonic shock waves. In Rarefied Gas Dynam- rect simulation Monte Carlo methods. Phys.
ics: Theory and Simulations, ed. BD Shiz- Fluids A 6(6):2191–201
gal, DP Weaver. Prog. Astronaut. Aeronaut. Haas BL, Milos FS. 1994. Simulated rarefied
160:234–44 entry of the Galileo Probe into the atmosphere
Gallis MA, Harvey JK. 1994b. Atomic species of Jupiter. AIAA Pap. 94–2043
radiation from air modeled with direct simu- Harvey JK, Celenligil MC, Dominy RG,
lation Monte Carlo method. J. Therm. Heat Gilmore MR. 1992. Flat-ended circular cylin-
Transf. 9(3):456–63 der in hypersonic rarefied flow. J. Therm.
Gallis MA, Harvey JK. 1995a. Validation Heat Transf. 6(1):35–43
DSMC computations for the flowfield around Hash DB, Hassan HA. 1992. Direct simulation
a 70◦ blunted cone. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rar- with vibration-dissociation coupling. AIAA
efied Gas Dyn., 19th, Oxford, ed. J Harvey, G Pap. 92–2875
Lord, 2:1284–90. New York: Oxford Univ. Hassan HA, Hash DB. 1993. A generalized
Press hard-sphere model for Monte Carlo simula-
Gallis MA, Harvey JK. 1995b. Implementa- tion. Phys. Fluids A 5(3):738–44
tion of a maximum entropy method in Monte Haviland JK, Lavin ML. 1962. Application of
Carlo direct simulations. AIAA Pap. 95– Monte Carlo method to heat transfer in rar-
2094 efied gases. Phys. Fluids 5:1399–405
Gilmore MR, Crowther R. 1995. Direct sim- Holden M. 1993. Recent advances in hyper-
ulation and test particle Monte-Carlo, and sonic test facilities and experimental re-
Navier-Stokes predictions of the re-entry search. AIAA Pap. 93–5005
state of the FSW-1 Satellite. In Proc. Int. Ivanov MS, Antonov SG, Markelov GN, Titov
Symp. Rarefied Gas Dynamics, 19th, Oxford, EV. 1995a. Analysis of control surfaces effi-
ed. J Harvey, G Lord, 2:1387–93. New York: ciency in hypersonic rarefied flows. In Proc.
Oxford Univ. Press Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., 19th, Oxford,
Gilmore MR, Harvey JH. 1994. Effects of Mach ed. J Harvey, G Lord, 2:1182–89. New York:
number, Twall, T∞, and thermal accommoda- Oxford Univ. Press
tion coefficient on flow around blunt bodies in Ivanov MS, Antonov SG, Kashkovsky AV.
the rarefied regime. In Rarefied Gas Dynam- 1994a. Investigation of aerodynamic con-
ics: Theory and Simulations, ed. BD Shiz- trol surface efficiency in transitional regime
gal, DP Weaver. Prog. Astronaut. Aeronaut. of rarefied gas. In Rarefied Gas Dynam-
160:308–22 ics: Theory and Simulations, ed. BD Shiz-
Gilmore MR, Owen AK, Jones TV. 1995. 70◦ gal, DP Weaver. Prog. Astronaut. Aeronaut.
aerobrake vehicle plus afterbody in hyper- 160:144–55
sonic rarefied nitrogen flow. Proc. Int. Symp. Ivanov MS, Markelov GN. 1994b. Statistical
Rarefied Gas Dyn., 19th, Oxford, ed. J Har- simulation of rarefied hypersonic flows. In
vey, G Lord, 2:1161–67. New York: Oxford Proc. Europ. High-Vel. Datab. Workshop, ES-
Univ. Press TEC, 4th, Noorwijk. In press
Gimelshein SF, Gorbachev YuE, Ivanov MS, Ivanov MS, Gimelshein SF, Beylich AE. 1995b.
Kashkovsky AV. 1995. Real gas effects on Hysteresis effect in stationary reflection of
the aerodynamics of 2D concave bodies in shock waves. Phys. Fluids 7(4):685–87
the transitional regime. In Proc. Int. Symp. Ivanov MS, Kashkovsky AV, Grinberg EI.
Rarefied Gas Dynamics, 19th, Oxford, ed. J 1995c. Statistical simulation of space debris
Harvey, G Lord, 1:556–63. New York: Ox- cloud aerodynamics in the free-molecular
ford Univ. Press and transitional regimes. In Proc. Int. Symp.
Gimelshein SF, Ivanov MS, Markelov GN, Gor- Rarefied Gas Dyn., 19th, Oxford, ed. J Har-
bachev YuE. 1996. Quasiclassical VRT tran- vey, G Lord, 2:1124–32 New York: Oxford
sitional models in the DSMC computations Univ. Press
Ivanov MS, Antonov SG, Gimelshein SF, gases: atom-diatom collisions. Phys. Fluids
Kashkovsky AV, Markelov GN. 1996a. Sta- 6(10):3473–86
tistical simulation of highly nonequilib- Koura K. 1996. Rotationally and vibrationally
rium hypersonic rarefied flows. In Molecular inelastic cross-section models for direct sim-
Physics and Hypersonic Flows, NATO ASI ulation Monte Carlo methods. In Proc. Int.
series, Series C: Mathematical and Physical Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., 20th, Beijing. In
Sciences, ed. M Capitelli, 482:717–36. Dor- press
drecht: Kluwer Koura K, Matsumoto H. 1991. Variable soft
Ivanov MS, Markelov GN, Gimelshein SF, sphere molecular model for inverse-power-
Mishina LV, Krylov AN, Grechko NV. 1997. law of Lennard-Jones potential. Phys. Fluids
Capsule aerodynamics with real gas ef- A. 3(10):2459–65
fects from free-molecular to near-continuum Koura K, Matsumoto H, Shimada T. 1991. A test
regimes. AIAA Pap. 97–0476 of equivalence of the variable-hard-sphere
Ivanov MS, Markelov GN, Kudryavtsev AN, and inverse-power law models in the direct
Gimelshein SF. 1996b. Numerical investiga- simulation Monte Carlo method. Phys. Flu-
tion of shock wave boundary layer interaction ids A 3(8):1835–37
in the near-continuum hypersonic flow over Legge H. 1991. Force and heat transfer on a delta
concave bodies. In Proc. European Comp. wing in rarefied flow. In Proc. Workshop Hy-
Fluid Dyn. Conf., 3rd, Paris, ed. JA Desideri personic Flows Reentry Probl., Antibes, pp.
et al, pp. 656–61. New York: Wiley 285–311, ed. JA Desideri, R Glowinski, J Pe-
Ivanov MS, Rogasinsky SV. 1988. Analysis of riaux. Berlin: Springer-Verlag
numerical techniques of the direct simulation Lengrand JC, Allegre J, Chpoun A, Raffin M.
Monte Carlo method in the rarefied gas dy- 1994. Rarefied hypersonic flow over a sharp
namics. Sov. J. Numer. Anal. Math. Model. flat plate: numerical and experimental re-
2(6):453–65 sults. In Rarefied Gas Dynamics: Theory and
Ivanov MS, Rogasinsky SV. 1991. Theoretical Simulations, ed. BD Shizgal, DP Weaver.
analysis of traditional and modern schemes Prog. Astronaut. Aeronaut. 159:276–
of the DSMC method. In Proc. Int. Symp. 84
Rarefied Gas Dyn., 17th, Aachen, ed. AE Levine RD, Bernstein RB. 1987. Molecular
Beylich, pp. 629–42 Reaction Dynamics. London: Oxford Univ.
Ivanov M, Zeitoun D, Vuilon J, Gimelshein S, Press. 536 pp.
Markelov G. 1996c. Investigation of the hys- Lord RG. 1991. Application of the Cercignani-
teresis phenomena in steady shock reflection Lampis scattering kernel to direct simulation
using kinetic and continuum methods. Shock Monte Carlo calculations. In Proc. Int. Symp.
Waves 5(6):341–46 Rarefied Gas Dyn., 17th, Aachen, ed. AE
Kannenberg KC, Boyd ID, Dietrich S. 1995. Beylich, pp. 1427–33
Development of an object-oriented parallel Lord RG. 1994. Direct simulation of rarefied hy-
DSMC code for plume impingement studies. personic flow over a flat plate with incomplete
AIAA Pap. 95–2052 surface accommodation. In Rarefied Gas Dy-
Kogan MN. 1969. Rarefied Gas Dynamics. New namics: Theory and Simulations, ed. BD
York: Plenum. 425 pp. Shizgal, DP Weaver. Prog. Astronaut. Aero-
Kondurin YuN. 1986. On the statistical ap- naut. 159:221–28
proach to solution of the Boltzmann equa- Lord RG. 1995a. Direct simulation of rarefied
tion. Z. Vich. Mat. Mat. Fiz. 26(10):1527–34 flow over a sharp 45◦ cone with uncomplete
(In Russian) surface accommodation. In Proc. Int. Symp.
Koppenwallner G, Johannsmeier D, Klinkrad Rarefied Gas Dyn., 19th, Oxford, ed. J Har-
H, Ivanov M, Kashkovsky A. 1995. A rarefied vey, G Lord, 2:1243–49. New York: Oxford
aerodynamic modelling system for earth Univ. Press
satellites (RAMSES). In Proc. Int. Symp. Lord RG. 1995b. Some further extensions of
Rarefied Gas Dyn., 19th, Oxford, ed. J Har- the Cercignani-Lampis gas-surface interac-
vey, G Lord, 2:1366–72. New York: Oxford tion model. Phys. Fluids 7(5):1159–61
Univ. Press Lord RG. 1996. Modelling of dissociation of di-
Koura K. 1986. Null-collision technique in atomic molecules using the Morse potential.
the direct-simulation Monte-Carlo method. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., 20th,
Phys. Fluids 29(11):3509–11 Beijing. In press
Koura K. 1992. Statistical inelastic cross- Losev SA, Shatalov OP. 1970. The vibrational
section model for the Monte Carlo simulation relaxation of oxygen molecules in admixture
of molecules with discrete internal energy. with argon at temperatures up to 10,000 K.
Phys. Fluids A 4(8):1782–88 Khim. Visok. Energ. 4:262–67 (In Russian)
Koura K. 1994. A set of model cross sections for Lumpkin FE III, Haas BL, Boyd ID. 1991. Res-
the Monte Carlo simulation of rarefied real olution of differences between collision num-
ber definitions in particle and continuum sim- Theory and Simulations, ed. BD Shiz-
ulations. Phys. Fluids A 3(9):2282–84 gal, DP Weaver. Prog. Astronaut. Aeronaut.
Macheret SO, Rich JW. 1993. Nonequilibrium 160:161–70
dissociation rates behind strong shock waves: Pallegoix JF. 1994b. Workshop ESTEC—Test
classical model. J. Chem. Phys. 174:25– Case No. 6—rarefied spherically blunted
43 cone flow. In Proc. Eur. High-Vel. Database
Marriott PM. 1994. Non-equilibrium chemical Workshop, ESTEC, 4th, Noorwijk. In press
reactions in the simulation of hypersonic rar- Parker JG. 1959. Rotational and vibrational
efied flows. PhD thesis. Imp. Coll. Sci., Tech- relaxation in diatomic gases. Phys. Fluids
nol., Med. London. 188 pp. 2(4):449–62
Marriott PM, Bartel TJ. 1995. Comparison of Prasad R, Harvey JK. 1996. Development of a
DSMC flow field predictions using different hybrid particle/fluid model for the computa-
models for energy exchange and chemical re- tion of highly ionized rarefied flows. In Proc.
action probability. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rar- Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., 20th, Beijing.
efied Gas Dyn., 19th, Oxford, ed. J Harvey, In press
G Lord, 1:413–19. New York: Oxford Univ. Rault DFG. 1991. Aerodynamic performance
Press of delta wings in the hypersonic rarefied flow
Millikan RC, White DR. 1966 Systematics regime. Comparison of 3D DSMC simulation
of Vibrational Relaxation. J. Chem. Phys. with wind tunnel data. In Proc. Workshop Hy-
39(12):3209–13 personic Flows Reentry Probl., Antibes, ed.
Moss JN, Dogra VK, Price JM. 1994. DSMC JA Desideri, R Glowinski, J Periaux, pp. 343–
simulations of viscous interactions for a hol- 71. New York: Springer Verlag
low cylinder-flare configuration. AIAA Pap. Rault DFG. 1994a. Aerodynamics of the shut-
94–2015 tle orbiter at high altitudes. J. Spacecraft
Moss JN, Gupta RN, Price JM. 1996. Rarefac- 31(6):944–52
tion effects on Galileo Probe aerodynamics. Rault DFG. 1994b. Study of Shuttle body flap
In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., 20th, effectiveness at high altitudes using DSMC.
Beijing. In press AIAA Pap. 94–2021
Moss JN, Mitcheltree RA, Wilmoth RG, Dogra Rault DFG. 1996. RCS plume effect on space-
VK. 1993. Hypersonic blunt body wake com- craft aerodynamics during aerobraking ma-
putations using DSMC and Navier-stokes neuver. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn.,
solvers. AIAA Pap. 93–2807 20th, Beijing. In press
Moss JN, Price JM. 1996. DSMC simulation of Rault DFG, Chang CL. 1997. Neutral environ-
OREX entry. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas ment of the tethered satellite system (TSS).
Dyn., 20th, Beijing. In press AIAA Pap. 97–0583
Moss JN, Price JM, Chun CH. 1991. Hy- Reshetin AG, Semenov YP. 1982. Investigation
personic rarefied flow about a compression of aerodynamic characteristics of space ve-
corner—DSMC simulation and experiment. hicles. In Proc. All-Union School Methods
AIAA Pap. 91–1313 Aerophys. Res., 3rd, ed. AM Kharitonov, pp.
Moss JN, Price JM, Dogra VK, Hash DB. 1995. 10–14. Novosibirsk: ITAM (In Russian)
Comparison of DSMC and experimental re- Rogier F, Schneider J. 1994. A direct method
sults for hypersonic external flows. AIAA Pap. for solving the Boltzmann equation. Transp.
95–2028 Theory Stat. Phys. 23(1–3)
Muntz EP. 1989. Rarefied gas dynamics. Annu. Roy RS. 1995. Numerical simulation of ion
Rev. Fluid Mech. 21:387–417 thruster plume backflow for spacecraft con-
Muntz EP, Erwin DA, Pham-Van-Diep GC. tamination assessment. PhD thesis. MIT,
1991. A review of kinetic details required for Cambridge, MA. 246 pp.
accurate prediction of normal shock waves. Shakhov EM. 1974. Method of Studying Rar-
In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., 17th, efied Gas Motion, Moscow: Nauka. 282 pp.
Aachen, ed. AE Beylich, pp. 198–203 (In Russian)
Nanbu K. 1980. Direct simulation scheme Simmons RS, Lord RG. 1996. DSMC simula-
derived from the Boltzmann equation. I. tion of hypersonic metal catalysis in a rarefied
Monocomponent gases. J. Phys. Soc. Japan hypersonic nitrogen/oxygen flow. In Proc.
49(5):2042–49 Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., 20th, Beijing.
Nocilla S. 1963. The surface re-emission law in In press
free molecule flow. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rar- Stark JPW. 1994. Direct Monte-Carlo simula-
efied Gas Dynamics, 3rd, Paris, ed. JA Laur- tion of orbital debris. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rar-
mann, 1:327–46. New York: Academic efied Gas Dyn., 19th, Oxford, ed. J Harvey, G
Pallegoix JF. 1994a. Computation of transi- Lord, 2:1373–79. New York: Oxford Univ.
tional flows around three-dimensional re- Press
entry bodies. In Rarefied Gas Dynamics: Taylor JC, Carlson AB, Hassan HA. 1994.
Monte Carlo simulation of radiating re-entry Wilmoth RG, Mitcheltree RA, Moss JN, Dogra
flows. J. Therm. Heat Transf. 8(3):478– VK. 1993. Zonally-decoupled DSMC solu-
85 tions of hypersonic blunt body wake flows.
Taylor JC, Hassan HA, Chambers LH. 1995. AIAA Pap. 93–2808
Radiation absorption model for the DSMC Woronowicz MS, Rault DRG. 1993. On predict-
method. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas ing contamination levels of HALOE optics
Dyn., 19th, Oxford, ed. J Harvey, G Lord, abroad UARS using direct simulation Monte
2:829–35. New York: Oxford Univ. Press Carlo. AIAA Pap. 93–2869
Tcheremissine FG. 1996. The conservative dis- Woronowicz MS, Rault DRG. 1994.
crete ordinates method for solving of Boltz- Cercignani-Lampis-Lord gas-surface inter-
mann kinetic equation. In Proc. Int. Symp. action model: comparisons between theory
Rarefied Gas Dyn., 20th, Beijing. In press and simulation. J. Spacecr. 31(3):532–33
Wadsworth DC, Wysong IJ. 1996. Test case Wysong IJ, Wadsworth DC, Weaver DP, Camp-
calculations using Bird’s vibrationally-linked bell DH. 1996. Influence of vibrational

chemistry model. In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied nonequilibrium on chemically reacting rar-
Gas Dyn., 20th, Beijing. In press efied flows: toward experimental verification
Wang L, Stark JPW. 1996. DSMC prediction of DSMC models. AIAA Pap. 96–2023
of the population growth of the space debris. Yen SM. 1984. Numerical solution of the non-
In Proc. Int. Symp. Rarefied Gas Dyn., 20th, linear Boltzmann equation for nonequilib-
Beijing. In press rium gas flow problems. Annu. Rev. Fluid
Wilmoth RG, LeBeau GJ, Carlson AB. 1996. Mech. 16:67–97
DSMC grid methodologies for computing Zhu SK, Dagum L. 1996. Scaling parameters in
low-density hypersonic flows about reusable rarefied jet interactions. In Proc. Int. Symp.
launch vehicles. AIAA Pap. 96–1812 Rarefied Gas Dyn., 20th, Beijing. In press
Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
Volume 30, 1998
CONTENTS
Lewis Fry Richardson and His Contributions to Mathematics,
0
Meteorology, and Models of Conflict, J.C.R. Hunt
Aircraft Laminar Flow Control , Ronald D. Joslin 1
Vortex Dynamics in Turbulence, D. I. Pullin, P. G. Saffman 31
Interaction Between Porous Media and Wave Motion, A. T. Chwang, A.

53
T. Chan
Drop and Spray Formation from a Liquid Jet, S. P. Lin, R. D. Reitz 85
Airplane Trailing Vortices, Philippe R. Spalart 107

Diffuse-Interface Methods in Fluid Mechanics, D. M. Anderson, G. B.

139
McFadden, A. A. Wheeler
Turbulence in Astrophysics: Stars, V. M. Canuto, J. Christensen-

167
Dalsgaard
Vortex-Body Interactions, Donald Rockwell 199
Nonintrusive Measurements for High-Speed, Supersonic, and Hypersonic

231
Flows, J. P. Bonnet, D. Grésillon, J. P. Taran
Renormalization-Group Analysis of Turbulence, Leslie M. Smith, Stephen

275
L. Woodruff
Control of Turbulence, John Lumley, Peter Blossey 311
Lattice Boltzmann Method for Fluid Flows, Shiyi Chen, Gary D. Doolen 329
Boiling Heat Transfer, V. K. Dhir 365
Direct Simulation Monte Carlo--Recent Advances and Applications, E.S.

403
Oran, C.K. Oh, B.Z. Cybyk
Air-Water Gas Exchange, B. Jähne, H. Haußecker 443
Computational Hypersonic Rarefied Flows, M. S. Ivanov, S. F.
469
Gimelshein
Turbulent Flow Over Hills and Waves, S. E. Belcher, J. C. R. Hunt 507
Direct Numerical Simulation: A Tool in Turbulence Research, Parviz

539
Moin, Krishnan Mahesh
Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) and Fluid Flows, Chih-

579
Ming Ho, Yu-Chong Tai
Fluid Mechanics for Sailing Vessel Design, Jerome H. Milgram 613
Direct Numerical Simulation of Non-Premixed Turbulent Flames, Luc

655
Vervisch, Thierry Poinsot

Flow Theory

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Flow Theory

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

P1: KKK/dat P2: MBL/plb QC: MBL/ABE T1: NBL

November 15, 1997 11:18 Annual Reviews AR049-16

Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1998. 30:469–505

M. S. Ivanov and S. F. Gimelshein

Mechanics, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia; e-mail: ivanov@itam.nsc.ru

470 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

chemical reactions occur, as well as ionization and radiation. Of course, there is

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 471

problems requires comprehensive simulations for various geometrical models

structure and consider only its macroparameters such as density, velocity, or

be considered as free-molecular. In this case, particle collisions with the body

472 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

molecular internal degrees of freedom and chemical reactions in the framework

methods and real-gas models for investigation of problems of rarefied hyper-

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 473

474 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

equation is conventional. An important feature of the integral evaluation is the

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 475

476 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

use of a small number of model particles (Belotserkovsky & Yanitsky 1975a,b);

methods (Ermakov & Mikhailov 1982).

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 477

and the time marching algorithm to couple the models.

MODELING OF HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS

478 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 479

A recent example of an extensive application of the DSMC method to the

The Flow Around Slender and Convex Bodies

480 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

conditions (M ≈ 20, Re = 2790 and 8208) can be found in Lengrand et al

effects caused by Mach number and wall temperature variation. In Celenligil

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 481

of the DLR at Goettingen. This configuration was studied in detail in Moss

The Flow Around Concave Bodies

482 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 483

PROBLEMS OF RAREFIED HYPERSONIC CFD:

484 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

numbers. High-temperature physicochemical phenomena and rarefaction ef-

The reason for changes in aerothermodynamic characteristics in high-speed

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 485

Molecular Interaction Potential

486 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

The traditional Larsen-Borgnakke (LB) model (Borgnakke & Larsen 1975)

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 487

temperature of vibrations, and T is the local temperature.

488 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

(1993), the probability of VT transitions is determined using the inverse Laplace

for VT energy transfer is taken as the ITFITS (improvement to forced oscil-

An alternative approach to generation of the model of molecular vibrations

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 489

Chemical Reactions in Air

490 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 491

492 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

neutrality. An alternate approach was developed by Carlson et al (1989) that

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 493

assumption that a fraction 1 − σ of the molecules is reflected from the surface

introduced, which represent the accommodation coefficients for the tangential

cently, Lord (1991) has presented the implementation of the Cercignani-Lampis

MODELING OF CHEMICALLY REACTING FLOWS

494 IVANOV & GIMELSHEIN

HYPERSONIC RAREFIED FLOWS 495