Wit and Politics An Essay On Laughter and Power

Wit and Politics: An Essay on Laughter and Power
Author(s): Hans Speier

Source: The American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 103, No. 5 (Mar., 1998), pp. 1352-1401
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Wit and Politics: An Essay on Laughter
and Power'
Hans Speier
Translatedand edited byRobertJackall,WilliamsCollege
Originallypublishedin Germanin 1975,thisreflective essay draws

on materialfroma wide range of epochs and societiesto analyze
the uses, intricacies,and paradoxesof wit in politicalrelationships
greatand small.Topics includewitas a weapon,thecrucialelement
of surprise,the uses of nonsense,the laughterof both the mighty
and theweak, whisperedjokes in totalitarianregimes,and wit and
death.The essay returnsrepeatedlyto the paradox of timelessness,
that is, the recurrenceof similarformsof politicalhumor,indeed
identicaljokes, in differentcenturiesand among different peoples.
PROVINCE OF POLITICAL WIT

Politicaland NonpoliticalJokes
Philogelos,theancientGreekcollectionofjokes by Hieroclesand Philag-
rius,containsthestoryofthedull-wittedman who hearsthatravenslive
morethan 200 years.He decidesto keep a raven in a cage to findout if
The storyalso occursin a 17th-century
he has been toldthetruth.2 Japa-
1 Trans.note:Hans Speieroriginallypublishedthisessayinbookformin 1975as Witz
und Politik:Essay iuberdie Machtand das Lachen (Zurich:EditionInterfrom AG,
Texte/Thesen 58,VerlagA. Fromm,Onasbruck). AfteritsGermanpublication, Speier
translatedpartof theessayintoEnglish,providingadditionalexamplesto amplify
analyticalpointsmade in his originaltext.But he abandonedthetranslation with
onlyfragments completed.In preparing thistranslation,I consultedSpeier'spartial
translationand integratedintothistextsome of his supplemental examples.I am
gratefulto AnnetteHarms-Hunoldof VerlagA. Fromm,MargitSpeier (Speier's
widow),and SybilBarten(Speier'sdaughterand executorofhisestate)forpermission
to republishSpeier'sworkin thisform.I also wish to thankMargitSpeier,G. L.
Ulmen,ThomasKohut,and GaryFord forimportant suggestions on thetranslation
and Arthur J.Vidichfora closereadingofthecompleted manuscript. JoanL. Walling
and PeterGiordanoprovidedhelpfulbibliographical assistance.Directcorrespon-
denceto RobertJackall,Department ofAnthropology and Sociology,WilliamsCol-
lege,Williamstown, Massachusetts 01267.
2
(1968,p. 125)edition,whichcontains265jokes from
Trans.note:See Thierfelder's
theseveralancientmanuscripts thatwerecobbledtogether at variouspointsto make
up thePhilogelos.This editionalso containsa nearlycompletelistingof all extant
editionsand translations
ofthecompilation. The mostcomprehensive editionbefore
Thierfelderwas Eberhard(1869),whichcontains264 jokes.
? 1998by The University
of Chicago.All rightsreserved.
0002-9602/98/10305-0006$02.50
1352 AJS Volume 103 Number5 (March 1998): 1352-1401

Wit and Politics
nese versionand in a modernGermanform.The Japanesestoryis some-

what inferiorbecause of its explicitness.
livesfor10,000years.A thoughtful
It is saidthata tortoise mancaughta
babytortoise and said:"I'll keepthisand see ifthatis true."His friend
laughedand said,"Ourlifeis likethedew on thefloweron theRose of
Sharon.Howeverlongwe live,it's notmorethana hundred years.How
thencan anyoneseeifa tortoise livesfor10,000years?"The manreplied:
"That'sa pity."(Blyth1959,p. 485)
Toward theend ofKonradAdenauer'schancellorship oftheGermanFed-
eral Republic,it appeared to manyGermansthattheold man was deter-
minedto remainin officeforever.As rumorhas it,thefederalchancellor
was breedinggiantturtlesin orderto verifythattheyreallyreachtheage
of300 years(Thierfelder1968).These different versionsofthesamejoke,
separatedby more than a thousandyears and by culturaldistancesno
less formidable,raisetwofundamental questions.Withintherealmofwit
in general,whatis theprovinceofpoliticalwit?And how does one account
forpeopleofcompletely differentculturesand epochs,as is oftenthecase,
laughingabout verysimilarjokes?
A nonpoliticaljoke, such as the Greekor Japaneseversionsjust cited,
can suddenlybecome political,as in the Germancase, when a publicly
prominentpersonbecomesthe buttof thejest. But politicalwit does not
consistsolelyof the ridiculeof the highand mighty.Jokescan victimize
not only prominentwieldersof power or those who abuse that power;
theyoftenmaketheweak and unknownintolaughingstocks. Indeed,jests
"fromabove,"fromthoseofhigherstatus,ratherthanthose"frombelow,"
thatis,jokes bornoftriumphinsteadofresistance,maybe theprototypi-
cal politicaljokes.
Moreover,the targetsof politicalwit frombelow are not necessarily
individualprominentpersons.Politicalwit can be directedagainstsocial
groups,circles,or stratawhose social positionis contested:the nobility,
the nouveau riche,conquerors,bordergarrisons,the police,judges, and
so on. And, of course,manycultureshave jokes about peoples who are
differentin someway,such as ethnic,political,social,or religiousminori-
ties,whosesocial subordination or foreignnessmake themobjectsofridi-
cule. These includejokes about the Irish,blacks, Catholics,Jews,Sicil-
ians,theEast Germans,and neighboring peoples.Thereare also as many
jokes about conquerorsas about subjectpeoples.
Finally,politicaljokes maybe directedagainstestablishedinstitutions,
policies,or publiclyrecognizedvalues.3For example,in the fall of 1974
3Someeditorsofcollections ofpoliticaljokes distinguish

betweenpersonaland non-
personaljokes. See, e.g.,K. Hirsche(1964,pp. 33ff).
1353
AmericanJournalof Sociology
in theUnitedStates,one oftenheardmanyjokes abouttheraginginflation

of theperiod,whichthe government seemedto ignorecompletely.Some
jokes talkedaboutthecurrency revaluationwitha kindofgallowshumor,
as a misfortune or in a mockingor self-mocking way thatone associates
especiallywithmedicaljokes: "The operationwas successful,but thepa-
tientdied."In gallowshumor,misfortune assumesa kindof inevitability
about whichone can do nothing,liketheweatheror death.In thefollow-
ing Americanjoke, one thatalso has an earlierGermanversion,thegov-
ernmentgetsoffentirelyscot-free: "The government wants us to tighten
our belts;unfortunately, we've alreadyeaten our belts."Such a remark
is notreallyleveledagainstparticularpersons,butinsteadagainstinsuffi-
cientlyprecautionary economicpolicies.Similarly,the followingjoke as-
saultsthepoliciesand propagandaof government ratherthanindividual
government officials.
Ivan,whoas a tanksoldiertookpartin theoccupation ofCzechoslovakia
returned afterthreemonths to hisRussiangarrisontown.In thecanteen,
he was besiegedwithquestions: "How was it?Did yousee counterrevolu-
tionariesin Prague?"He responded:"Counterrevolutionaries
everywhere;
nothing butcounterrevolutionaries!"
Aftera while,someoneasked:"And
whataboutYevgeny;whenis he comingback?"ComradeIvan answered
somewhat "He'llbelatecoming
hesitantly: back,infact,verylate.He didn't
see anycounterrevolutionaries."
(Swoboda1969,pp. 46-47)
Finally,an old nonpoliticalanecdoteor bon motmaysuddenlybecome
politicaleven withoutmentionofa name,ifthelistenersdetecta political
allusion.When themilitaryis knownto be corrupt,as is currently [1975]
the case in Peru,thefollowingdefinition becomesa politicalbarb aimed
at thegovernment: "Whatis an oligarch?A man who lives likea general,
but not withhis own money."4
Wit as a Weapon
One's understanding ofpoliticaljokes obviouslydependson one's under-
standingof politics.At one level,politicsis always a struggleforpower.
Alongwithpersuasionand lies,advice and flattery, tokensofesteemand
bribery,banishmentand violence,obedienceand treachery, thejoke be-
longs to the rich treasuryof the instruments of politics.We oftenhear
thatthe politicaljoke is an offensiveweapon withwhichan aggressive,
politicallyengagedpersonmakes the arrangements or precautionsof an
opponentseem ridiculous.But even whenpoliticaljokes servedefensive
purposes,theyare nonethelessweapons.Toward theend ofOctober1972,
'From J. Novitski in the New York Times, May 3, 1972.
1354
Wit and Politics
duringa visitofthepresidentoftheGermanFederal Republicto London,

a journalistembarrassedGustavHeinemannin thepresenceoftheBritish
secretaryforforeignaffairs.Heinemannhad made public the establish-
mentofa German-British instituteforthestudyofindustrialsociety.The
journalistasked himwhat theGermantradeunionistscould learnin En-
gland. Heinemannseemedsomewhatdisconcerted.But thenhe took his
cigarout of his mouthand said: "English"(Henkels 1974,p. 42).
The defensivefunctionof thepoliticaljoke seemsparticularly clear in
quick-wittedanswersto aggressiveremarks.Parliamentary debatespro-
vide manyexamples,especiallyin England, wherewittyreparteeraises
the reputationof a parliamentmemberamong his colleagues. In the
UnitedStates,parliamentary debatesare on the wholeless wittythanin
England.As ClementAttleesuggested,a greatdeal ofwhat is said in the
U.S. Congressis said forentryintothe CongressionalRecord in orderto
impressvotersin one's homestate.Because thereis no premiumon quick-
wittedness,debates suffera loss of liveliness.
There are, of course,bothaggressiveand defensivejokes thatare non-
political.A joke made at theexpenseof a guestat a social gatheringcan,
to be sure,make the victiman "enemy"of thejoker and can lead to the
victim'sconstruction of a "coalition"betweenthejoker and his laughing
audience.But, at the same time,it can producean intimaterelationship
betweenthe victimand thosemembersof the audience who do notjoin
in thelaughter.In thiscase, one can speak ofpoliticalrolesand relation-
shipsonlyin thebroadestsenseofthewordsincea privatesocialgathering
is notan explicitly politicalinstitution.
The same is truefora nonpolitical
joke witha defensivepurpose.A nonpoliticaldefensivejoke thatis similar
to theJapanesestoryabout the tortoiseis the anecdoteabout a servant
of Caligostro,the famousswindlerand alchemist.Caligostroclaimedto
be morethan 1,000yearsold and to have spokenwithPontiusPilate.
One day a skeptical
noblemanwantedto findoutwhether thiswas true
and he askedCaligostro's
lackey:"Is it truethatyourmasteris as old as
he claimsto be?"The servant
responded: "I don'tknow.I've onlybeenin
hisservicefor400years."'
Diversionaryand SoothingJokes
The allusionto theaggressiveand defensivefunctions ofjokes in political
strugglesdoes notentirely
do justiceto politicalhumor.Even Ciceronoted
thathumorsoftensbothpomp and severityand thatthe skillfulorator,
bymeansofa joke, is able to make aggressiveremarksthatare noteasily
refutedby arguments.
'From thefirst-rate
collectionHumorseitHomer(1964,p. 119).
1355
One findssomethingsimilarin Quintilian,who begins his treatment

about how humorcan serve an oratorwiththe observationthat,witha
joke, theoratorcan refreshenand revivifytheattentivenessof a judge if
the latteris drifting
off.On the otherhand,amongthe richcollectionof
jokes in thesecondbook ofCastiglione'sCortegiano,one findsthefollow-
ing anecdote.
It was reported
to thebishopofPadua thata priesthad impregnated
five
nuns.A certainMarcantonio ofTorreaskedthebishopnotto punishthe
priest.
Thebishopresponded thattherewasnothingelsehecoulddo.Citing
Luke'sGospel(16:2),he inquired
whathe wouldsaytotheLordonJudg-
mentDay ifhe wereordered: "Renderan accountofyourhousehold."The
quick-wittedMarcantoniothereuponcited Matthew'sGospel (25:20):
"Lord,youhavegivenmefivetalents;look,withthese,I havewonanother
fivetalents."
The bishopcould notrefrainfromlaughingand he lessenedbothhis own

irritationand the punishmenthe had intendedforthe sinner.6
In a similarvein, althoughsomewhatmore pointedly,did Richard
BrinsleySheridan,the authorof SchoolforScandal and othercomedies,
expresshimself.Sheridan,an opponentof William Pitt,was one of the
wittiestpoliticiansin the historyof England. In his view, four-fifths
of
the Englishparliamentconsistedof landownersand otherfools.He used
laughterin any way thathe could to obliteratethe memoryof whatever
opposed his opinions."Then,"he said, "I set an argumentquicklybefore
themand nothingmorestandsin myway" (quotedin Harris 1966,p. 25).
Humor weakensan audience's defensesand makes it moreamenableto
persuasion.
We should also note a special formof Americanpoliticalhumorthat
helpsdivertconflict,namelythejestingparable. It comesfromthe South
and has long been used by Southernpoliticianswith greatsuccess. For
example,it servedthosepoliticianswellinjustifying theirpositionon civil
rights,a stancethatwas notpopularwithpoliticiansfromotherpartsof
thecountry.As one observerpointedout,such storiesaim at "thetension
in Congressand its committees to diminishdebate and to put offvoting"
(Harris1966,p. 225). So thefamousSenatorSam ErvinofNorthCarolina
expressedhimselfduringthe civil rightsdebate in 1959 as follows:
The Attorney Generalhas a criminal thathe can use.He has a

definition
thathecanuse.ButheturnstoCongress
civildefinition toseekforhimself
yeta thirddefinition.
The Attorney Generalremindsmeofa youngfellow
whofoundhimself footlooseand fancy-free.
Johncourted MaryandJohn
6 Cited in the 1561 English translationof Castiglione, II Cortegiano,by Sir Thomas

Hoby (London: D. Nutt, 1900, p. 151).
1356
Wit and Politics
said to Mary:"Mary,ifyou were not what you are, what would you want
to be?" And Marysaid: "I would liketo becomea beautifulAmericanrose."
And thenshe asked John:"John,ifyou werenotwhatyou are,whatwould
you want to be?" And Johnsaid: "Mary,ifI were not what I am, I would
want to be a cuttlefish."Mary said: "John,what is a cuttlefish?"
Johnsaid:
"A cuttlefishis a fishthathas a thousandarms."Mary said to John:"Well,
that's good John.If you were a cuttlefish, what would you do withyour
thousandarms?"And Johnsaid to Mary: "Mary,I would take you in all
of myarms."And Mary said to John:"Get out of here,John.You haven't
once used the two arms that you have." [laughter]The AttorneyGen-
eral oftheUnitedStatesalreadyhas two arms.I assuremyfellowSenators
that one arm is quite sufficient in the South to stop anybodywho inten-
tionallyrestrainssomeone,whatevertheircoloror race,fromregistering to
vote or actuallyvoting,or who impedesa vote beingcountedtheway it is
cast. (Harris 1966,p. 225)
The storyofJohnand Mary is in itself,of course,notpolitical.But its
harmlesscomedybecomespoliticalbecause the storyteller pointsout the
relationshipto immediatelyfeltpoliticalcircumstances.The storyteller
thusappears in two different roles.As thepersonwho recountsthestory,
he is a humorousobserverwithoutan axe to grind,someonesimplyen-
gaged in life.But, at thesame time,he tellsthestoryas a parable,which
is itspracticalmeaning,and afterhisopponentsare disarmedbylaughter,
he playsagain theroleofa politicianand makeshispoint.The joke serves
as a ruse,thougha ruse withoutfalsehood.
One can treatall of theseexamplesin two ways. The opponentis di-
vertedfromthedispute,and thedisputeitselfis smoothedoverin a concil-
iatoryfashion.Of course,thenarratormayinducehis opponentto laugh
insteadof continuingthedisputeand to escape withoutdetriment, while
as muchas possibleworkingto bringabout a victoryforhis own position.
At thesame time,he also renewsthebattlein a different light.He reminds
theopponent,as it were,thatpoliticsnotonlyconsistsofconflict, but also
assumes some kind of mutual understanding. Political life consistsnot
just in the struggleforpower; it also embracesprinciplesof orderand
commonality.Laughterforgesties betweenpeople, bindingthose who
laugh togetherto one another.Withregardto SenatorErvin's story,the
listenersbelievetheyare laughingchieflyonlyaboutJohnand Mary and
not at the expenseof the attorneygeneral.And so the divertingpolitical
joke notonlyinfluencesthecourseof dispute,but also thedesireforcon-
flictamong the participants.The joke changes them,so to speak, as it
deemphasizesthe conflict. In England,Churchillwas a special masterin
theartofreducingthehightensionsofconflict in theHouse ofCommons
with a joke. FranklinD. Rooseveltalso knew verywell how to lessen
controversies withinhis cabinetwithjokes.
Certainpoliticaljokes also reconcileantagonistswitheach other.Poli-
ticsnotonlyrevolvesaroundthebattleforpower;it also servesthepublic
1357
spirit,thesocial order,thesense oflegitimacyin a society,harmony,and

indeed peace. Anotherexample. The diplomaticrelationsbetweenthe
GermanRepublic and Israel were forgedin the first20 years afterthe
end ofWorldWar II underPresidentErhardoftheWestGermanRepub-
lic. ManyIsraelisopposedthepresenceofa Germanambassadorin Israel;
therewere even demonstrations against the German ambassador Rolf
Pauls. Fourteendays afterhis arrivalin Tel Aviv, Pauls was invitedto
a privatedinnerforthe firsttime.A youngIsraeli industrialistregaled
theguestswithJewishjokes. Pauls wantedto join in thelaughter,but he
kepthis distanceeitherout oftactor embarrassment. He recountedlater
thattheice was brokenwhenthecharmingstoryteller turnedto himand
said: "Laugh, Mr. Ambassador.Give us pleasureand laugh"(Pauls 1972,
p. 9).
The Healing Joke

Divertingand soothingjokes lie on theborderofpoliticalhumor.Senator
Ervin's storyabout Johnand Mary seemedto lack practicalpoliticalap-
plicationand was a harmlesspleasantrywithoutpartisanintention, until
the senatormade his point.Nonpartisanjokes presupposean observer
who is capable of distancefromlifeand its trials.The humorof such an
observeris a kind of tonic,one that has nothingto do with tricksand
maneuvering in thepoliticalarena.The politicaljoke as a weapon is prag-
matic:it inflicts wounds.The purelyreflective joke standsabove thefray;
it heals. Divertingand soothingjokes lie betweenthe entirelypragmatic
and contemplation. When used as a ruse in a politicaldebate or forthe
purposeofworkingoutan amicablearrangement, theyare pragmatic,but
when theyare used as humortheyare contemplativeand healing.
If, in thecourseof a studyof thepoliticaluse ofjokes, one's attention
is addressedto thepragmaticfunction, one may assume thatthe criticis
interested in changingtheworldinsteadof acceptingit as it is-a funda-
mentalpostulateof modernscience and of the world to which science
belongs.The revolutionary and the scientistare humorless.Science does
not brook much genuinehumor.Humor accepts both nature and the
worldof affairs.Humordoes notchangethecircumstances thatit illumi-
nates,althoughit is able to lessen the discontentand even the despair
that thesecircumstancesproduce.It does not alter the lifemeaningsof
people or theforcesthatcontrolthem.It helpsone onlyto bear somewhat
bettertheunalterable;sometimesitremindsboththemighty and theweak
thattheyare not to be takenseriously.
On December 13, 1862,duringthe AmericanCivil War, the battleof
Fredricksburg tookplace, in whichtheUnion armysuffered highcasual-
ties,double thoseof Confederacytroops.A deep depressionsettledover
1358
Wit and Politics
theNorth.On theday afterthebattle,thecongressmanIsaac N. Arnold

soughtout PresidentLincoln.He foundLincolnreadinga book by a con-
temporaryhumorist.Arnolddid not conceal thatLincoln's lighthearted
mood shockedhim. Later he recountedthatLincoln,seeinghis distress,
threwthebook aside and withtearson his face and withhis entirebody
shakingsaid: "Mr. Arnold,if I don't findsome passing relieffromthe
crushingburdensthatI mustcarry,thenmyheartwould break"(Harris
1966,p. 100).
Even in the formof gallows humor,jokes can work as soothingand
liberatingdevices.There are manyjokes of thiskindin manylanguages.
There is, forexample,the storyof the man fromCologne,who aftera
bombingraid pulledhis unharmedneighborout ofhis completely burned
house.He turnedquietlyto his neighborand said: "You are certainlyone
poor fellow."The neighborasked in an astonishedvoice: "And just how
is that?I have it behindme, but you have yetto face it!"7
The CynicalPoliticalJoke
Thereis anotherformofpoliticaljoke thatfallsunderneitheroftheprevi-
ouslymentionedcategories.It is neitheraggressive/defensive nor diver-
sionarynor soothing;ultimately, it lacks even the liberatingconsolation
ofdistancinghumorthatthepersonunhappywiththisworldtakesas his
joy. This is thecynicaljoke, whichis notdirectedagainsta certainperson,
but ratheras a generalexpressionof moralalienationfromthe political
order.
At the level of local politics,thereis a cynicaljoke about a southern
Bavarian farmingcommunitythat saw throughthe tricksof its mayor.
"To put it mildly,he had taken a slice forhimselffromeverything and
everybody.At first,therewas a commondemand that he must be re-
moved. But thenin a special meetingof the communitycouncil it was
unanimouslydeterminedotherwise.'He stays!We know all his tricks.
Betterhim than breakingin a new one . . .'" (Fuchs 1975,p. 196).
The secondexampleis of greaterimport.It originatesfromtheperiod
of the Cold War, thoughone also findsit in lateranticommunist collec-
tions of jokes. Like all cynicaljokes, it unmaskspretensions,doing so
in an oftenvulgar way, even thoughsuch jokes usually originatewith
intellectuals.It critiquesideologyor publiclyprofessedideas in a terse,
penetrating way.
Roosevelt,
Churchill,
and Stalinmeetin heavenand reminisce aboutthe
SecondWorldWar.Churchill
takesa cigaroutofhisleather
caseandleaves
I This is toldby Fuchs in his afterword

to "Witzder Kolner"(1975,p. 152).
1359
it openon thetable.The othertwogentlemen noticean inscriptioninside:

"To theSavioroftheEmpirefromtheGrateful NationsoftheEmpire."
After a while,Roosevelt
lightsa cigarette.
He, too,leaveshissilvercaseon
thetablewithout closingit.Churchilland Stalinsurreptitiously
noticethe
engraved dedication:
"Mankindin Gratitude to theSavioroftheWorld."
Stalin'sexpression
doesnotchange,butslowlyhe takesa goldencaseout
ofhisbreastpocket.Whileheis holding a matchtohiscigarette,thegentle-
menin his companyread the elegantengraving: "The ViennaJockey
Club-to CountEsterhazy."
This aggressively
anticommunist joke points,of course,to thethievery
of the Red Armyin occupiedterritories. But it goes well beyondthat.It
relegatesnationalism,as well as all otherideologicalpromisesofcollective
happiness,to the realm of delusion,confronting such delusionwiththe
allegedrealityofnaked utility.The joke aims less at Roosevelt,Churchill,
or even Stalinthanit does at all moraljustifications forpolitics,whether
capitalistor communist,whetherpromisingjustice,glory,or peace.
THE REALM OF HUMOR

The provinceof politicalwit lies withinthe largerrealmofhumoritself.
Justas politicalwit can clearlybe directedtoward politicalgoals in a
playful,melancholy,or cynicalway,so, in thecase ofa nonpoliticaljoke,
we oftenlaughabouttheverysame thingsthatmightspurus on to earnest
action under othercircumstances.We can, forinstance,laugh about a
man who makesa mistakeor behavesfoolishly, or we can tryto enlighten
himso thatin thefuturehe can escape hiserroror eliminatehisignorance
altogether.We can tryto help a man who failsthrougha psychological
or moralblunder,insteadofseizingtheopportunity to make a joke at his
expense.We feel sorryforthe deformedand the feeble,althoughthey
are oftenmocked.In short,the comical lies in the eye of the beholder.
Nonpoliticaljokes includea refusalofa stanceofhelpfulness or improve-
ment;thesame thingappliesto thebattleofhealingand defusingpolitical
jokes. Only aggressive,defensive,and diversionarypoliticaljokes are
pragmaticmeans to victoryin politicaldisputes.
This briefessayon thepoliticaljoke cannotreviewall themanyreasons
forlaughternor plumb the substanceof humoras much as we would
like. Yet politicaljokes depend on certaingeneraltechniquesand basic
meaningsof humor.
To beginwith,we shouldbriefly mentioncertaintechniquesof humor,
especiallythe elementof surprise,as well as othermethodsthatemerge
out of the characterof language and of logical thought.Cicero provides
thefirstfoundationalwritingof such spokenhumor,thatis, on word or
thoughtplay (De Orcatore 2.59). Followinghis lead, one noticesthatsome
typesof verbaljokes appear timeand again as politicaljokes. This pro-
1360
Wit and Politics
vides an opportunityto allude to the meaningof a phenomenonthat

one can call the aura of a joke: thatis, both the nonpoliticalas well as
the politicaljoke open us to a second,that is, alternativeview of our
world.
Along with verbal jokes, thereare also comical situations.One finds
thisancientdistinction as earlyas Homer.Odysseusescapes Polyphemus
with the help of a pun with which he outwitsthe monster.When the
Cyclopsasks himforhis name,Odysseusreplies:"Nobody."When Poly-
phemusis later asked by his comradeswho had blindedhim,he could
only give the foolishanswer:"Nobody."In anothercase, the lame He-
phaestususes a pliable net to catch his wifeand herloverin bed. When
he calls upon the gods to witnessthe scandal, theybreak into laughter
about the comicplightof the capturedlovebirds.
The centerpiecesofthecomicalsituationscoveredin bothpoliticaland
nonpoliticaljokes almostalways revolvearound the natureof men and
women and the world in which theylive. Moreover,in many political
jokes, the unchangingrealitiesof politicallife,and notjust the physical
stateof theworld,contributeto thelongevityor the rebirthof old forms
of humor.The paradox of the transcendenceof politicalhumor,as we
shall see, consistsin thetime-boundqualityof thewordingofjokes, cou-
pled withthetimelessqualityofdistinctive linguistictechniquesand typi-
cal humansituations.
Surprise
The forcefulness ofeveryjoke, whetherpoliticalor nonpolitical,depends
on how it surprisesthe listener.The unexpectedstatementsurprisesthe
listenerdependingon its brevity.The mosteffective surpriseoccurswith
a singleunexpectedword.DuringtheNazi period,Karl Valentintoldthis
storyin his Munich cabaret:"Earlierwe had the big industrialists. And
what did we have? Partybosses.Then, aftertherevolution,theMarxists
came. And what did we have? Partybosses. Now finallywe have the
National Socialists.And what do we have? Friday"(Dor and Federmann
1971,p. 63). Similarlyexplosiveis the end of the storyabout the school
coursein an agriculturalcooperativeoftheGermanDemocraticRepublic.
"The Soviets will soon flyto the moon!"says the speakeremphatically.
A farmerasks: "All of them?"(Dor and Federmann1971,p. 71).
The comicaleffect ofsurpriseis notrestricted
tojokes. One also encoun-
tersit in humorousprose and poetry.A storyin Ihara Saikuku's book
Five Amorous Women (1686) contains the descriptionof a beautiful
woman who was discoveredby a groupof youngfellowson a streetin
Kyoto. She exhibitedher charmingways, her gracefulmovements,and
herexpensivegarmentsto theobviouspleasureoftheonlookers." 'What
1361
a prizeforsomeonewho is lucky,'said one of theyoungmen. But these

wordshad scarcelylefthis mouthwhenthewoman,turningto one ofher
servants,openedhermouth.It turnedoutthatshe lackedone ofherlower
teeth"(Hibbett1970,p. 38). Anotherexampleis HeinrichHeine's poem
"Donna Clara" (1824), a ballad of secretand sorrowfullove betweena
haughtylady and an extremely pleasantyoungknight.During the fore-
playto lovemaking,Donna Clara makesno secretofherintenseprejudice
against the "dirtyJews."When she finallypulls herselfout her lover's
arms amidstthe myrtleleaves, she asks him his "sweetname."
Andtheknight, calmlylaughing,
KissesthefingerofhisDonna,
Kissesherlipsand herforehead,
Andsaysfinally:
I, Sefiora,
yourlover,
Amthesonofthewidelyfamous,
Great,and learnedRabbi
IsraelofSaragossa.
(Heine,n.d.,1:129-31)
The effectof surprisein politicaljokes is at itsgreatestwhentheunex-
pectedhas to do withlifeand death,thatis, in themacabrepoliticaljoke.
versionsof thefollowingstorywere extantduringStalin's life-
Different
time.
Stalinis givinga speechbefore a massgathering inMoscow'sRed Square.
Someonesneezes.The commanding ofthesquad ofguardson the
officer
squareasks:"Whosneezed?" Icysilence.The commander hadthefirstrow
ofthecrowdstepforward andgivestheorderforthemenat themachine
gunsto fire.Stalinstartsto speakoncemoreand againsomeonesneezes.
Afterthesameprocedure, thesecondrowofthecrowdis moweddown.
WhenStalinis interrupted a thirdtimewitha sneeze,and thecrowdis
askedwhohas doneit,a trembling old manin thelastrowsays:"It was
I." ThenStalincallsoutin a friendly fashion:"Goodhealth,Comrade!"
Because the effectof manyjokes depends on a surprisefactor,a story
knownby the listeneris no longera joke. The joke is scarcelytold and
it calls forthdisconcertment ratherthanlaughter.Similarly,one can also
ruina joke whenone has to explainit to someonewho did notunderstand
it. This is a littlelike releasingthe safetycatch on a powerfulgrenade
thathas alreadyexploded.
Puns
Puns occur at all timesand in all languages,in Sanskrit,in Greek and
Latin, in Chinese and Japanese,and in all livinglanguagesof the West.
Many greatwritershave cherishedpuns,includingWu Ch 'eng-en,author
1362
Wit and Politics
ofthe ChinesefolknovelMonkey,as well as Aristophanes,Shakespeare,

Dr. Johnson,Rabelais, Grimmelshausen, Melville,and ArtemusWard,
no less than Lewis Carroll,JamesJoyce,GrouchoMarx, and Winston
Churchill.In Monkey,we find:"But tell me, what is your hsing [sur-
name]?""I nevershow myhsing[agitation]," said Monkey,therebydem-
onstrating thatmanypuns are untranslatable(Wu 1958,p. 19; fora dis-
cussionof the humorin Monkey,see Wells 1971,pp. 169ff.).And from
Mark Twain we have thefollowingjewel. At a dinnergivenby his very
wealthyfriend,one Mr. Rogers,anotherguestsittingnear Mark Twain
said: "Your friend'smoneyis tainted."Twain quicklyretorted: "It's twice
tainted.'Taint yoursand 'taintmine"(citedin Bier 1968,p. 158).
Punningturnsrealityaround.We do nothingbut laugh and wonder.
We laughbecause theworldthatwe knowand in whichwe live and suffer
seems changedthrougha second view of it. FollowingHenri Bergson's
interpretation,a situationis invariablycomical"whenit belongssimulta-
neouslyto two altogetherindependentseriesof eventsand is capable of
being interpreted in two entirelydifferentmeaningsat the same time."8
But it is importantto make special note that this understanding of the
"second level,"that is, the second sightor view, is the playfulresultof
creativeinsightand intelligence.In this sense,thereis no contradiction
betweenAristotle'soft-repeated opinionthatpunningis thelowestform
of humorand SidneySmith'sfamousdictumthatit is thefoundationof
all wit.
Now thisnotionof second sight,whichboth puns and jokes open up
forus,can be bestunderstoodbyexaminingthepoem"Anto-logie" [Antol-
ogy]by ChristianMorgenstern (1952).
Im Anfang lebte,wiebekannt,
als grosster
SaugerderGig-ant.
WobeigigeineZahl ist,die
es nichtmehrgibt,-so grosswarsie!
Dochjene GrosseschwandwieRauch.
Zeitgab's genug-und
Zahlenauch.
Bis einesTags,einwinzigDing,
derZwolef-ant das Reichempfing.
Wo bliebseinReich?Wo bleiber selb?-
SeinBeinwirdimMuseumgelb.
8 See Bergson(1928,p. 5). Although

pedanticand filledwithjargon,see also Zijerveld
(1968,p. 290),who seemsto me to comecloserto theheartofthematter:"Joking
is
1363
Natur
Zwargab die giitige
denElef-antenunsdafur.
Doch ach,derPulverpavian,
derMensch,vollGiernachseinemZahn,
ihn,stattihmZeitzu lassen,
erschiesst
zumZehen-anten zu verblassen.
0 KlubzumSchutzderwildenTiere,
hilf,dass derMenschnichtruiniere
die SprossendieserRiesneleiter,
undweiter!
die stetsnochwieterfuihrt
WiedankbarwirdderAntdirsein,
lasstdu ihnwachsenundgedeihn,-
biserdereinstimNebelhinten
wirdstummverschwinden.9
als Nulel-ant
Morgenstern's poeticlicenseprovidesus withan intellectualdouble sight
on thenotionof"elephant"amongotherthings.Such a "doubleconscious-
ness"is theresultof a processanalogousto solvinga riddle.In a remark-
able articlewrittenovera hundredyearsago, HughlingsJacksonreferred
to thecreativeintelligenceat therootofan appreciationofpuns(and other
jokes) as the"surplusmind,"somethingoverand above thatrequiredfor
gettingfoodand formereanimal indulgence.'0In the same vein,he also
commentson the phenomenonof "quasi-healthy"reminiscenceand its
morbidformsin certainkindsofepilepsy.He relatessuch"dreamystates"
to punningas a "morbidactivityin a slendersense" (Jackson 1887, p.
360). These surprisingobservationsmay suggestan explanationof why
definedas theconsciousorunconscious transition meaning

fromone institutionalized
structure to another,withoutchangingmuchoftheoriginalrolebehaviorand logic."
I Trans.note:In AlleGalganleider(Gallowssongs),poemsoriginally publishedin 1905
and 1910,Morgenstern (1871-1914)turnstheGermanlanguageinsideout,continually
playingwithmeaningby inverting words,and metaphors.
letters, The poem"Anto-
logie"is, at one level,about numbers(gig-ant[billionishbeing],zwolf[12],elf[11],
zehen[zehn= 10],and nulel[a variantof"null,"meaningnaughtor zero]).But the
poemis also a parodyofthenotionofevolution,hereconsideredas devolution, the
measureddescentfroma worldinhabitedbygreatbeings(Gig-ant), throughan epoch
inhabitedby zw6lef-anten (twelefants), to man who kills
and Elef-anten(elefants),
such beingsforcommercialgain,hasteningtheday whenonlythe ant will inhabit
theearth,followedby Nulel-ant(nothingness). For an eleganttranslationof"Anto-
logie,"indeedofall ofMorgenstern's Galgenleider,see SongsfromtheGallows,trans-
latedby WalterArndt(New Haven, Conn.:Yale University Press,1993,p. 28).
10
See Jackson(1887).My thanksto SybilBartenforcallingmyattention to thisre-
markablearticle.
1364
Wit and Politics
manypracticalpeople,upon hearinga pun,become uncomfortable or at

least pretendthatthe punsteroughtto be rebuffedby conventionalized
moaningand groaning.Perhaps an experimentwill somedayshow that
people who regularlymiss the pointof a joke, and possiblyeven those
who have an aversionto puns,are also scandalizedor dumbfoundedby
poetryand nonrealisticart. Along the same lines,one mightnote that
interestin children'sart and thatofthementallyill was takenover from
the Expressionistsby the Dadaists who were recklesslyextravagantin
theiruse of languageand of visual imagery.Hugo Ball, one of the main
figuresof the movementin Switzerland,definedtheDadaist as a "child-
like,quixoticman,entangledin wordplayand in figuresofspeech"(Schif-
ferli1963,p. 40). Is theunderstandingof the secondsighta faintecho of
theancienttie betweenthepoet and the seer possessedwithenthusiastic
madness?
Inversionof Letters
The humorousplaywiththemeaningofwordsbychangingtheirspelling,
sometimesby as littleas a singleletter,seems to be verywidespreadas
well.CiceromentionsthemanipulationofthenameNobiliorbysubstitut-
ing an "m" forthe "n," turningsomeonewho is "noble"into one who is
"mobile."Morethana thousandyearslater,the17th-century Germansati-
ristGrimmelshausen used theexactsamejoke in deflating thepretensions
to respectability ofCourage,a fictionalcamp followerin theThirtyYears'
War. It is unlikelythatGrimmelshausen borrowedhisslightlysexualjoke
fromCicero. He probablydiscoveredthe humorouspossibilitiesof this
playon lettersquiteindependently. CastiglionechangesAlexanderVI into
AlexanderVi; in Latin,thismakes"Pope AlexandertheSixth"into"Alex-
ander,Pope by force."This is scarcelya harmlessjest. Even moretenden-
tiousis thestorythatone hearsabout Rabelais. When death approached
him,he asked to be clad in thecheckeddominocloak wornat Mardi Gras.
When he had put on the costume,he died utteringthe parody:"Beati
sunt qui in Domino moriuntur." [Blessed are thosewho die in the Lord
(Domino); i.e., as a domino.]
In the 18thcenturyin Germany,Georg ChristophLichtenbergwas a
masterof this kind of humor.SigmundFreud oftenquoted him in his
pathbreakingwork on jokes and theirrelationshipsto the unconscious.
One ofLichentenberg's bestjokes ofthiskindis theremarkabouta Greek
scholar who each time he encounteredin his German books the word
"angenommen"["accepted"]read "Agamemnon."
Thereare a greatmanypoliticaljokes thatrelyon suchletterinversion.
In AnthonyBurgess's ClockworkOrange,we find"Ministryof the Infe-
rior."In theGermanFederal Republicof 1973,one joke asked,"Whatdo
1365
the [Berlin]Reichstagbuildingand the government of the GermanFed-

eral Republic have in common?"The answer: "Both were destroyed
throughBrand(t)."An East Germantypesetter was imprisonedforprint-
ing thatWalterUlbricht,firstsecretaryofthe ZK (CentralCommitteeof
theSocialistUnityParty)was firstsecretaryoftheKZ, theformerabbre-
viationforconcentration camp."
A spoonerismis a joke thatdepends on the transposition or omission
of a letteror the transposition
of sounds to achieve a surprisingresult.
Politicalspoonerismsare rare.An especiallygood one comesfromFranz
Mittler,a masterof the art (1969, p. 70). It is signed"GI in Germany"
and, in German,it reads
An Wotans Wunderesche
Hangt er die Unterwasche.
This translatesintothe English:
On Wotan's marvelousash-tree,
He hangs his underwear.
One couldscarcelypointoutmoreeffectively or succinctly
thecharacteris-
tic weaknessesof two nationswithoutindulgingin malice.
There are word manipulationsof a greatersortthanthe transposition
of letters,and, whentheysucceed,theyare veryfunnyindeed.The prize
forthe best politicaldeclarationof thissortof opinioncertainlybelongs
to JohannNestroy.In thelast days of Schiller'ssojournin Graz in 1830,
therewas a politicaldemonstration at a performance ofDon Carlos.The
audiencerespondedto thewordsofthe princedirectedto themarquisof
" Trans.note:JokesaboutUlbrichtaboundedduringhis rule.Discoveredin Speier's

papersafterhis deathwas an incomplete manuscript entitled"Der politischeWitze
inderDDR" [The politicaljoke in theGermanDemocraticRepublic].The authorship
althoughitseemstobe Speier's work.The manuscript
is uncertain, containsa number
ofjokes aboutUlbricht:
BrigitteBardotvisitstheDDR and is greetedby WalterUlbricht:Ulbricht
asksher:"MissBardot,is thereanything, anything at all,thatI can do tomake
yourvisita pleasantone?" Bardotreplies:"O yes,Mr. Ulbricht,if you will
grantme one wish,thenteartheBerlinwall down and open the bordersof
yourstateforall ofitscitizens!"Ulbrichtreplies:"Ah,mydear,I see thatyou
wantto be alone withme."
Duringa conversation betweenWalterUlbrichtand WillyBrandt,Ulbricht
asksBrandt:"Do youhavea hobby,Mr.Brandt?"Brandtreplies:"Yes,I collect
jokes thatthe peopletellabout me." Ulbrichtsays:"Withme,it's the other
way around.I collectthepeoplewho telljokes aboutme."
See also Lukes and Galnoor(1985),a sprawlingand unevencollectionat best,but
one thatcontainsa numberofjokes abouttotalitarian thatof
regimes,particularly
Ulbricht.
1366
Wit and Politics
Posa: "Armin arm withyou, I challengemy hundredthyear!"[Armin

Arm mit dir, so fordr'ich mein Jahrhundert in die Schranken!]with
a stormof applause. The police correctlyunderstoodthis as a long-
suppressedexclamationof a yearningforfreedom,and the authorities
eliminatedthe piece fromthe repertory. More than a centurylater,the
Nazis did the same thing.In Graz, The Marriageof Figaro was hastily
substitutedforDon Carlos.Nestroysang theroleof Bartolo.In thescene
in whichBartoloencounterstheschemingBasilius,Nestroytookhimby
the arm and led him close to the stage apron. There he hesitatedwhile
the tensionin the audience grew.Then he said suddenly:"Armand arm
withyou, I challengenarrow-minded stupidityfora century!"[Armin
Armmitdir-so fordr'ich Baschranktheit fursJahrhundert!]Aftera hur-
ricaneof laughter,Nestroyhad to climbout of a windowin disguiseto
escape fromthepolice,althoughhe was laterarrestedbackstagein Vienna
(Waldemar 1959,p. 8).
PlayingwiththeAmbiguousMeaning of Words
Ambiguityof meaningabounds in joking,as in poetryand diplomacy.
Cicero commendssuch jokes because of theireleganceand scholarship.
In particular,he mentionsthecase ofTitius,who was an excellenttennis
playersuspectedofhavingbrokensacredimagesat night.TerentiaVespia
excusedhis absence fromthe Campus Martiusby saying"he has broken
an arm."This jocular remarkdepends,of course,on the unique coinci-
dence of two dissimilar,unconnectedevents,thatis, tennisplayingand
vandalism.The joke worksbecause ofthedoublemeaningoftheapology.
Some double meanings retain their accessibilityand intelligibility
throughcenturiesof experience,at least withincertaintraditions.In the
Christiancontext,forexample,Rabelais, and probablymanyothersbe-
forehim,as well as Grimmelshausen afterhim,used the expression"the
resurrection of the flesh"in a way that alluded to its obscene meaning.
JohnDonne also made use of thisimagery.One can attributea blasphe-
mous,but scarcelya politicalmeaningto this.However,duringtheNazi
period,thesame expressionbecame thepointof a politicaljoke in which
the newlywedFrau Goringwas said to have leftthe churchbecause of
her waningfaithin the resurrection of theflesh.In the new version,the
joke continuedto be obsceneand blasphemous,sincedoubtin thesexual
potencyof her husbandwas equated withlack of religiousfaith.But, of
course,thissuddenlyinvolvedtheReichsmarshal,a prominentpersonin
public life(Speier 1969,p. 83).
Even todaythepoliticaljoke thatmakesuse ofthedouble meaningof
theword"hanging,"thatis, ofan opponentor ofhis picture,enjoyswide
popularity.One can trace the storynot only to the French Revolution,
1367
but even back to an Englishbook writtenin 1630(see HumorseitHomer

1964,p. 7; see also Brandt 1965,p. 242). One can predictwithcertainty
the constantrebirthof thisjoke. It will keep recurring
in cyclesas long
some men wish othermen dead, but when the wish is too weak to lead
to homicide.
Literaland IntendedMeanings
Cicero,as wellas manyobserversofverbaljokes afterhim,notedthatitis
comicalwhentheliteralmeaningofan expressionis takenforitsproperly
intendedmeaning.Today, we connectthiskindofjoke withthefool,Till
Eulenspiegelor,as he was called in an early(1528) Englishtranslationof
his pranks,Howleglas.For instance,a merchant, one ofhis manyemploy-
ers,told Howleglas to "make the wagon ready . . . and greaseit thatit
maygo trim."Howleglasgreasedthewagonbothoutsideand in. The next
morning, themerchantpickedup a priestand by theend oftheirjourney
intotown,theywerebothcoveredfromhead to toewithgrease(Zall 1963,
pp. 208-9). Anothertime,afterTill Eulenspiegelhad finisheda goodmeal,
he told the innkeeperthat the latterowed him moneybecause the inn-
keeperhad promisedhima good meal "formoney."About400 yearslater,
manyanswersalongthesame linedrovethesuperiorsofJaroslavHusek's
good soldierSchweikto despair.And eventodaythereflourishes a charac-
ternamed Amelia Bedelia in children'sbooks by PeggyParish who in-
structsyoungreadersin thesame devices.Sincethisjokingtechniquewell
befitsthe mockingof a dumb victim,we should not be surprisedto find
its predecessorin Greekantiquity.In Greekjokes, usuallywrittenabout
inhabitantsofcertaincities,stupiditywas especiallydenounced.In Philo-
gelos,thecitieswherestupidity flourished wereAbderaon thenorthcoast
of the Aegean Sea, which is knowntoday fromChristophMartinWie-
land's novel The RepublicofFools (1863),and the remoteKymein Asia
Minor,as well as thePhoeniciancitySidon. Moreover,otherpeoplesalso
have suchpreferred citiesoffools.For example,thePersianshad Emessa,
the Germans Schilda-and more lately East Frisia-and the Eastern
Jews,Chelm.Even in Castiglione'streatment ofthecourtof Urbino,the
citizensof Venice, Florence,and Brescia were mockedbecause of their
stupidity.In an old Greekjoke, an inhabitantofKymewantedto findan
acquaintanceand called himby name at his house. Someoneadvised the
man to call louder.Thereuponhe forgotthenameofhis friendand called:
"Mr. Louder!"(Dor and Federman1971,p. 53). Essentiallythesame joke
ridiculedPresidentvon Hindenburgin the 1930sand beforehimEmperor
Franz Joseph,as well as otheraged potentates,always to make themap-
pear ludicrouslysenile(Blyth1959,p. 487).
1368
Wit and Politics
Nonsense
Each joke gives us a secondsight.It places us in a worldwhereone can
transcendthelaws oflogic,whereexaggerationis allowed,and wherethe
bizarreis less surprisingthan the conventional.In thisarena, nothingis
impossible:beasts,rocks,and even the dead can speak; objects cast no
shadows;treesgrowin thesky;and thelanguageofhumorthatresembles
a puzzle takes on a high-spiritedrecklessness.
This magicalpowerofjokes reachesitszenithin thebestOrientaljests.
At a reunionof happypeople,one asks: "Has anyonehereeaten thunder
withvinegar?""No, ofcoursenot.Nor has anyoneas faras I know.Have
you triedit?" "Oh, yes.""How did it taste?Sweet or sour?""No, a little
cloudy."
This joke pointsto a kindofhumorthatis knownin theWestas absurd
poetry.It delightsall childrenbecause theylove versein whichthelaws
of logic do not apply and the wondersof a topsy-turvy world are cele-
brated.In thisworld,a blond-lockedyouthwithjet-blackhair sitson a
greenbank,whichis glossedoverred,and giantcreaturesdescendedfrom
elephantsleap frombranchto branch.Iona Opie and PeterOpie, in their
book on the language of schoolchildren, recordmany fineexamples of
nonsenserhymesand of "the deliberatejuxtapositionof incongruities"
that creates"utternonsense,"as distinguishedfromordinarynonsense.
They also pointout thatadultsare mockedin certainchildren'ssatirical
nonsenserhymes(Opie and Opie 1959,p. 19). One can certainlyunder-
standthisas a playfulchildishrevoltagainstauthority and adultpropriety
and as thecompanionpieceto certainkindsofpoliticaljokes ofthepower-
less againstthosewho hold power.But it is mistakento suggest,as Opie
and Opie do, thatthiskind of children'shumoris typicallyEnglish(see
Opie and Opie 1959,p. 24). In fact,such humorhas parallelsin many
languagesand standson a continuumthatreachesfromancientreligious
paradoxeseven to theclangingpoetryof theDadaists, to thenightmares
ofKarl Valentin,and to thetheatreoftheabsurd.In theIndian Taittiriya
Aranyaka,thereis a puzzle:
The blindmanfounda jewel;

The manwithoutfingerspickedit up;
The manwithno neckputit on;
Andthemanwhocouldnotspeakgaveit praise.
(Quotedin Zimmer1969,p. 409)
Compare the view of the worldcontainedin thisversewitha storythat

Pulcinellatells.The actorsoftheCommediadell'Artein the 16thand 17th
centuries,who improvisedmuch of theirspeech,used zibaldoni or "gag
1369
books" to enhance the qualityof theirperformances. These compendia

containedso-calledlazzi or stagejests in mimeor wordsthatwerehanded
down fromone generationto another.One of theselazzi is a storytold
by Pulcinella:
Therewereoncethreehunters; thefirstwas armless,thesecondeyeless,
andthethird legless.
Thearmless onesays:"I willcarry
thegun";theeyeless
onesays:I willshootas soonas I see it [thequarry]"and theleglessone
says:"I willrunandfetch it."Theygohunting. Thearmlessonesays:"There
is thehare";theeyelessoneshootsat it;andtheleglessonerunsto pickit
up. Then,wanting to cookit,theygo to a housewithout a floor,without
doorsorwindowsandwithout a roof;theonewithout handsknocksat the
doorand themanwhois notat homeappearsand says:"Whatdo you
want?"Theyaskfortheloanofa potofwater.Themanwhois notat home
bringsa pot,without a bottom,fullofwater,whenall ofa suddena man
whoisn'tthere,without eyes,without handsand without feet,carriesoff
thehare.(Oreglia1968,p. 15)
Many otherriddlesalso have the same structure, forexamplethe Arab

joke: "Three mutescarrieda dead person,and the dead personspoke"
(fingersand a pen); or the German riddlethat one can also mark as a
politicaljest: "Who takes everything away rightin frontof the nose of
theemperorand theking?""The barber"(Rauch 1965,pp. 166,45). And
thereare manyriddles,in verse or prose,thatsound like nonsense.For
example,thereis the 17th-century riddle:"What work is the fasterye
work,longerit is ereye have done,and theslowerye workthesoonerye
make an end?" The prosaicsolution:"That is turningof a Spit; forifye
turnfast,it will be long ere the meat is roasted,but ifye turnslowlythe
soonerit is roasted"(Aston1968,p. 96; Aston's book was firstpublished
in London in 1883 and containsmanyotherriddlesofthissort.See, esp.,
pp. 128-29, 140, 267, 287, 304, 311).
For an exampleof a Dadaist sound poem,thefirstthreelinesof Hugo
Ball's "Clouds"maysuffice: "Elomenelomenlefitalominai /wolminiscaio/
beumbala bunga" (Schiefferli 1963,p. 63). The exertionsof naturaland
mechanicalnoises stand in place of a musical tone; the Dadaists called
thisbruitismus. In June1918,thefirstDadaistic sound poem was recited
in Zurich at the Cabaret Voltaire.Hugo Ball notedin his diarythathe
thoughtit desirablenotto writesecondhandpoetry,thatis, "to take over
words (to say nothingof sentences),which are not inventedbrand new
for one's own use" (Schiefferli1963, p. 32). The comedy of Eugene
lonesco's The Bald Prima Donna as well as otherpieces of the modern
theatreof the absurd,also restson unlikely,ordinary,everydayspeech.
Strictlyspeaking,Dadaistic soundpoemsare meaningless, and nothumor-
ous like traditionalnonsenseor "utternonsense,"thehumorof whichre-
sides in contradictionsand incongruities of meaning.Sound poems are
1370
Wit and Politics
ratherlikethepastimeoftheboredold manin PeterBichsel'simaginative

shortstory,"A Table Is a Table." The man inventshis own "language"
by usingcommonwordsunconventionally, saying,forexample,"picture"
whenhe means"bed,"or "to ring"insteadof"to stand."The old man gets
so absorbedin thisgame thathe findsit perfectly naturalto conveythe
meaningof a sentencelike:"In themorning,theold man continuedto lie
fora longtimein bed,"by saying:"In theman,theold footcontinuedto
ringfora long timein picture."In the end, the lonesomeman loses all
contactwiththepeople who used to bore himand he failsto understand
theirlanguage. "He fellsilent,spoke onlyto himself,and did not even
say 'hello.'" By inventinga nonlanguage,he loses his humanity(Bichsel
1969).
Absurdpoetrydeceivesthereaderwho paysattentiononlyto grammar.
It seemsto be poetrythatprincipallypleaseschildren.But Edward Lear's
poetryand theabsurdliterary writingsofLewis Carrollsuggestto readers,
withforeboding and uncannynightmares, a situationin whichthe order
of the world as we ordinarilyknow it does not obtain.We toleratethis
antiphilistine chaos onlybecause we laugh at it withastonishment. The
ordinarylosesitspower,thenamesofthingsare forgotten, gravityis light-
ened, the grinsof disappearingcats remain,and capital punishmentis
decreedbeforejudgmentis rendered.Also Karl Valentin's"Lachkabinett"
and "Panoptikum"deal witha worldof chaos, one thatis, at least by his
own account,verydroll.Also in his workone chances upon the absurd
comedy:
He whoareis all toolong
Whether poor,goeshimself withthat
Whichonceareoftenrather it
Therefore willwithout that
togetherwith,ofcourse,thenso can
withyoursnotalreadyare
as longas onecan be supposedto remain
togetherto be fine...
(Liede 1963, 1:143)
Hugo Ball mentionsin his diarythathe had writtenone of his books "in
a peculiarkindofsplitexistence"(Schiefferli1963,p. 32). We knowfrom
the lives of Englishpoetsof absurdity,Edward Lear and Lewis Carroll,
thattheyamusedtheirpublicwithfantasticabsurditiesthatemergedout
of deep pathologicalspheresof theirbeings,somethingthatwas also the
case withKarl Valentin.Edward Lear was an epileptic.He was so sensi-
tive "thatto him noise,gatheringsof people, loud entertainment,dogs,
fools,and tediouspeople broughthim close to madness"(Liede 1963,p.
170). He led the life of a loner,in which women had no place. Lewis
Carroll was just as touchy.He is said neverto have laughed and out-
371
wardlyhe gulpedand stuttered.His overallformand his facewereasym-

metrical.He admired the beauty of young maidens whom he photo-
graphednude,whilehe could not enduremale children.His conductled
him,in spiteofsexual blamelessness,to theveryboundariesofwhat was
consideredproperbehaviorin VictorianEngland.It provokedhimwhen
someoneinterchanged Lewis Carrollthe poet withCharles L. Dodgson,
the pedanticprofessorof mathematics(Liede 1963,p. 172). All of these
cases confirmthe surprising
observationof HughlingsJacksonabout the
morbidoriginsofthesecondsightopenedup bycomicalwordand thought
play.
Defects-Physical, Spiritual,and Moral

A greatmanypoliticaljokes place individualsor figuresof politicallife
in everydaycomicalsituationsor attributeto themcertaincharacteristics,
such as stupidityor boastfulness,in orderto ridiculethem.Aggressive
politicaljokes especiallydraw on thissourceof comedyagain and again.
Certaincharacteristics and events,which we can generallycall defects
and misfortunes, strikepeople as comicalin everyhistoricalperiodand
culture.
We can treatdefects,mistakes,and misfortunes pragmatically-that
is, turnthemto our advantagewhen theyhappen to others-or we can
diminishthem by offeringa sympatheticresponse.We can also laugh
about defects,eitherfaintlyor heartily,providedthat we accept them.
We do notshrinkfromexploitinga calamitythatis,forexample,theresult
of a mistakeeven if enemies,rivals,or competitorsfindout about our
action,unless moral sentimentshold us in check. We are inclined,of
course,to help an ally in distress.But, if an opponentfindshimselfin
trouble,even ifwe findno faultwithhimpersonally,we maylaughmali-
ciously.If he has powerover us, we laugh maliciouslybut secretly.Often
if a clown stumblesor Bacchus is thrashedsoundly,as in Aristophanes'
Frogs,we laughnotonlybecausewe are sparedthestumbling or thepum-
meling,but also because it is indeedcomicalto see theorderoftheworld
turnedupside down.
Aristotlefeltthat the veryessence of comedyrestedin some defect.
Now, the mostbasic defectof humansis some kind of bodilyproblem.
Thus,one oftensees naivelaughterdirectedagainstdwarfishness ordefor-
mity,the lame, the one-eyed,the stammerer, the staggeringor indistinct
speech of drunks,fat people, women with lanky beanstalkfigures,eu-
nuchs,and the frailtyof old age, along with manyotherinfirmities. In
our supposedlyrefinedand respectablesociety,we do not laugh about
suchdefects.Yet peoplestilldo laugh,and laughuproariously, whenthey
see deformities of certainsortspresentedon thestageor in film.Perhaps
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Wit and Politics
such theatricalrepresentations dispel the terrorthat the monstrousin-

spires.
But the civilized controlof laughterat bodily defectsis a relatively
recentphenomenon.Not onlyin stagecomedy,but also in generalspeech
and in the whole social lifeof classical antiquity,historianshave noted
"a naivelymaliciousenjoyment, whichtodayis entirelyalien to us, in the
defectsof one's dear neighbors"(Suss 1966,p. 31). Philogelostellsmany
jokes at the expenseof eunuchs,of people withunusual bodilyodors,or
of thoseinjuredthroughhernias.Even Cicero,who warnstheoratornot
to deridethemiserableunlessprovokedby insolence,includesin his col-
lectionof exemplaryjokes an anecdotethatin hindsightcasts doubtson
He tellsa storyabout an acquaintance,Caius Sextus,who
his sensibility.
was blindin one eye.One Appiussaid to him:"I willsup withyou tonight
forI see that thereis a vacancy forone." Cicero commentsas follows:
"This was a scurrilousjoke, both because he attacked Sextus without
provocation,and also because what he said was equally applicableto all
one-eyedpersons"(De Oratore2.60). EvidentlyCicero would not have
consideredthejoke meanand small-minded had SextusprovokedAppius.
Moreover,Cicero's reference to thefactthatotherone-eyedpersonscould
have been victimsof thejoke suggeststhat,at the least,he preferred to
commenton the intendedaim of the joke ratherthan expresssympathy
forthe one-eyedperson.Indeed, thereare deformities that elicithorror
insteadoflaughter,despiteBergson'smistakenassumptionthata person
only laughs at bodilydefectsthat he can imitate,such as lamenessor
stuttering.
One findsa similarstoryin Quintilian.Althoughhe too held the view
thatjests about the miserableare inhumane,he approved an allegedly
wittyremarkby Cicero about Vatiniuswho was lame. Stressingthe im-
provementof health,Vatiniussaid thathe could now walk a distanceof
two miles,whereuponCicero replied,"Yes, because the days are longer"
(InstitutioOratoris6.3, 77).
Also,Macrobius'scollectionofjokes in The Saturnaliacontainsa num-
berofcruelties.For example,he reportsthatMarcus Lollius oncedirected
a popularjest at the distinguished speakerGalba. Lollius said, "Galba's
intellectualtalentis poorlyhoused."As it happens,Galba was a hunch-
back (Davis 1969,p. 178).
It was no different in the middle ages. In Byzantineliterature,little
observancewas paid to theChristianprinciplesthatConstantinManasses
(c. 1100-1150) urged upon his readersin his epigram"Laughter."One
should,he counseled,laugh onlyat the transitory qualityof this world
and at one's own weaknesses,but not at the mistakesand bad luck of
one's fellowmen. Instead,he noted,manyauthorsamuse themselvesin
otherways."It is mostlylaughterthatspringsfromscorn,personalhatred
1373
and envy,or sarcasm and abusivenessthat clangs fromthe writingsof

Christopheros of Mytileneand of one Psellos,and fromthe acclamation
of people,fromuncouthparodieslike 'Mass of the Beardless' and from
pamphletsof manyunimportant squabblers.The purposeof thisscurri-
lous writingand verseis notto rightcuttingreproachesor to redressgriev-
ances,butonlyto degradateand makefunofothers"(Soyter1928,p. 147).
Karl Mannheim (1928, p. 18) pointedout that,in medieval drama,
blindnessand lamenesshave comical connotations.Nor does Japanese
humorspare theblindor cripples.In Germany,thehard ofhearingwere
not too long ago a regularstapleof the comicpages. In America,a blind
man who caused an automobileaccidentwithanotherpersonwas a source
ofgreatpopularmerriment; and JohnnyCarsondelightedmillionsoftele-
visionviewerswithunappetizingjokes about infirmity and old age.
The widespreadnatureof such ridiculeof bodilydefectsdid not, of
course,reducethe suffering of its victims,nor did it lessentheirresent-
ment.Moreover,Plutarchrelatesthatjokes amongfriendsat somebody's
blindnessor body odor are not only consideredoffensive, but also that
cleverjibes at the physicaldefectsof the sociallypowerfuloccasionally
lead to wrathfulpunishment. His example:"Antigonusjoked about him-
selfbecause he had lostan eye,and once,holdingin his handsa supplica-
tionwrittenin largeletters,he exclaimed:'Now truly,even a blindman
can read this.' Nonetheless,he had Theocritusof Chios put to death
merelybecause thelatter,in replyto someone'sassurancethathe would
be pardonedif he came beforethe king's eyes,had replied:'Well, then,
reprieveis impossible"'" (Kaltwasser 1911, 1:59).
In politicaljokes about absentpowerholders, bodilydefectsare often

ridiculedbothin wordand image:one need onlythinkof theclub-footed
Goebbels,thegrosscorpulenceofGoering,thesenilityofvon Hindenburg,
or thelongnose and pear-shapedfigureofde Gaulle. Thereare also many
jokes ofthiskindnotdirectedat a particularperson,suchas theone about
theJewishstutterer who soughta positionas a radioannouncerand,when
he was refusedthejob, attributedhis rejectionto anti-Semitism.
Next to bodily infirmities, intellectualdeficienciesare an important
sourceof humor.Let us beginwithmistakesin judgmentconnectedto a
dull nature.This humanweaknessappears oftenin popularhumor,such
as in the storyabout the swimmerwho ducks intothe waterin orderto
avoid gettingdrenchedbyrain,as well as in storiesabout thedumbfarm-
er's maid who uses a sieve insteadofa dipperto draw waterfroma well.
In an old Greek story,a youngman is about to eat a bunch of grapes.
But hisfather,lightinga candlein thedarkness,surpriseshim,whereupon
the boy closes his eyes and beginsto snorewhile standingup. The same
joke appears in later versions,most recentlyin a new Germanversion
about the East Germanwho standsbeforea mirrorwithclosed eyes in
1374
Wit and Politics
orderto see how he lookswhenhe is asleep. And thereis also a charming

Korean saying:"Withstuffed-up ears,he steals a bell."
A comparisonofthreestories,American,Chinese,and a European ver-
sion fromthemiddleages, impressively demonstrates the timelessnessof
such a theme.In Sesame Street,the educationaltelevisionprogramfor
children,twomenoftenappear,whoseincompetence to masterthefunda-
mentalrelationships of theeverydaymaterialworldis a continualsource
of cheerfulness. They tryin vain, forinstance,to drag a large wardrobe
fromone roomto another.One opensthedoorand thengoes back to help
theotherwiththewardrobe.But whenbothreachthedoor,it has already
shut.Theychangetheirassignments butto no avail, sinceitdoes notoccur
to eitherof themto propthedooropen. A collectionby Han Tanch'un, a
Chinesepoetand official fromthethirdcenturyB.C.E., containsthefollow-
ing storywitha similarpoint."Therewas once a man in thekingdomof
Lu who triedto entera castlegate holdinga longbamboo pole. First,he
held it upright,but it caughtat the top and the bottom,and he couldn't
get it in. Then he held it sideways,but couldn't pass throughwith it.
While he was cudgelinghis brainsabout what he should do, a passerby
said jeeringly:'I am no genius,but,if I were you, I would cut the pole
in half.Then you could go throughthe gate'" (Blyth 1959,p. 98). The
same pointcomesthrougha thirdtimein a storyin theGestaRomanorum,
whichwas probablycompiledin the 14thcentury.A foolcarrieda beam
in his chariot."He wishedto enterhis house,but the gate was so narrow
and low thatit would not admithim.So he violentlywhippedthe horse,
untiltheyfelltogether intoa deep well"(fromStoryCLXV in Swan [1959,
p. 314]). It is highlyimprobablethatthe Latin and Americanversionsof
this storywere indebtedto theirChinese precursor.Instead, one must
regardthe similaritiesin the severaljokes as comical reflections on the
clash ofirremediable humanstupidity withan intractablephysicalworld.
The worldis simplymoreunbendingthan humankindcan possiblybe.
In the case of a man who frequently makes mistakesor is regularly
wrongin hisjudgment,we are dealingwitha naturalfool(i.e.,nota man
who onlyplays the role of a fool)-with a weak-minded,credulousdolt,
a superstitious ordisturbedperson.Also,forgetfulness, whichis veryprev-
alentas a comicthemeespeciallyin Chinesehumor,belongsin thiscate-
gory.Lack ofjudgment,whethersporadicor regular,becomescomicalin
proportionto the absurdityof its consequences,as forexample,in the
manyjokes about theinabilityto distinguish betweenidentityand resem-
blance.The confusionofpersons,ofcourse,is alwayscomical.Even more
comicalis the confusionof twins;and thisin turnis mostcomicalwhen
a survivingtwinis mistakenforthe one who is dead. In the same way,
theconfusionoftheimaginaryand thereal is usuallycomic.In any case,
the abilityto distinguishbetweenimaginationand realitydepends on
1375
one's standpoint:anxietyabout ghostsmakes even thosewho do not be-

lieve in ghostslaugh.Finally,one shouldincludein thecategoryofjokes
wherestupidityor lack ofjudgmentbecomesan occasionof laughterthe
manyanecdotesand jokes in whicha man is made a cuckoldor becomes
thevictimof a swindler.The comicthemeofthedeceiver,who playsthe
role of a god or an angel witha credulousyounggirlin orderto possess
her,is treatedin theliteratureofmanypeoplesat different times:withthe
Greeksand Romans,in an IndianPanchatantrastory,and in thenovelsof
Bandello,Boccaccio,Grimmelshausen, as well as manyothers(see Wein-
reich1911).
Stupidityis theuniversalbasis of mildpoliticaljokes thatmake merry
over one's social opponents.One abundantlyattributesdefectiveintelli-
gence to farmersand servants,poor people and the oppressed,but also
withthe greatestsatisfactionto the sociallyprivilegedclasses and status
groups.Austriaboasts of a greatmanyjokes whose main characteris a
fictionalcount,almostaffectionately called "Bobby"(see thecollectionby
ReinholdFedermann[1971]).One nightCount Bobby,walkingwithhis
friendMucki throughthe streetsof Vienna,beholdsthe starsin the sky
and exclaims:"Would you look at that.What splendor!What intensity!
And just thinkof it: All thisonlyforVienna!"When one hearsthisjoke
forthefirsttime,one mightperhapsbe inclinedto take it fora typically
Viennesejoke,indeedone thatis notpolitical."2 In fact,itis neitherone nor
theother.AlthoughAustrianin formand polish,thejoke's fundamental
meaningis not bound by timeor culture.Philogeloscontainsthe story
about a youngman who sees the moonand asks his fatherwhethersuch
a moonappears in othercities.Thereis also an old Jewishjoke, in which
an orthodoxJew,in the midstof a courtship,waited a long timeon the
new moon to say a blessing.Finally,he turnedto someonehe did not
know comingdown the road and asked: "What's goingon? How come
themoonis notcomingout?"The strangerreplied:"How shouldI know
that?I'm not fromaroundhere."'3
In theViennesejoke, mentaldullnessas suchis notthebuttofthejoke,
but ratherthatofa privilegedsocial stratum.These Viennesejokes differ
fromthe sharperwit once foundin storiesand cartoonsin the weekly
Simplizissimusdirectedat Prussianofficers duringtheempireorin David
Low's workaimed at "ColonelBlimp"in England,althoughbothofthese
12 Compare this joke with Berlin humor. A Berliner is walking throughVienna one
nightaccompanied by a native of that city.The Berliner points at the Big Dipper in

the sky and asks his friendthe name of that constellation.The Viennese tells him.
The Berliner replies: "That's your Big Dipper? With us, even the Little Dipper is
bigger" (see Schoffler1955).
13 See Thierfelder(1968, p. 49). Also, Humor seit Homer (Humor since Homer), p. 81.
1376
Wit and Politics
also pokefunat sociallyprivilegedgroups.Out ofBerlincomesthefollow-

ing story,whose comic importis the foolishconfusionof persons.In the
officers'mess, First LieutentantZitzewitzsays: "Somethingcrazy hap-
pened hereyesterday.I rode throughthe park. And I see beforeme an
absolutelyterrificchick on a beautifulhorse.I speed up, get close, and
say hello.You won't believethis-it was mymother"(Fuchs 1974,p. 61).
From Japan comes a storythat mocks the illiteracyof a samurai. The
samuraigoes walkingalongthestreetsof Kyotowithhis servant,looking
at thesignboardsoftheshopshe passes. In frontofa housethatis locked,
he asks his servantin a whisper:"What does thissignsay?" The servant
says: "House and warehouseto let." The samurai nods and repliesin a
loud voice: "The handwritingis poor, but the styleis excellent"(Blyth
1959,p. 469). Wit of thiskind flourisheswhen the prestigeof the social
group being ridiculedhas outlastedthe group's actual power or when
outsidersno longerrespectthe styleof lifeand the valued beliefsof the
victimizedclasses.
The storyabout thesamurainotonlymocksthesamurai'slack ofedu-
cationand culture,whichis an intellectualdeficiency, but also his arro-
gance, a more grievousmoral shortcoming. A man who pretendsto be
otherthan he actuallyis and in the course of doing so betrayshimself
becomeslaughable,as long as his misrepresentations do not succeed in
foolingothers.It doesn'tmattera greatdeal exactlywhat his pretensions
are-scholarlylearning,courage,love oftruth, dignity,orwhateverelse;so
longas othersknowthatheis actuallyan unculturedman-cowardly,deceit-
ful,orsimplypompous-he makesa highlycomicimpression on them.
Leo Strausspointsout that:"The laughableis thedefectiveofa certain
kind. Given the varietyof views as to what constitutesshortcomings, a
man is mostclearlylaughableif he pretendsto have an excellencewhile
in facthe has onlythe corresponding defect,that is, if he is laughable
accordingto his own admittedstandard.Hence pretense,affectation, or
boastingbecome the preferred themeof comedy"(Strauss 1959,p. 143).
It is comicenoughwhena man is drunkor is disoriented.It is even more
comicalwhena drunkman claimsto be soberor whena distractedprofes-
sor prideshimselfon his abilityto concentrate.
Jokesthatmocksuchweaknessesare oftenpolitical,forexample,when
theyunmaskan ostentatiousbut thinveneerof knowledgeor the hope-
lessly bad mannersof parvenus. Roda Roda's "Guide for the Rich"
contains a list of absurd confusionsof foreignwords, for example,
"champignon"for"champion,""curaSao"for"cuirassier,""antinomy"for
"anatomy,"amongothers(Rezzori 1956,pp. 68-70). One can also go too
farwiththis.So AndreasGryphiusbecame a victimof his own vanityin
his comedyHorribilicribrifax,in whichhe wishedto criticizeseverelythe
minglingoflanguages;he made use ofno lessthansevenlanguages,"often
1377
in a deliberatedistortion
to comiceffect,"
butalso,obviously,to broadcast
his own knowledgeof languages(Palm 1961, 1:60).
Mishaps
The comedyof a situationin whicha persontemporarily loses his dignity
because natureplays a trickon himis inexhaustible.Some psychologists
suggestthatlaughterat the man who slipson a banana peel and fallson
his nose is a kindof reliefthatsuch an accidentdid not happen to those
laughing.But thisreductionofthecomicto themotiveofa commonmali-
cious pleasure becomes problematicwhen we considerthat we laugh
hardestwhenpretentious dignitycomesto grief.The stumblesofthearro-
gant amuse us morethan the mistakesof the modest.As GeorgeOrwell
said: "And the biggerthe fall,the biggerthejoke. It would be betterfun
to throwa custardpie at a bishopthanat a curate"(Orwell 1968,3:284).
Othertheoristsare oftheview thatwe onlylaugh at smallmishaps,since
we have sympathy withthevictimsof greatermisfortunes. Criticsofthis
view citeHomer,as well as observationsfromtheFiji Islands and China,
and amongAmericanschoolchildren, in orderto provethatsuch theories
reston a falsesentimentality (Rapp 1951,p. 38). In anyevent,thecomedy
of mishapsis clearlynot restricted to a certaintimeand culture.
In Americanslapstickcomedy,therealmostinevitablycomestheridic-
ulousmomentwhena custardpie is thrownat somebody'sface.The Japa-
nese don't throwcustardpies,but theylaugh at equivalentevents.In the
18th-century novel Hizakurigeby Ikku Jippensha,Yagi, one of the two
main characters,findsa piece of wood floatingon top of a bath already
filledwithwater.The wood servesto protectthebatherfromthered-hot
bottomof the bathtub.But Yagi takes the piece of wood out of the bath
and hidesit. Then he persuadesKita, his friend,to take a bath and Kita
getshis feetbadlyburnt.The storyends withYagi hardlyable to contain
his laughterover theburntfeetof his friend.'4 The Japanesestoryseems
gruesometo Westernreaders,while the Americanprank,involvingthe
face insteadof the feet,may striketheJapaneseas moreshocking.One
shouldnot considerthe crueltyof theJapanesestoryas "typicallyorien-
tal."Spanish,French,and Germanpicaresquenovelsare repletewithepi-
sodes in which suffering, far more painfulthan blisterson the feet,is
treatedas laughable.Justas pain and evendeathcan be comicalin classi-
cal comedy,so neitherthe pummeledknave, nor the roughed-upseem-
inglyholy monk,nor the abused virgin,nor the flea-plaguedfool who
imagineshimselfto be Jupiter,necessarilyexcitea naturalcompassion.
14 See Satchell (1960, p. 26). Trans. note: See also the 2d ed. of Dochu hizakurigeissued
by the same publisher in 1988.
1378
Wit and Politics
Even the obscene accident,in which the whitewashof cultureis be-

smirchedwithfilth,providesan occasionof laughterfromancienttimes.
If, along with the politicalimportof pranks,comedyproper,and pica-
resque novels,one adds the regularlaughterof superiorsabout vulgar
blockheads,as well as thelaughterofordinarypeopleabout theaccidents
and altogetherhumanweaknessesofthosehigherin thesocial order,then
one mustcome to the conclusionthatthe view thatpoliticaljokes made
theirfirstappearance in the 19thcenturyis obviouslyfalse.
The Paradox of Timelessness

Many politicaljokes seem to be so entirelyunboundedby timeor place
thatit is especiallydifficult to locatethemin a particularculturalmilieu,
age, or social stratum.For example,it is impossibleto telljust wherethe
originsof thefollowinganecdotelie: "A womenis asked to clarifywhyit
is that,amongthe loweranimals,the femalesmate onlyforthe purpose
of conception.She replies:'Why,because theyare the lower animals.'"
We would notexpectthisjoke to be toldin a societyin whichfeminine
reserveand demurenessis prized.But thesesocial determinations appear
to apply more to the fact that a woman, rather than a man, gives the
unexpected answer. Had a man given the or
reply, had a man told the
storywith a woman givingsuch an answer,the joke would be coarser,
but stillamusing.If we surmisethatit is an upper-classjoke, whichhap-
pens to be correct,we are stillat a loss in locatingits timeand place. It
could have originatedin a modernurban setting,but also possiblyfrom
18th-century France, or Renaissance Italy, or perhaps even fromthe
worldof an Easterncourtesan.Finally,one shouldnotdismissthepossi-
bilitythatthe storyoriginatedin an entirelyunconventionalmilieu,say,
a libertinebohemia.In reality,it comesfromearly5th-century Rome.One
findsit in the collectionof jokes thatMacrobius tellsin his Saturnalia.
The timelessnessof thisjoke restson its universallyaccessiblemeaning
and its universallyeffective techniqueof surprise.
Now, one can see a difference betweensuch nonpoliticaland especially
eroticjokes and somepoliticaljokes and anecdotes.For example,around
the timethat RudolfHess, Hitler's deputyfiihrer, unexpectedlyflewto
England in themidstoftheSecond WorldWar, therewas a wholestring
ofjests about theaffair.But thesejokes have no sparktodaybecause the
incidentis of purelyhistoricalinterest.Yet politicaljokes thatdeal with
a particularincidentcan effectively outlivetheeventifa symbolicmean-
inggetsattachedto theeventin a way thatmakesit transcenditsparticu-
lar historicalperiod.So the ambassadorHelmut Allardtrecountsin his
Moscow Diary that,in August 1968,at the timeof the Russian invasion
of Prague,a joke fromthe legendaryRadio Yerevan made the rounds.
1379
"The Czech cryforhelp,which,as is well known,the Kremlinused to

justifythe invasion,was actuallymade in March 1939,when Hitlerin-
vaded theCzech Republic.But theprocessingofthedemandthroughthe
Sovietbureaucracytooksuch a considerabletimethata positiveresponse
could onlybe made in 1968"(1973,p. 43). Whateverthisjoke has lostin
immediacyaftermanyyears,it stillmakes one laugh because theexperi-
ence of bureaucratictediousnessis stillpresentforall victimsof bureau-
cracyand because the nicelydelineatedfoundationof the use of forceis
by no means a thingof the past.
An old, time-boundpoliticaljoke can also be adapted to new circum-
stances by changingits exteriortrappingswhile retainingits universal
techniqueon whichcomedyrests.The followingstorywas currentduring
Ulbricht'srulein theGermanDemocraticRepublic.In place ofthesecond
as a time-unit,a new socialistmeasurewas to be introduced,namely,the
"ulb." "The ulb is the timethat passes betweenthe momentUlbricht's
voice can be heard on the radio,and theinstantthe listenersturnit off'
(Hirsche 1964, p. 222). When Ulbrichtdisappeared fromthe political
scene,the joke lost its spark. Then a few years later,one heard a very
similarjoke in the GermanFederal Republic about MinisterFriderichs.
"A businessleaderencountersMinisterFriderichson thestreetand greets
him: 'Good day, Mr. Frider.' 'But my name is Friderichs!''Well, then
you can see how quicklyI leave thetelevisionwhenyou speak!'" (Kuhn
1974,p. 56).
Thereare "migratory" politicaljokes thattravelfromone countryto an-
otherwithonlyminoradaptations.Instead of beingreinvented, theyare
borrowedforuse in a newhabitatthatresemblestheirplace oforigin.Now
ifthecountriesinvolvedhave similarpoliticalregimes,and are also geo-
graphicallycontiguousand historically contemporaneous, one can easily
accountforsuchmigration. Undercertaincircumstances, thejoke does not
evenhavetotravel.Manyjokespokingfunatthegovernment ofthepostwar
GermanDemocraticRepubliccloselyresemble,rightdowntothewording,
anecdotesthat circulatedin Nazi Germanyfrom1933-45. In otherin-
stances,thesamejoke is toldaboutdictatorsand theirregimesin different
countries, withoutregardfortheseverityorextensionoftheirtyranny and
in spiteof historicaland geographicaldiscontinuities. The veryamusing
joke about theJewishrefugeefromNazi Germanywho kepta portraitof
Hitleron the wall of his one-roomapartmentin New York "to ward off
homesickness," was also toldabout a manfromEast Germanyescapingto
the West witha portraitof Ulbricht,and about a Hungarianfleeingthe
Kadar regimecarrying, ofcourse,theappropriatepicture.
If the alterationof the details of a politicaljoke affectsits meaning,
one mightbetterreferto reworkedratherthan adapted jokes. Take, for
example,theanecdoteabouttheempressMaria Theresa,a storythatcame
1380
Wit and Politics
to lightagain duringthe Hitlerperiodin Germany.At a highreception,

theempressbrokewindveryaudibly,whereupona youngsecondlieuten-
ant threwhimselfat herfeetand cried:"Pardonme,Your Majesty!"The
monarchrespondedgraciously:"That's quite all right,FirstLieutenant!"
This joke, whose scatologicalimportis trulytimeless,was lateradapted
to ridiculethearrogantcrudeness(ratherthanthegallantry) ofNazi diplo-
mats.AnambassadorunderRippentrop sullenlywitnessedthesamepainful
kindofeventat a highreception;a youngFrenchdiplomathad saved the
situationas gallantlyas had Maria Theresa'slieutenant.
Whenthecalamity
repeateditself,the Germanambassadorsprangup, clickedhis heels to-
gether,and announcedin a clangingvoice:"The GermanReich takes re-
sponsibilityforthisone,as well as thenextthree"(Gamm 1971,p. 107).
Near the end of WillyBrandt's rule,aggressivejokes againsthimand
his politicsweretoldthathad earlierbeen told againstHitlerand Stalin.
Those laughingseemedto make no distinctions betweendictatorshipand
democracy,althoughit was dangerousto put abroad such jokes in the
Third Reich,while,of course,therewas no dangerat all in theGermany
of 1974. To wish Hitleror Stalin death, even thoughonly in jest, was
brave; but to wish WillyBrandtthe same thingnot onlysuggestsa lack
of moderationbut evisceratesthe same joke when told about Hitler.
The nonpoliticaljoke also has a specificform.Certainknownsymbols
performthe functionof specificand timelydetail,directlyevokingin lis-
tenersthe expectationof a joke such as, forinstance,when one cites a
certainlocale ordialect,uses a foreignaccent,orespeciallywhenone high-
lightsa familiarcharacter,like an Irishman,a man fromAbdera,Colonel
Blimp,a mother-in-law, or a child.Anyoneunfamiliarwiththemeaning
of thesesymbolshas a poor chanceof gettingintotherightmood forthe
joke and may missits point.Similarly,anyoneseeingforthefirsttimea
modernproductionof an old Commediadell'Artewill missthe clues pro-
vided by the characteristic costumeand bearingof each actorthatwere
familiarat a glance to audiencesfromthe 16thto the 18thcenturiesin
European courtsand marketplacesalike. They knew immediatelythat
Harlequinwas credulousand bashful;Brighella,a cunningservant;Pan-
talone,senile,slanderous,avaricious,and vehement;theDoctor,amorous
and pedantic;Pulcinella,fluctuating betweenrecklessnessand cowardice,
feignedstupidityand feignedbrightness,pummelingothersand being
pummeledhimself;theCaptain,a Spaniardgivento pomp,swagger,and
vanityoverwhichcowardicefinallyprevails;and Scaramouche,combin-
ing laughterand pathos."5
15 Oreglia (1968, p. 114). Tiberio Fiorilli (1602-94), regarded as the greatestactor of
the 17thcentury,played the role of Scaramouche. It was his performancethat inspired

La Fontaine's verse: "He was Moliere's master / His own was Nature."
1381
The veryspecificity and concretenessof detail that bind all political

jokes to a certaintimeand setofcircumstances makeitdifficult foroutsid-
ersand newcomersto graspthemfully,just as thetypicalformsofnonpo-
liticaljokes, shaped by customand locale, simultaneously embodyand
obscurehumor.Typically,whenone is learningto speak a language,jokes
and poetryare the last frontiers of the new culturethatone masters.
Scholarsand laymenalike distinguishbetweenGreek,Japanese,Jew-
ish,and otherethnicor regionaljokes. Indeed,Otto Schoffler has written
a kindoftopographyofGermanhumorwithhisLittleGeographyofGer-
man Humor. Still,one should not exaggeratethe significanceof ethnic
differences. A carefulpursuitof the issue leads one to the view that a
greatmanynew jokes are actuallyold or even ancient,and that many
jokes attributedto a certainpeople or groupsof people are actuallywell
knownby stillothermen and womenin different settings,althoughusu-
ally in what we mightcall different historicalclothing.If one sets aside
thehistoricalclothingof characteristic symbols,such as names,historical
allusions,specificdialects,and typicalfiguresthattriggerlocal audiences'
expectationsof somethinghumorous,then one cannot so easily assign
jokes to a certainstyleas one can withpainting,music,poetryorfurniture,
clothes,weapons,or coiffures.
How can one accountforthisparadoxof thetranscendence ofjokes in
spite of the time-boundqualityof theirhistoricalform?The answer is
simple.The essenceofthe comicaldoes notdependon theallusivedetail
or theconcretehistoricalformofa joke. To be sure,concreteness ofdetail
enhancesthe comical effector, in the case of allusionsthat the listener
findscompletelyalien, blocks such a response.But the primecause of
laughteris thesubstanceofthejoke itself,particularly in thetechniqueof
surpriseand the word and thoughtplay at the core of thejoke. Neither
such techniquesnortheperennialsubjectsofthenatureoflanguageand
reasoning,thatis,humandefectsand mishaps,orthehumanconditionand
theworldin whichmenand womenlive,are restricted to particularplaces,
times,or cultures.Moreover,certainpoliticaljokes,whatevertheepochof
theirorigin,areconstantly discoveredanew,sincetheirbasic meaningrests
on politicalexperiencesthatare bothcommonand transhistorical.
THE VICTIM OF POLITICAL WIT

PoliticalWit as an Act of Communication
Like everyjoke, thepoliticaljoke is an act ofcommunication.
As such,one
can examineit withthe model forthe analysisof propagandaoriginally
proposedbyHarold D. Lasswell. Whosayswhatin whatmediumtowhom
withwhat effect?"Who" obviouslyasks about the narratorof the joke;
"what" asks about the content;"whom"inquiresabout the listener,the
1382
Wit and Politics
reader,or otherpublics.One can elaboratethisschemein variousways.

In analyzingpoliticaljokes, one shouldadd to thesethreebasic questions
inquiriesabout access to the communication, about the social situations
wherejokes are told,and, of course,theireffectson audiences.
Access can be restrictednot onlyby physicaldistance,illiteracy,and
ignorance,butalso bypoliticalcensorsand terror.Sincetheform,severity,
and ultimatelythe influenceof censorshipdepend on politicalcircum-
stances,the open access to politicaljokes is partlya functionof theform
of government. If the open meaningof a joke is subject to no political
restrictions,thenit is possible to tell politicaljokes fearlesslyand with
impunity.When citizensare politicallyrestrained, thereis also a kindof
civic humorlessness.
There are circumstances when,in spiteof open freedomof expression,
onlya fewpoliticaljokes circulate.At thetimeofthegreatcoalition,there
were fewerpoliticaljokes in circulationin Germanythan earlierwhen
theSocialistDemocraticPartystoodin oppositionto theregime,and later,
when otheroppositionpartiesdid not share in power. Controversiesin
politicswere dampened because the coalitionleftan oppositionalvoid.
WillyBrandtthoughtthatthe absence ofjokes duringthisperiodwas a
distressingphenomenon(Ihlefeld1971,p. 107).
Aroundthemiddleofthe 18thcentury, JohannMartinChladeniushad
alreadypointedout thattheoriginalintentofanycommunication is diffi-
cultto preserve.Whetherdetermined bytheaudienceor bythepublishers
and commentators oftheeducated"channels"or media,to take onlytwo
possiblesources,certainkindsofalterationin meaning,such as exaggera-
tion, diminishment, mutilation,distortion,or omission,are inevitable.
Chladeniusknewalso thattheviewpointsofthoseparticipating in a chan-
nel or mediumdepend on particularpsychological,cultural,and social
circumstances.Althoughthis analysis anticipatesmuch of what Karl
Mannheimhas called"perspectivist thought," Chladenius,as bothsociolo-
gist of knowledgeand a theoristof how meaningis formed,has been
largelyignored."6
16Trans. note: The referenceis probably to Chladenius's (1710-59) Einleitung zur

richtigenAuslegungverniinftigerReden und Schriften:Mit einer Einleitung von Lutz
Geldsetzer to thecorrectinterpretation
(Introduction ofrationalspeechand writings:
Withan introduction by Lutz Geldsetzer)(Dusseldorf:SternVerlagJanssen,1969).
Thereis an importantsubtextto Speier'scomparativeremarkaboutChladeniusand
Karl Mannheim.Speierwas Mannheim'sfirstdoctoralstudent.But he laterbroke
withMannheimover intellectualissues,particularly Mannheim'sepistemological
equivocation,expressedmostnotablyin his"perspectivism"and thelack ofempirical
grounding in hiswork.See Speier's"KarlMannheimas a SociologistofKnowledge"
(trans.by RobertJackallin The Truthin Hell [New York:OxfordUniversity Press,
1989],pp. 35-49).
1383
We shouldnotforgetthatword-ofmouthcommunication remainsim-
portantin societieseven wherecommunications systemsare technically
and commercially highlydeveloped.Justas newspapersand booksdo not
displace conversations, proverbs,and rumors,so entertainment in caba-
rets,or humormagazines,books,television,picturepostcards,or record-
ings,does not put an end to theinformaloral transmission ofjokes. And
just as rumorsfillin someofthegaps in information createdby thepoliti-
cal regimentation of news (Droge 1970), so "whisperedjokes" circulate
whencriticalopinionscannotbe freelyexpressedin public.In Ulrichvon
Hassel's diaries,whichhe had keptsecretlyfrom1938to 1944,he records
manyjokes and handlesthemas thoughtheyare communications (Hassel
1946,pp. 45, 59, 217, 220).
We know moreabout how jokes are sold to the public than about the
characteristic social situationsin whichtheyare toldinformally.17 But we
can gain some insightfromobservingthe settingsof jokes-the street,
the traincompartment, the barracksand the foxhole,the officers'mess,
the barbershop,the men's club, the ladies' social gathering,or city
hall. The dinnerpartyand the after-dinner gatheringare the social set-
tingsof Macrobius's collectionof jokes and of Plutarch'sdiscussionof
propriety in joking.In antiquity,social parasitesoftenrepaid theirhosts
forthefreemealstheyweregivenbyentertaining thecompanywithdiver-
sions.These weretheforerunners oftheboreswhomwe have all encoun-
teredat modernpartieswho consulttheirnotebooksin orderto telljokes
in a preplannedorder.
The mostimportantjokes of the Renaissancewere gatheredby Casti-
glioneand Poggio.At thecastleof Urbino,Castiglionedescribesa social
life that was the courtlyforerunner of the later urban salons in which
social intercourse flourished withanecdotes,witticisms, and jokes. Poggio
talks about the bugiale,somethinglike the "lie factory,"a place where
the papal secretariesentertainedone anotherwithfacetiae [drolleries]in
Latin.18 In the introductionto his collectionof stories,Poggio writes:
"SincethetimeofPope Martin,we regularlysoughta quietroomin which
17 Trans.note:The specific
culturalmilieuxoftheproduction ofknowledge and culture
werecentralto Speier'ssociologyof knowledgeand of intellectuals. He was deeply
interestedthereforein coffeehouses,
salons,pubs,clubs,lendinglibraries,and other
publicand semipublicgathering placesthatfostered theexchangeofideas. See, e.g.,
his essays,"The Social DeterminationofIdeas" (Social Research5 [1938]:182-205),
"The Social ConditionsoftheIntellectualExile"(Social Research4 [1937]:316-28),
and "The Rise ofPublicOpinion"(in The Truthin Hell and OtherEssays,pp. 143-
61).
18 Trans.note:AlbertRapp translates bugialeas "liar's haven."See his wonderful
collectionThe Facetiae ofPoggio,AnecdotaScowah,no. 5, privately printedby the
RoxburgheClub of San Francisco(April1, 1962).
1384
Wit and Politics
we telleach otherthenews and speak ofvariousmatters,whetherserious

or frivolous,to distractour minds"(Storer1928,p. 9). The bugiale,a kind
of ecclesiasticalclub, foreshadowedthe modernsmokingroomformen.
Even to thepresentday,thecoffeehouse has alwaysbeen anothersitefor
the trafficof anecdotes,news,and jokes. The titlesof Germanjestbooks
fromthe 16th and 17thcenturiessuggestothersites: Wickram'sRoll-
wagenbiichlein [thestagecoachand, in the subtitle,theship and thebar-
bershop];Montanus's Gartengesellschaft [The garden party];Lindner's
Rastbiichlein[The place of reston a journey].In the houses of artisans
and farmers,anecdotesand jokes fromalmanacs like Grimmelshausen's
Ewigwdhrendem Kalender [Eternalcalendar]were read aloud.
It is especiallydifficult
to ascertainthecharacteristicsiteswherewhis-
peredjokes are toldin moderndictatorships. However,priorto theerec-
tionof the BerlinWall in 1961,refugeesfromEast Germanywere asked
in interviewswherepoliticaljokes weretoldin Ulbricht'sGermanDemo-
craticRepublic.Surprisingly, only8% ofthoseasked mentionedthefam-
ily,while not less than 83% answeredthattheyhad heardjoking in the
factoryor in the office.If one includedthe university and the schoolsas
places of work,thenthe tallyrose to 88%.19
For our purpose,it is importantto supplementthequestion:"Who says
what to whom?"withthe addition:"At whose expense?"The success of
theaggressivepoliticaljoke does notdependon its constantretellinglike
rumorsthatmorallyenragepeople,even whiletheyaffordsecretdelight.
Instead,the mostimportantthingabout a joke is thatlistenerslaugh.In
the case at issue,the originatorof laughtersays somethinglaughable to
listenerswho laugh at theexpenseofsome victimwho has been made to
becomeridiculousin some way.
Most often,the true originatorof a joke is unknown.For analytical
purposes,we can considerthenarratorand theoriginator ofjokes as one
and thesame. Many times,therolesoforiginator and victimfalltogether.
Such is thecase withthe involuntary and unintendedcomedyof a child.
For example,we mightlaughat a child'swordsor actions(here,theorigi-
natorof thejoke), but at the same timewe tryto suppressour laughter
in ordernot to lose the child's affections.The clown amuses us at his
own expense,but also oftenat the expenseof otherclowns. Naturally,
it is possible not to take oneselftoo seriously.With the requisiteself-
confidence, one can evenjoin in another'slaughterat an opponent'sjoke
in whichone is ridiculed.In thiscase,thevictimmeetsthejokerin recipro-
cal laughter.Perhaps the victimdissembles;if he plays his role well, he
diminishesthesignificance of thejoke, ifnot necessarilyits quality.This
19For these statistics,see Krach (1961, p. 19). Unfortunately,

the author does not state
how many refugeeshe interviewed.
1385
reactionon thepartofthevictimis onlyone amongmanyat his disposal.

He can also ignorethejoke and remainsilent.This is notveryeasy to do
ifthejoke is made in his presence.If thevictimis himselfa wittyperson,
he can respondto theoriginator ofthejoke witha counterjestso thatthe
joker and thevictimexchangeroles.This demands,just as in thefencing
room,an abilityat repartee,a certainpresenceofmind,whichmanypeo-
ple possessin enviableproportions. Finally,thevictimof a joke can pro-
ceed to an assault.Especiallyifhe lacks quick-wittedness,he can soundly
thrashthejoker and the personwho laughs.Of course,thisdependson
thecustomsofthecountryand on thebodilystrength ofthevictim.With
politicaljokes,itdependsobviouslyon thepoliticalshape ofpublicaffairs,
as well as on the politicalstrengthof the victim.
We must mentionhere the relationship,withina frameworkthat is
political,betweentheoriginator ofa joke, thepersonwho laughs,and the
victim.The relativepowerof thethreepersonsis obviouslycrucial.This
is thecase whethera powerholderamuseshimselfwiththepowerless,the
powerlessmakesjokes about themighty, or theoriginatorofthejoke and
the victimstand on the same rungof the power ladder. Even the self-
ridiculeof the mightyis not the same as thatof the powerless.We can
recognizefurther significantdifferencesin jokes amongequals, depending
on the power positionswhich make themacceptable.In a moment,we
shall treatthesefinedifferences. Still we will not deal furtherwith the
special case in whichthe narratoris inferiorin power to the victimbut
enjoysimmunity fromretaliation,because,as clientto a powerfulmaster,
he is protectedfromthe victim'srevenge.This is the case of the court
jesterwho entertainshis masterwithjokes at theexpenseofthemaster's
courtierswhose powerexceedsthatof thejesterbut does not equal that
of thelord.In a moremodernsituation,one sees professionalcomedians
workingforgain and public applause withimpunitybecause themighty
deferto thepowerofpublicopinion,whichprotectsthestoryteller. If the
mightycensoror punishthecomedian,as theydo in oppressiveregimes,
the power and freedomof public opinionis curtailedor abolishedalto-
gether.
JokesamongEquals
Aggressivejokes amongpoliticalequals resemblethrustsin fencingexcept
thattheyresultin a coalitionbetweenthejokerand thelistenerslaughing
at the victim'sexpense.Such thrustsare frequentin democraticelection
campaigns.Candidatesstrivingforpowercan earnthegoodwillofvoters
withaggressivejokes about theirrivals,and thiscan be decisive.A well-
knownexampleis Churchill'sremarkabout ClementAttlee,his rival at
the time,thathe was a "sheepin sheep's clothing."
1386
Wit and Politics
Wittyhecklingmayalso be regardedas jokingamongequals. Not only

in parliamentary debatesand at comparableoccasions,but also in public
meetings,the citizenwho hecklesa candidate runningforofficeis the
equal of the distinguished speaker,since untilthe votes are countedthe
latterhas to pretendthathe enjoysno morepowerthananyothercitizen.
WhenTheodoreRooseveltwas campaigning,he was once interrupted by
a man who seemedto be drunkand kept shouting:"I am a Democrat."
Eventually,Roosevelt,who was a Republican,stoppedin annoyanceto
ask: "Sir, why are you a Democrat?"The man answered:"Because my
fatherwas a Democratand mygrandfather was a Democrat."Roosevelt
said: "And what would you be, Sir, if your fatherhad been a jackass,
and yourgrandfather had been a jackass as well?"The man shouted:"A
Republican!"
In a three-waynegotiation, thejoke amongequals can also be used to
build a coalitionbetweenthe originatorof thejoke and the listenerwho
laughs at the victim.At the Yalta Conference,FranklinRoosevelttried
to break the ice in his relationshipwith Stalin with a few jokes at the
expenseof Churchill.
The victimcan also make a counterjokeso that victimand narrator
exchangeroles.Thus, the followingstoryis told about Talleyrand.Ma-
dame de Stael's novelDelphine gave riseto therumorthatthecharacter
of an old woman in the book was actuallya caricatureof Talleyrand.
When Talleyrandsaw de Stael again,he said: "This is thebook,is it not,
Madame, in whichyou and I are exhibitedin the disguiseof females?"
(Ramsey 1966,p. 24). One can findthe prototypeof thistypeof repartee
in Cicero.He says:"It is a veryhappystroke,too,whenhe whohas uttered
a sarcasmis ridiculedin thesame strainin whichhe has attackedanother.
For example,whenQuintusOpimius,a man ofconsulardignity, who was
reportedto have been licentiousin his youth,said to the wittyEgilius,
who seemedto be an effeminate person,but was in realitynot so, 'How
do you do myEgilia? When willyou pay me a visitwithyourdistaffand
spindle?'And Egiliusreplied:'I certainlydare not;formymotherforbade
me to visitwomenof bad character"'(De Oratore2.68).2
The heat of the battleof wits betweenequals may become so intense
as to engenderan exchangeof insultsin whichthe moralsurvivalof the
contestants ratherthantheapplause oftheaudienceis at stake.An often
quoted illustrationis the remarkablyvitriolicexchangebetweenthe earl
of Sandwich and JohnWilkes.The formerpredictedthatWilkeswould
die eitheruponthegallowsorfromvenerealdisease.Wilkesreplied:"That
Trans. note: The samejoke is repeatedalmostverbatim

20 in theDe Sermone (1502)by
Giovanni Pantano (1422-1503). See One Hundred Renaissance Jokes: An Anthology
(BarbaraC. Bowen,ed. [Birmingham,
Ala.: SummaPublication,1989],p. 39).
1387
depends,myLord,on whetherI embraceyourprinciplesoryourmistress"

(Harris 1966, p. 16).
Queen Victoriaonce remarkedabout William Gladstone:"He speaks
to me as ifI werea publicmeeting"(Ramsey1966,p. 45). The salt ofthis
remarkseemsto be a grainof humorat her own expensemixedin with
thequeen's scornat herprimeminister. Many otherpoliticians,including
JohnF. Kennedyand SenatorBarryGoldwaterhave occasionallyjoked
at theirown expense.21 Politiciansmayemploysuch conflict-reducing be-
havioreitherbecause politicalstrifedoes not always appear thatserious
to themor because theyhope thattheirabilityto laugh at themselvesin
publicwillstrengthen theirappeals forpoliticalsupport.Adlai Stevenson,
who had the reputationof being a greatwit, claimed in retrospect:"I
noticedin mycampaignsthathumoraboutmyselfand aboutgeneralnon-
controversialthingswas much more effectivethan sharp wit directed
againstadversaries"(Harris 1966,p. 248).
Nonetheless,one can make the case that in democraciesthe average
citizen,ifnottheintellectual,values otherqualitiesin thecandidaterun-
ningforhighofficemorehighlythan the candidate's abilityto laugh at
himself,as was apparentlythe case withStevenson,whose two bids for
the presidencyfailed. A self-assuredman is expectedto toleratesome
laughterat his expense.But why should the voterbe impressedby the
fact that the candidate seems to regardhimself,and thus the officehe
seeks,less seriouslythantheofficeappearsto thecitizen?Humordirected
at oneselfrequiresa touchofmelancholia,a qualitymoresuitableto poets
or philosophersthan to heroesor to wieldersof power.
The Laughterof the Mighty

When a superiorlaughswitha subordinatebut notat or about him,the
superiorclearlydoes not degradethe subordinate.He merelyengagesin
a playfulepisodeof suspendedsuperiority, sincelaughterequalizes those
who laugh together.The servantmay value being allowed to laugh to-
getherwithhis lord.He also has thefeelingthata refusalto laugh would
be insubordinate,and, if the occasion arises,will feigncheerfulness,
in-
stead of givingthe impressionof symbolicrevoltthrougha display of
indifference.Thus such humoralways buttressesthe dominationof the
jokingmasterovertheservant.One can characterizethejokes ofthelord
in such situationsas paternalistic
humor.Justhow easilythiskindofhu-
morcan turnaroundat thecostofthesubordinateis shownin an anecdote
21On BarryGoldwater'shumor,see EncyclopediaofJewishHumor(Spalding1969,

pp. 369ff).
1388
Wit and Politics
about Konrad Adenauer.At cabinetmeetings,the ministersgave signs

withtheirfingers iftheywishedto say somethingand thechancellorknew
at a glance if the advice theywished to give was unpleasant.When he
had alreadyignoredseveralrequestsof one cabinetmember,he said to
himat theend of a meetingas theywereleaving:"Herr , ifyou need
to go to the bathroom,you needn't advise me of it" (Henkels 1966, p.
79). This joke, whichtreatedtheministerlikea schoolchild,suggestshow
quicklypaternalistichumorcan become aggressive.
In sadisticpranksand jokes, thevictimis placed in a comicalsituation
so thathislaughablequalities,forexamplehis stupidity, anxiety,supersti-
tion,or helplessness,become especiallyvisible.The humorousliterature
of the old Southwestoffersseveral examplesof such savage pranks.In
GeorgeWashingtonHarris's Sut Lovingood'sYarns(1876),forexample,
the picaresqueheroassistsin the eveningprayerserviceof blacks by re-
leasingstinkbombsand hornetsin thechurch.The wild uproarand flight
of the black congregationensues,presumablyto the enjoymentof white
readers(G. W. Harris 1966,pp. 128-37; see also Lynn 1969,chap. 6, pp.
226-42).
Derivingpleasurefromthepain ofothersis no preserveoftheheartless.
The mightyare not naturallycompassionateand theiraggressionsare
directednot only at equals or, more heroically,against otherswho are
morepowerfulthanthey.Theyalso laughat weaknessand physicaldefor-
mity,althoughThomas Hobbes has perceptively singledthisout as a sign
of small-mindedness.22
One should add that definitions of politicalwit that presupposethat
politicallifeis confinedto a struggleforpower fail to recognizecertain
causes of laughter.We laugh or weep not only about the deformity of
othersand about thoseof our own actionsthatplease or distressus, but
we are also sometimesstirredby thejoys of good fortune.The difference
lies in the causes of laughter.There is the laughterof Yahweh and that
of the High God El. El bringsto the dryland the glad tidingsthat the
rainshave returned.Yahweh's laughteris triumphant, "an expressionof
his completeand sovereignsuperiority to his opponentsand thosewho
will not bow to him"(Hvidberg1962,p. 154). But "whenthe High God
El laughedand was noisy,and godsand goddesseshad a meal withdrink-
ing of wine and sexual intercourse, all the people of the god mustalso
feastwithnoisymanifestations ofjoy and eroticwildness.The feast. ..
22Thomas Hobbes,Leviathan1.6. Hobbes regardedall laughteras "suddenglory"

caused"eitherbysomesudden(pleasing)act"ofthepersonthatlaughsor bya defor-
mityhe perceivedin others.Hobbes condemnedthesecondkindoflaughter.In his
view,thosewho indulgedin it werepusillanimous
sincegreatminds"helpand free
othersfromscorn."
1389
was experiencedby ancientPhoenicia-Canaanin weepingand laughter"

(Hvidberg 1962,p. 52). While Yahweh's laughtersets the triumphantly
strongand anointedapart fromtheirenemiesand fromstrangers,El's
laughteris an embraceofnature,a celebrationoffertility and rebirth:its
spiritis one of solidarityand it knowsno victims.The people seized by
thisspiritperform a cultin whichthecommunity encountersitselfbeyond
all strife.The experienceis nonethelesseminentlypolitical,not because
it may be viewed as generatingenergiesforfuturestrugglesagainstene-
mies,but because itis a manifestationofjoy and sorrowfeltbythepeople
in common.
The social equivalentofphysicaldeformity is vulgarityin thebroadest
sense of thisword,thatis, the boorish,the crude,the powerlessand, in
theintellectualand moralarenas,stupidity, cowardice,lying,superstition,
and imperfect commandof language.The extremeformof vulgarityand
of undignified behavioris the unrestrainedperformance of bodilyfunc-
tions.Such instances,whentheyoccur,are oftenfunnyin an entirely sim-
ple and naturalway, so that no additionaljoke is requiredto produce
mirth.RichardAlewyn(1957, p. 149) has noted thatin the scatological
literature fromthe 14thto the 16thcenturyin Germany"thebare mention
of unappetizingproceedingswithoutany further treatment seemedfully
sufficient to elicithorse-laughs."
The baroqueage followedtheold rulethatcomedyand comicliterature
generallyhad to do with the commonfolk.And so baroque comedyis
filledwithvulgaritiesand lewdness.Accordingto Opitz (1954,p. 20), the
comedy"consistsof base conductand characters,"and Henry Fielding
(1929,p. 20) said thatthecomicnovel"differs in its Charactersby intro-
ducing Personsof InferiourRank, and consequently,of inferiourMan-
ners"(fromthe author'sprefaceto the novelJosephAndrews).
Laughterat vulgarityand impotenceis boththetriumphand shieldof
power.The powerfullaugh at theirfortuneby beholdingwhat theyare
not but would be withoutpowerand dignity.They laugh at what others
are at the momentand what theythemselveswere as childrenand what
theywillbe again at thehourofdeath,thatis,helplessand mortallyweak.
Even thebriefest discussionofthelaughterofthemightyat theexpense
of the weak would be incompletewithoutmentioning thejokes used by
totalitariangovernments as weapons of propaganda. Their victimsare
political,religious,and ethnicminorities, or the hostileforeigncountry.
Such were the jokes and caricaturesthat not only were recitedin the
officiallyapproved humormagazines,newspapers,cabarets,and other
media in Germanyduringthe Nazi period,but had to be recited.These
kindsofjokes are also spreadlikerumorsbywordofmouthorin handbills
throughpartyorganizations.In the communiststatesas well,jokes and
1390
Wit and Politics
satirewithoutdeeper meaningwere also generatedstrictlyforpolitical

purposes.23
Justas afterthe FrenchRevolution,de Jominispoke of theemergence
of a new typeof war, which he called "ideologicalwar," so one might
referto these modernproductsof the totalitarianmind as "ideological
jokes,"exceptthatideologiesare alwayshumorless.Moreover,suchjokes
were also spread as well-plannedrumorsby partyorganizationsand by
thearmy.Conversely,authorities lateropenlyvalued thespontaneousgal-
lows humorof people as proofof highcivilianmorale.
Interestinglyenough,noneofthejokes made up and put abroad by the
Nazis about,say,theCatholicChurchwereas funnyor as radicalas some
of thebestanticlericaljokes thatoriginatedwithinthechurchhierarchy.
Aroundthe timeof the Nazi strictures on foreignexchange,whichwere
aimed againstCatholics,the followingofficialjoke made the rounds:"A
man comes into an employmentagencyand asks whetherthereis any
chanceof an apprenticeship forhis son there.The fathersaid: 'He wants
to be a foreign-exchangebroker,but I will notsend himintoa cloister!'"
(Hirsche1964,p. 71). One mightcomparethiswiththekeennessofCatho-
lic wit. For example,the old collectionof Ludovico Domenici contains
the storyof a priestpreachingto his parishionersa sermonbased on the
gospel storyabout the multiplicationof the loaves and fishes.But the
priesthad Jesusfeedingonly500 insteadof 5,000 people. "His assistant
whisperedto himsottovoce thathe had made a mistake,speakingof500
insteadof 5,000. 'Shut up, fool,' said the priest,'they'llbe hard put to
believe500,letalone 5,000' (Storer1928,pp. 116-17; see also Bemmann
1970).Or considerthestoryin whicha Jesuitarchaeologisttellsthefather
generalof his orderwith the greatestexcitementabout his excavations
in Jerusalemwherehe has discoveredthe grave of Jesus."Well, that's
wonderful," said thefathergeneral."Yes, yes,"said thearchaeologist,"but
the grave wasn't empty.The skeletonof Jesuslay inside!""You don't
say!" exclaimedthe astonishedfathergeneral."Then he reallydid live!"
(Bemmann 1970, pp. 102-3). A comparisonof anti-SemiticNazi jokes
withJewishself-mockery revealssimilardifferences in standards.
A similarkind of joke oftenputs the mightyin a bad public light,
namely,the cynicalpoliticaljoke. This kind of joke mocksthe beliefin
thevalue ofthingsand does nottakeseriouslytheveryissuesthatcitizens
23 There are several books about jokes duringHitler's rule. An especially useful treat-
ment of this literatureis Torberg's "Fug und Unfug des politischen Witzes" (1967).
On the cabaret during the Nazi period, see Greul (1967, pp. 324-66). On jokes and
caricatures in communist lands, see Andreevich (1951), Swearingen (1961), Jacobi
(n.d.), Bazarov (n.d.), and Schiff(1972).
1391
are supposed to treatwith gravity.The cynicaljoker undercutsthe au-

thorityofthestatesman.One wonders,forinstance,just how cleveritwas,
in praisingWillyBrandt'spublishedwork,to mentionthatthechancellor
especiallytreasuredthefollowing,rathergood,joke: "What is the differ-
ence between capitalismand socialism?""In capitalism,man exploits
man. In socialism,it's exactlythe otherway around"(Ihlefeld1971,p.
137; see also p. 103). Perhaps much more mischievousis the following
incident.JohnF. Kennedy,admiredbothforhis patrioticeloquenceand
forhis wit,said in his inauguraladdressto millionsof Americans:"Ask
not what your countrycan do foryou; ask what you can do foryour
country."This praiseworthy remarkrapidlybecamefamous.Not longaf-
terward,Kennedytookpartin a dinnerin New York. On thisoccasion,
he spoke jestinglyof the same sentiment,but not with referenceto the
country,but to his own politicalparty:"Ask not what the Democratic
Partycan do foryou; ask what you can do forthe DemocraticParty."
Specifically,he wanted the well-heeledguests to dig deeply into their
pocketsto raisemoneyfortheparty.The guestslaughed,perhapswithout
noticingthatthepresidentwas gentlyridiculingtheverypatriotismthat
he had onlyrecentlyinvoked.
The Laughterof the Powerless

The observationofHenriBergson(1928,p. 148):"In laughter,we always
findan unadmittedintentionto humiliate[someone],"applies to jokes in
whichboththe mightyand the lowerechelonsof societyare victims,as
wellas to thelaughterofpoweraboutmisfortune. Because thehumiliation
of the unfortunate is to a certainextentcompletedthroughnatureand
power,laughteris onlya confirmation ofa faitaccompli.Moreover,even
withjokes about themighty, whethertheystemfromthecynicalobserva-
tionsofpoliticsor fromthepeoplethemselves, GeorgeOrwell'strenchant
observationholds true:"Each joke is a tinyrevolution"(Orwell 1968,p.
284).
The boldestjoke at the expense of the mightyis one made in their
presence.Of course,thisis highlydangerous.Thereis a Chineseproverb:
"Don't joke in frontof a prince."Castiglioneand othershave giventhe
same advice. Even a joke at theexpenseofanotherin thepresenceofthe
mightyis not properand can get the narratorintotrouble,since he has
laid claim to the informality of communallaughterwhereinequality,in
fact,prevailsand the maintenanceof a respectabledistanceis expected
fromhim.Indeed, thisgoes forall social interactions thatare hierarchi-
cally ordered,and notjust forthe politicalarena. The strictfathermay
make sportofhis son,but nottheson ofhis father.The sickperson,who
is set back to a stateof great,almostchildlikedependency,does notjoke
1392
Wit and Politics
withthedoctor,althoughthedoctorcan use his dominatingroleto liven

up thepatient."And how are we doingtoday?"asks thesurgeon,notthe
patientlyingon his sickbed.
There are onlytwo exceptionsto the generalrule thatthe weak may
notjoke in the presenceof the strong.First,the powerlessmay ridicule
themselves, therebydemonstrating theirsubjugation.Whenall goes well,
theymay incitelaughterat theirown expense.Poggio's old collection
offacetiae containsthe anecdoteof the criminalwho is broughtbefore
a judge knownforhis severity.Moreover,the criminalknows thatthis
veryjudge has alreadysentencedthreeofhis companionsto death.When
the judge asks him forhis name,he answers:"My name is Sedicesimo"
(the sixteenth).The judge wondersabout this answer and demands an
explanation."Sir,"the criminalsaid, "thisis myname because you have
alreadydispatchedthreeof my friendsto the hangman.It would please
me greatlyiffirstanotherdozen were tried,beforemyturncomes."The
judge laughed and let him offcheaply.This storyresemblesthe tales in
whichthe rewardof lifeor love dependson solvinga riddle.Jokingcan
impingeupon and, indeed,sometimescurb power.
Second, onlyfoolsand professionalhumoristsmay laughinglysay the
truthin thepresenceofthemighty.Sometimeseven thesepay a pricefor
doing so. They are laughed at and possiblybeaten fortheirimpudence,
but fools,whetherprofessionalor not,are not taken seriously.It was a
different storywiththeunfortunate old womanin Milan who prayedev-
eryday forthe long lifeof a mostcruelduke. When she was asked why
she did this,she told the duke thathis predecessorswere less cruelthan
he was and she fearedthathis successorswould be even crueler.Because
of her foolishreply,the duke had her put to death preciselybecause she
was no fool.
The behaviorof Si-Djoha, as reportedin a collectionof Arabic jests
fromthe 10thcentury,cogentlyillustratesthe relationshipof the foolto
power.The conquerorTimur-Lenksees his face in a mirrorand weeps.
His obsequious courtiersjoin him in weeping.Aftertwo hours,Timur-
Lenk regainshis composureand his courtiersalso cease weeping.Only
the foolSi-Djoha crieson and on. His Lord asks him:"Whydo you still
weep?"The foolreplies:"You saw yourselfin theglassforonlya moment
and wept fortwo hours.But I see you everyday. Are you surprisedthat
I continueto weep?"(Storer1928,p. 46). This storycalls to minda modern
Polish epigramby StanislavJerzeyLec: "Wherelaughteris forbidden/
Weepingis usuallynot permitted"(Lec 1967,p. 59). Only the fool may
both laugh and weep at will (Speier 1969,chap. 12). Of course,undera
reignofterror, one can laugh onlyat jokes thatare permitted or officially
put abroad.
Laughterat the mightyis not necessarilythe productof enlightened
1393
minds. Radically aggressivepoliticalhumordoes not just criticizethe

powerfulvictim.The victimof popularjokes, who enjoyspower,honor,
and wealth,findshimselfrobbed of his dignityand strippednaked, so
thathe becomesa naturalman no different fromthelowliestof the low.
Everyclaimto distinction is unmaskedas a pose. Those who say theyare
chasteare shown to be lechers.The brave are liars who soil theirpants
whenin danger.The tyrantturnsoutto be sexuallyimpotent.The richdie
as pennilessas thepoor.The wise are scornedbecauseoftheirstupidity. In
thestoryfromthe 15thcenturyabout thedeformedfarmerMarcolf,King
Salomon,embitteredat Marcolf's pranks,says that he neverwishes to
see his face again. Whereuponthe rascal creepsintoan oven so thatthe
kingmaybeholdhisrearend.Law is buta fencewithgaps,honornothing
but a vain facade, and power as frailas virtue.The physicianlives by
killinghis patientsor, as in theJapanesetale, prescribesfora woman a
naturalinjection,as it were,administeredin the presenceof her gullible
husband.Even theologyis notspared.In Grimmelhausen's extraordinary
novella, the expectationof the Jews for the Messiah is fulfillednine
monthsafterthe effectiveimpersonationby a merchantof the prophet
Elias in thebedroomofthecharmingEsther,bythebirthofa child,who,
it turnsout,is a girl,"a slitMessiah" (Speier 1969,chap. 16). The raucous
laughterof the powerlessand the lowly is the ragingrevoltof nature
againstculture,ofphysisagainstnomos.
The preferred formof the politicaljoke of the powerlessis not erotic,
but scatological,althoughsuch jokes do not shrinkfromdescribingthe
venerealdiseases or sexual aberrationsofthemighty.Obscenitiesas well
as imageryfrombodilyfunctions, digestiveand otherwise,fillthe classic
comicliteratureof all languages.For instance,Germanliteraturehas the
distinctionof containingin its annals a novel whose heroexcelsall men
in theartof breakingwind. The Spanishpicaresquenovel abounds with
scatologicaljokes and grotesqueobscenities.In FranciscoQuevedo's Don
Pablos theSharper(1626),theyoungheroreceivesa letterfromhis uncle,
a publichangman,informing himofhisfather'sdeath.His lifewas ended
on the gallows by his brotherwho "afterwardcut him up and scattered
his pieces along the highway.... But I feelsure thatthe pastrymakers
in thispartofthecountrywill use himfortheirmeatpies,and thusbring
someconsolationto his relatives"(Flores 1957,pp. 128-29). And,theKo-
rean word fora shootingstar is pyol-dong,which literallymeans "star
dung."In addition,scatologicalhumoris ancient.In Aristophanes'The
Clouds,to take onlyone example,Socratesexplainsthe originsof divine
thunderwitha reference to gastricrumblings. And,ofcourse,to thisday,
sexualand especiallyscatologicalhumor,allusions,and expressionsthrive
among soldiersin theirbarracks,in prisons,among rebelliousstudents,
1394
Wit and Politics
and amongstreetpeople at thebottomofthesocial order(see,e.g.,Labov

et al. 1968).
The aggressivejoke of the powerlessis brutishand remorseless.But
such jokes do not destroypower.Instead,theycaricaturepower.To get
a properidea ofthenatureofcaricature,one mightturnto AnnibaleCar-
racci who paintedthe firstcaricatureportraitaround 1600 and who re-
flectedabout theessenceofcaricature.He said thatcaricature,likeevery
work of art, emulatesreality.But, while classical art seeks the perfect
figure[gestalt],caricatureseeks the perfectmonster[missgestalt] (Gom-
brichand Kris 1940,pp. 10-11).
WhisperedJokes
In totalitarianregimes,manyjokes get put abroad against the govern-
ment,but onlyby word of mouthand, even then,theyare usuallywhis-
pered.Contraryto a widelyheldview,whisperedjokes are notnecessarily
an indicationofresistance.In all rigidlycontrolledorganizations, such as
the armyor the prison, bitter is
joking a regularoccurrence. But the sol-
diersand prisonerswho laugh at the superiorswhose orderstheyfollow
are notaboutto rebel.In realmutinies,ridiculeand laughterstop.Instead,
laughterabout whisperedjokes eases theadaptationto thedisciplineand
regimenof a strictregime.Indeed, throughouthistory,whisperedjokes
have been safetyvalves,enablingmento reducethefrustrations inflicted
throughtaboos,laws, and conventions.Institutionalized opportunities for
licenseat certaintimesor on certainoccasions existin manyprimitive
societies,when highlyesteemedclowns make ritualisticsportof all that
is held sacred (Levine 1969,chap. 14). In ancientRome,even the slaves
were allowed to joke at theexpenseof thevictoriousconquerorwhen he
triumphantly returnedfromwar. In themiddleages, ecclesiasticalranks
were reversedin mock masses,and holyriteswere subjectedto riotous
jesting.Later,secularsocietiesoffoolsflourished in manycities,relieving
social disciplineof its sting.Even today,we stillcelebrateMardi Gras,
Halloween, and April Fool's Day. The point is that such customsare
scarcelya formof resistanceto the social orderin whichtheyoccur;in-
deed, theycontributeimportantly to the maintenanceof thatorder.One
mighteven suggestthatthe totalitarianpersecutionof thosewho laugh
at whisperedjokes is counterproductive.
Whisperedjokes can also serveas a psychologicalalibi. By occasionally
tellingor laughingat a subversivejest,one can live moreeasilywithnag-
ging,half-conscious insightsaboutaccommodationor one's own failureto
revolt.Accommodation, howevermuchone peppersitwithscorn,remains
accommodation.Whisperedjokes do not constitutea rebellion;in muti-
1395
nies, the laughingstops. As the Berlinersaid at the end of the Second

WorldWar: "BeforeI let themhang me, I believein victory."
Wit and Death

Radical politicaljokes give expressionto thewishto killone's opponent.
They play withdeath thoughtsand mock the enemyby rejoicingabout
his mortality, or even treatinghis death as a comic event. It is worth
mentioning jokes that emergeout of the realm of black humor,even if
theyare tastelessor vulgar.We mournforthe death of a just lord,who
bringsrelieffromthe hardshipsand povertyoftencreatedby tyranny.
The deathofa herois a tragicmisfortune. But we do notlamenttheends
of criminalsand knaves. Above all, we know thatwe all mustdie, and
the comedyof a macabrejoke consistsnotjust in its implicitdeath wish
foranother,but especiallyin thebizarreimpressionthatdeath makeson
theliving.Macabre jokes makedeathand mourningbanal. Radical politi-
cal jokes transform hatredand misfortune intogrotesquelaughter.
Macabre nonpoliticaljokes are,ofcourse,as old as laughter.Philogelos
containsmany comic storiesabout gravesites(in "unhealthy"districts),
funeralorations(composedduringthe lifetimeof the mournedpersonso
that the speaker,speakingextempore,would not ridiculehim),coffins
(whichweretoosmalland therefore werereservedforchildren), and many
more of the same. "A man fromAbdera had his dead fathercremated
accordingto custom.Then he ran to his sick mother'shouse and said:
'There is stillsomewood leftover.If youwantto,and are able,whydon't
you come and be burnedwith him?"' (Thierfelder1968, p. 73). In this
thatis, the stupidity
case, the listenerlaughs freelybecause of stupidity,
oftheman fromAbdera.But themacabrecan also be comicaleven when
directedat oneselfalone, as we see in the followingstorywrittenforthe
BerlinerAbendblatter byHeinrichvon Kleist:"A Capuchinmonkaccom-
panies a wastrelto the gallows in rainyweather.The condemnedman
complainsto God on the way thathe mustgo throughthe bitterprocess
in such bad and unfriendly weather.The Capuchin monkwishesto be
charitableto himand says: 'You, scoundrel,whyare you complainingso
much about thisweather?You onlyhave to go one way, but I mustgo
back along the same routein the rain.'" Kleist closes the storywiththe
drycomment:"Whoeverhas experiencedjust how drearythe road back
froma place of executionis, even on a fineday, will notfindtheremark
of the Capuchin monkso dumb" (Kleist,n.d.,p. 1131).
There are a greatmanymacabrepoliticaljokes in whichpowerholders
lose theirlives. Such jokes may seem to the admirersof victimsentirely
tasteless,althoughtheyare notnecessarilyso. Put simply,themoreunre-
1396
Wit and Politics
strainedtheexpressionofthedeathwish,usuallytheworseis thejoke in
termsof vulgarityand tastelessness.However, the moreone graspsthe
meaningofthejoke fromthepointofview ofthelistener,thefunnierthe
storyappears,and ifneitherfanaticismnorfearhinderus, we mustlaugh.
One heardconstantly about Stalin,Hitler,Mussolini,and otherthugswho
had achieved absolute power,that one would like to hang themon the
wall, referring,of course,to theirportraits.If not tasteless,thispopular
politicaljoke was stillprettyshallow.But thesamejestingintentbecomes
immediatelymorecomicalin the followingcontext:"On the coathookin
the parliamentstandsthe admonition:'Only forcongressmen!'A visitor
remarks:'Well, it's also forcoats!' (Kuhn 1974,p. 54).
The newestformof a macabrejoke is by no means always the best.
For example,in a storythatone hearsabout all dictatorsin thiscentury,
the mightyman is saved fromdrowningby a brave fellowand, out of
gratitude,extendshima wish.But theman,findingout whoselifehe has
saved is shockedand criesout:"Please,tellno one thatI have saved you."
In the last monthsof WillyBrandt's rule,jokes proliferated againstthe
chancellor,his cabinet,and theSocial DemocraticParty.One about Egon
Bahr goes as follows:Bahr had fallenin theRhineand was pulled out of
the water by threeyouths.When given the customarychoice of a free
wish,thefirstyouthasked himfora worldtripand thesecondfora Mer-
cedes. The thirdwanted a state funeral.Bahr: "Why a state funeral?"
"Because when myfatherhears thatI saved yourlife,he will strikeme
dead" (Kuhn 1974,p. 14). In thisversion,thejoke is tastelessbecause it
is spoiled throughthe pedantictreblingof the wishes and made coarse
throughthegoals ofthewishes.The resultis thatlistenersfeelill-disposed
to thejoke and do notlaugh.Even clumsier,indeedblockheaded,because
itstrashyformofenmitymirrorsonlya politicalbarbarism,is a joke that
made theroundsat thesame time."WhenwilltheGermanRepubliconce
again be in order?""WhenChancellorStraussat thegraveofWillyBrandt
asks the widow of HerbertWehner:'Who reallyshot Egon Bahr?'" (in
Der Spiegel,November2, 1974).If it is trueto a certainextentthateach
regimegetsthejokes thatit deserves,so is it also correctthateach joke
revealsthe characterof the narratorand of the personwho laughs.
Since a man's name is feltto be a constitutive part of a person,some-
thingthatis truebothin primitiveand contemporary cultures,jokes that
disfigureor make sportof a name are especiallyaggressive.They kill in
a magicalway. The satiristGottliebWilhelmRabenercould notbear one
Mr. Gottschedbecauseofhisacerbityand overbearingpresumptuousness.
"Ata gathering, he spokecontinually ofhimas this'Sched.' A guestasked
Rabener,'Tell me,whydo youalwayscall thisfamousman only"Sched?"
In a bad-temperedway, Rabener explained,'One should not take the
1397
name of God in vain'" (Humor seit Homer 1964, p. 155). A friendof

my own, a famouspoliticalphilosopher,24 constantlysaid "Gitler"and
"Geidegger"insteadof"Hitler"and "Heidegger."WhenI asked himwhy
he did that,he answeredthat,althoughhe despisedcommunismno less
than National Socialism,"In Russian,one says G insteadof H."
Thereare also macabrepoliticaljokes thatstandcloseto gallowshumor
and thatbypassthepoliticalcensorby beingveiledin melancholyobscu-
rity.The followingexcellentjoke addressesthe situationof men in our
timeand, almostimperceptibly, pulls withit intothe darknessthe sput-
teringemptinessofall bureaucraticregimes.The joke comesfromRussia
and is attributedto Radio Yerevan. "What shouldwe do in theeventof
an atomicattack?"The answer:"Put on a shroudand walk slowlyto the
nextcemetery." "Whyslowly?""In orderto avoid causinga panic" (Levi
1961).
Of course,the same joke could have come froma democraticcountry,
especiallyduringtheperiodoftheCold War. Its melancholyironyfitsthe
precariousnessof moderncivilization,regardlessof the formof govern-
mentunderwhichone happens to live. The spiritof thejoke resembles
that of the disenchantedFrench farmerin the Vaucluse who, in 1951,
refusedto followthe good advice of expertson how to improvehis eco-
nomicsituation."Plantapricottrees?So thattheRussiansand Americans
can use theorchardas a battlefield?Thank you. But I'm notthatdumb"
(Wylie 1957,p. 33).
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Wit and Politics An Essay On Laughter and Power

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Wit and Politics: An Essay on Laughter and Power

Author(s): Hans Speier

Originallypublishedin Germanin 1975,thisreflective essay draws

PROVINCE OF POLITICAL WIT

1352 AJS Volume 103 Number5 (March 1998): 1352-1401

nese versionand in a modernGermanform.The Japanesestoryis some-

3Someeditorsofcollections ofpoliticaljokes distinguish

in theUnitedStates,one oftenheardmanyjokes abouttheraginginflation

'From J. Novitski in the New York Times, May 3, 1972.

duringa visitofthepresidentoftheGermanFederal Republicto London,

One findssomethingsimilarin Quintilian,who begins his treatment

The bishopcould notrefrainfromlaughingand he lessenedbothhis own

The Attorney Generalhas a criminal thathe can use.He has a

6 Cited in the 1561 English translationof Castiglione, II Cortegiano,by Sir Thomas

spirit,thesocial order,thesense oflegitimacyin a society,harmony,and

The Healing Joke

theNorth.On theday afterthebattle,thecongressmanIsaac N. Arnold

I This is toldby Fuchs in his afterword

it openon thetable.The othertwogentlemen noticean inscriptioninside:

THE REALM OF HUMOR

vides an opportunityto allude to the meaningof a phenomenonthat

a prizeforsomeonewho is lucky,'said one of theyoungmen. But these

ofthe ChinesefolknovelMonkey,as well as Aristophanes,Shakespeare,

8 See Bergson(1928,p. 5). Although

definedas theconsciousorunconscious transition meaning

manypracticalpeople,upon hearinga pun,become uncomfortable or at

the [Berlin]Reichstagbuildingand the government of the GermanFed-

" Trans.note:JokesaboutUlbrichtaboundedduringhis rule.Discoveredin Speier's

Posa: "Armin arm withyou, I challengemy hundredthyear!"[Armin

but even back to an Englishbook writtenin 1630(see HumorseitHomer

The blindmanfounda jewel;

Compare the view of the worldcontainedin thisversewitha storythat

books" to enhance the qualityof theirperformances. These compendia

Many otherriddlesalso have the same structure, forexamplethe Arab

ratherlikethepastimeoftheboredold manin PeterBichsel'simaginative

wardlyhe gulpedand stuttered.His overallformand his facewereasym-

Defects-Physical, Spiritual,and Moral

such theatricalrepresentations dispel the terrorthat the monstrousin-

and envy,or sarcasm and abusivenessthat clangs fromthe writingsof

In politicaljokes about absentpowerholders, bodilydefectsare often

orderto see how he lookswhenhe is asleep. And thereis also a charming

one's standpoint:anxietyabout ghostsmakes even thosewho do not be-

nightaccompanied by a native of that city.The Berliner points at the Big Dipper in

also pokefunat sociallyprivilegedgroups.Out ofBerlincomesthefollow-

by the same publisher in 1988.

Even the obscene accident,in which the whitewashof cultureis be-

The Paradox of Timelessness

"The Czech cryforhelp,which,as is well known,the Kremlinused to

to lightagain duringthe Hitlerperiodin Germany.At a highreception,

15 Oreglia (1968, p. 114). Tiberio Fiorilli (1602-94), regarded as the greatestactor of

the 17thcentury,played the role of Scaramouche. It was his performancethat inspired

The veryspecificity and concretenessof detail that bind all political

THE VICTIM OF POLITICAL WIT

reader,or otherpublics.One can elaboratethisschemein variousways.

16Trans. note: The referenceis probably to Chladenius's (1710-59) Einleitung zur

we telleach otherthenews and speak ofvariousmatters,whetherserious

19For these statistics,see Krach (1961, p. 19). Unfortunately,

reactionon thepartofthevictimis onlyone amongmanyat his disposal.

Wittyhecklingmayalso be regardedas jokingamongequals. Not only

Trans. note: The samejoke is repeatedalmostverbatim

depends,myLord,on whetherI embraceyourprinciplesoryourmistress"

The Laughterof the Mighty