AP US History Review Sheet by Carrie Filipetti and Helen Yang (©2005)

Era/President Foreign Policy Domestic Policy Time Period

America: Pre-European -Settlement Patterns: Most Indian tribes had separate gender roles. Small, semi permanent settlements. Settled near rivers. Some societies large and complex, such as the Pueblos (irrigation), Mayas (Yucatan
Contact Peninsula), and Aztecs/Incas (Central Mex./Peru): established trade, vast empires, religion, calendars, and made scientific discoveries. Iroquois: developed political confederacy, called League of the Iroquois.
Defended them against attacks from Americans and Euros during 17 & 18 hundreds.
Age of Exploration -Background of Exploration: Improvements in Technology: Renaissance, began using gunpowder, sailing compass, improvements in shipbuilding/mapmaking. 1450- Printing Press. European religious conflicts:
Roman Catholic Church threatened by Ottoman (Islamic) Turks. Catholic victory in Spain (1492): Isabella and Ferdinand United. Defeated Moors of Granada. Protestant revolt: everyone Protestant/Catholic
wanted to be first to spread ideas of God to Africa, Asia. Expanding Trade: Trade route from Venice and Constantinople blocked in 1453 (controlled by Ottoman Turks, demanded high tax). Had to find new trade
route to Asia. First: a way around Africa, discovered by Prince Henry (Portugal): Opened a sea route around South Africa’s Cape of Good Hope. 1498—Portuguese Vasco da Gama: first euro to reach India by
Prince Henry’s route. Developing Nation-States in Spain, Portugal, France, England, Netherlands. Used them to find riches/spread religion.
-Columbus: Funded by Spanish. Sailed from Canary Islands to Bahamas. Brought first interaction with Whites and Indians for long-time period. Led to Columbus Exchange:
Indians gave Euros: Beans, corn, sweet potato, tomato, reg. Potato, tobacco, syphilis.
Euros gave Indians: Sugar cane, bluegrass, pigs, horses, wheel, iron, guns, smallpox, measles, other diseases.
-Dividing the New World: Spain fear Portugal (strong navy and active explorers); pope draw “Line of Demarcation” (1493)-divide New World into 2 sections; Spain west, Portugal east; Treaty of Tordesillas
(1494)-move lien farther west
-Spanish Conquistadores-bring diseases devastate local Indian pop; Vasco Nunez de Balboa-cross isthmus of Panama-first European to see Pacific, Juan Ponce de Leon-explore Florida for gold and fountain of
youth claim Florida for Spain, Hernando Cortes-conquer Aztecs, Panfilio de Narvaez-disatrous expedition through Gulf Coast Region, Cabeza de Vaca-story of 7 cities of gold, Hernando de Soto-explore southern
U.S. and discover Mississippi River , Francisco Vasquez de Coronado-expedition across Rio Grande-NM, AZ, TX, OK, KS, Ferdinand Magellan-voyage around world
The Thirteen Colonies NEW ENGLAND COLONIAL CLAIMS MIDDLE COLONIAL CLAIMS SOUTHERN COLONIAL CLAIMS:
-Plymouth -Maryland: first proprietary colony. 1632 to Lord Baltimore, -Virginia:
Separatists fled England to Holland, went to America, became George Calvert. North of Potomac River. Refuge for English Englishmen influenced by victory over Spain & by Rich Hakluyt
Pilgrims. Leader William Bradford (162), obtained London Catholics. Venture carried on after death by son Cecilius. More (urged US colonization as the way to greatness/spread gospel.
Company charter to settle south of Hudson River. Mayflower Protestants than Catholics came. Calvert, to protect Catholics, made James I issued 2 charters: VA company of London and VA Company
landed at Cape Cod in MA instead. Settled there, outside charter “An Act of Religious Toleration.” (1649)—guaranteed political of Plymouth. London—rights to between Hudson and Cape Fear
jurisdiction. Signed Mayflower Compact, establishing foundation rights to Christians of all kinds. Representative assembly. Copy of rivers. Plymouth—right to colonize from Potomac to Maine. Both
for orderly government. Bought out investors to gain more VA, economically and socially. (Chesapeake) were joint-stock companies: raised capital by shares of stock.
autonomy. Plymouth Company (1607): tried to settle ME. Failed. Company
-Mass Bay Colony -The Carolinas: folded. London Company: (1607) 3 ships, 104 men. Up James River
Puritans felt Anglican Church retained too many practices left over 1663: Charles II restored to throne. Colonies to reward his loyalists. from Chesapeake Bay. Named Jamestown (after King). First
from Roman Catholicism. King James I ignored them. Charles I Almost feudal government. NC—overflow from VA. SC—settled Permanent English settlement in N. America. Many settlers died of
tried to persecute them in 1629. Puritans sought joint-stock by English planters from Barbados. Founded Charles Town in 1670. starvation, disease, or Indian violence. Reasons? Lack of initiative:
company to be called Mass. Bay Company. Charles I granted it. Brought with them black slaves: slavery an institution from start. didn’t have to work, made same amt. of money from company
Decided to stay in the colony (Charter didn’t specify anything, anyway. Wasted time looking to “get rich quick.” Low and swampy
unusual). Led by John Winthrop. 1630—didn’t suffer as other New York/New Jersey: land, contaminated water, disease, bad relations with Powhatan
colonies did. Government had a gov. and representative assembly 1664-Charles II wanted the Dutch colony of New Netherlands (Indian chief). 1608-1609: John Smith led. 1612: John Rolfe:
“General Court.” 1642—Great Migration of Puritans. between Chesapeake and New England colonies. Gave James Duke discovered West Indies strain of tobacco could grow. Large market
-Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire of York title to all Dutch lands in US if James conquered them. for it in Euro, gave VA a major cash crop. Saved colony. Indenture
Roger Williams. Puritan. Asked to leave Mass. Bay: too radical. Colonel Richard Nicols captured New Amsterdam with no violence system: to end shrinking labor force. Planters paid for passage of
Fled to Narragansett Bay, bought Indian Land, named it Providence and became New York. James outlawed representative assemblies. workers. Gov. Lord De La Warr, Sir Thomas Gates, Sir Thomas
(1636). Nicols granted other civil and political rights, but Puritans wanted Dale imposed harsh rule as Governors. Edwin Sandys: action in
Anne Hutchinson: taught contrary to Puritan doctrine. Banished Self-gov. James relented in 1680s. He granted a part of it to John company. New approach to attract settlers: promised them same
because she said she superseded the Bible. Founded Portsmouth Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret (two Carolina proprietors). rights as in England. Founded Rep. Assembly, House of Burgesses
(1638). They named it New Jersey (proprietary). Colonel Nicols didn’t in 1619: first in US. Gave private ownership of land. 1619—began
1644-Roger Williams got charter from Parliament to combine know, conflicting claims of ownership…New Jersey in 1702 taken using African servants. King James I wanted tobacco profits for
Providence, Portsmouth, and others to colony of Rhode Island. over by crown, utilizing this battle over ownership. self: used high mortality and Indian massacres to take charter in
Williams’ allowed religious toleration FOR ALL. Populated by the 1624. Made it a royal colony. Took away all political rights and the
“unwelcome.” Pennsylvania and Delaware: representative assembly. Charles I, son, restored rights 15 years
CT: Puritans who had disagreements with Mass. Colony leaders. Penn: founded as a refuge for Quakers (sprung up around English later. (Chesapeake).
1636: Thomas Hooker founded Hartford. 1639: Fundamental Order Civil War). William Penn founded it in 1681. Laid out city of
of CT, first written constitution in US—established rep. gov’t. 1637 Philadelphia—grid--himself. Had peaceful relations with Indians. Georgia—constant imperial warfare. Colony intended as a buffer
—John Davenport led Puritans. Founded New Haven. Winthrop not Advertised colony in Europe, offered land, representative between South Carolina and Spanish-held Florida. Philanthropists
strict enough. 1662—charter combined New Haven and Hartford. assemblies, and religious freedom. Colony grew and prospered. by James Oglethorpe obtained charter for Georgia in 1732, located
NH: Overflow from Mass. 1677—King Charles II chartered. Royal Fertile soil. Large exporter of grain to Europe and West Indies. between Savannah and Altamaha rivers. Populated by poor debtors.
colony. Economically dependent on Massachusetts Bay Colony. Few settlers came, too many rules. 1752—failed.
Delaware: Part of Penn, granted a separate legislature by Penn.
Ruled by Penn’s proprietary governors until US Revolution.
Establishing the Colonies Spain: France: England:
1600-1732 -rigid control of colonies to benefit Spain; bureaucracy from Madrid -Giovanni da Verrazzano (1524)-follow American coast from NC to -Earliest claims resulted from John Cabot (Italian sea captain):
-treasure fleets carry riches to Spain annually Maine explored coast of Newfoundland (NFL) in 1497
-encomiendas system-large manors, Indian slaves managed by -1534-Jacques Cartier-St. Lawrence River-hoped it was Northwest -little interest in colonies for most of 1500s—occupied with Henry
conquistadors—land given to Spainards; later replaced with Passage-claim area for France VII’s break with Roman Catholic Church.
 hacienda system -Slow to develop colonies: occupied with Euro wars and -efforts supported by private rather than gov’t funds-greater degree
-bring African slaves (asiento system) after devastation of native Huguenot/Roman Catholic battle. of freedom
population; need to pay tax to king for each slave -First permanent French Settlement: Samuel de Champlain (1608): -Spanish and English conflict-English sea captains plunder Spanish
-Treatment of Native Americans: intermarried. Rigid class system Quebec. “Father of New France.” ships, ie Francis Drake; defeat of Spanish Armada-make England
-1673: Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette explored powerful
DUTCH CLAIMS: Mississippi River. -Sir Humphrey Gilbert: England should found colonies to find a
-Hired Henry Hudson. Explored for NW passage. 1609: established -1682: Robert da La Salle—Mississippi basin, named Louisiana NW Passage-1576: Martin Frobisher looked for it. Found only
New Amsterdam. (after French King, Louis XIV) fool’s gold. 1578-Gilbert got charter (for NFL): guaranteed
-Formed Joint-stock company, Dutch West India Company -Treatment of Indians: good relations with those of the St. colonists rights of Englishman. Set precedent for more charters.
Lawrence Valley and Great Lakes region. Assisted Hurons in -Sir Walter Raleigh: discovered/named VA, after queen. Site:
fighting the Iroquois to get control of fur trade. Built ports along Roanoke Island off coast of NC. 1587--114 settlers. Virginia Dare:
river/great lakes. And Mississippi. Exchanged French goods for first girl born in US. John White leader, left, came back 1590,
Indian furs. Posed little threat to Indians. people gone. 15 years before England interested again in Americas.
-Treatment of the Natives: in MA, coexisted, traded. Taught euros
how to grow new crops (corn), how to hunt. Traded furs for iron
tools and weapons. English went on them: no respect, “savages,”
Threatened Indians with their presence eventually.
Colonial America -Life in New England Colonies: had more children than average English or Chesapeake family, longer lifespan, more stable and well-ordered society than Chesapeake colonies; Puritans value family-patriarchal,
1607-1775 value ability to read (for Bible)
-New England Economy: climate and soil unsuited to large-scale farming, economy based on small farming, home industry, fishing, trade, logging, rum-distilling, shipbuilding; Boston large international port
-Life in Chesapeake: live shorter, less healthy than NE colonist, fewer children, pop. Decline, indentured servants many of the settlers to work tobacco fields, men outnumber women in VA and MA, less stable
family life, remarriage; Indentured servitude-open to abuse-masters sometimes treat servants brutally-40% die b/f gaining freedom; late 1600s life stabilize, elite group of wealthy families dominate political and
social life of region-build lavish manors
-Slaves in Southern Society-first treated as indentured servants, 1640-1660-begin to be treated as chattel; slave pop. Gradually increase
-North Carolina and Virginia-smaller farmers, tobacco; South Carolina and Georgia-rice and indigo, larger and self-sufficient
-Middle colonies Economy-rich soil, grow wheat and corn for export, often indentured servants or hired laborers work w/family, small manufacturing-iron-making, growth of Philadelphia and New York
-Education: NE-tax-supported schools, emphasis on learning the Bible, Mass. Law 1647 require towns w/ over 50 families primary school for boys, over 100 families grammar schools to prepare for college;
Middle Colonies-church sponsored or private; S. colonies-parents gave children what they could, plantations had tutors; Higher Edu. Harvard 1636-proper theological education, William and Mary in VA (1694),
Yale in CN (1701)-both sectarian, only nonsectarian college was College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania)
-Professions: 1607-1707 Christian ministry only profession; Physicians-cures made disease worse-bleeding-no formal medical training-first medical college in 1765 as part of College of Philadelphia; Lawyers-
not commonly seen in courts of 1600s, as things become more complex, trade expands-bar-later argue for colonial rights-John Adams, James Otis, Patrick Henry
-Newspapers-expand in number between 1725 and 1776-contain ads, old news from Europe, pious essays; John Peter Zenger case-1735-brought to charges for libelously criticizing NY royal governor-jury rule
that truth is not libel
Mercantilism-belief that world’s wealth limited, colonies exist to help mother country build up wealth; Navigation Acts (1651, 1660, 1663, 1673)-1.trade with colonies carried only on British or American ships
w/ 75% British or American crews-2.certain “enumerated” goods shipped from American port can go only to British or American port-3. everything imported to America have to go through Britain first
-Bacon’s Rebellion: Virginians angry at Royal Governor Sir William Berkeley (high-taxing and high-handed)-1676-disagreement over Indian policy-Bacon and men burn Jamestown; Britain send troops
-Half-Way Covenant-late 1600s, many Puritans believe piety declining-create half-way church membership for children of members; would keep church membership full and can influence society
-King Phillip’s War-Puritans try to convert Indians to Christianity-1675-Wampanoag chief led war to exterminate whites
-The Dominion of New England-James II try to unify New England, NY, NJ-abolish representative assemblies and facilitate imposition of Church of England-Dominion headed by Sir Edmond Andros-kicked out
when Glorious Revolution replace James with Mary and William
-Salem Witch Trials-girls claim to be tormented by witches-20 people killed
-Molasses Act of 1733-not enforced; economy-drain in hard currency (gold and silver) gov’t prevent printing of paper currency
-Immigration-Germans-migrate b/c of wars, poverty, religious persecution-settle in Penn.-called Pennsylvania Dutch; Scots-Irish-Scottish Presbyterians living in N. Ireland-left b/c of high rend and economic
depression-settle on or beyond frontier in Appalachians
-Wars of the Empire-King William’s War (1689-1697)-border raids by Indians-settled by Treaty of Ryswick; Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713)-12 yrs sporadic fighting against French and Spanish-Treaty of
Utrecht-Britain gain territory and trade advantages; King George’s War (1739-1748)-American troops play active role assisting British-Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle-give Louisbourg back to France for parts of India
-Great Awakening-religious revivals occurring in colonies from 1720s to 1740s: Dutch Reformed Theodore Frelinghuysen, Presbyterians William and Gilbert Tennent, Congregationalist Jonathan Edwards
(“Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”-personal repentance and faith in Christ, George Whitefield; “Old Lights”-reject Great Awakening, “New Lights”-accepted it
-French and Indian War-France want to take control of Ohio valley and W. Penn.-Washington-Fort Necessity (surrender); meet in Albany to discuss common plans for defense-Ben Franklin propose intercolonial
gov’t but not supported; William Pitt take Quebec; Treaty of Paris of 1763-Britian gain all of Canada and US. East of Mississippi river
Revolutionary War CAUSES WAR -Treaty of Paris of 1783
1775-1783 -Writs of Assistance-general search warrants issue to help royal -Lexington and Concord: General Gage ordered to arrest leaders of -negotiating team of Ben Franklin, John Adams, John Jay
officials stop evasion of trade restrictions; James Otis argue that resistance; report of arms and ammunition at Concord; march on -1. United States recognized as independent nation by major
they were contrary to natural law 4/18/75-people warned by Paul Revere and William Dawes; European powers
-Greenville-prime minister of Britain: Indian uprising led by Ottawa Minutemen defend Lexington and Concord-first shots of revolution -2.Western boundary was Mississippi River
chief Pontiac, sent Royal Navy to suppress American smuggling -Bunker Hill-British generals Howe, Clinton, Burgoyne urge Gage -3. Southern boundary set at 31˚ N latitude (northern boundary of
and enforce Navigation Acts, Sugar Act-raise revenue y taxes on to act; fortify Breeds Hill-possible to bombard Boston; defended by Florida)
goods imported by Americans, Quartering Act-require colonies to Minutemen-6/17/75 -4. British retain Canada but surrender Florida to spain
pay for maintenance of British troops; Currency Act of 1764- -attempt to attack Quebec and fail -5. Private British creditors free to collect debts owed by U.S.
forbade all colonial attempts to issue currency not redeemable in -Second Continental Congress-Philadelphia-May 1775-2 factions citizens
gold or silver; Stamp Act (1765)-require Americans to purchase NE-support independence, Middle Colonies-John Dickinson-don’t -6. Congress recommend that states restore confiscated loyalist
revenue stamps on things from newspapers to legal documents- want independence; call colonies to send troops headed by George property
 response-pamphlets, petitions, “no taxation without representation”;
Samuel Adams forms Sons of Liberty; Stamp Act Congress-assert
Americans cannot be taxed w/o consent, call for repeal of act, help
leaders work together; Boycott British goods; Stamp Act Repealed-
Declaratory Act-claim power to tax or make laws for Americans in
all cases
-Townshend Acts-pass taxes on items imported into colonies; use of
admiralty courts to try accused; writs of assistance; pay customs
officials out of fines; suspend NY leg. For noncompliance
w/Quartering Act; “Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania”-John
Dickinson-urge restrained response of Americans
-Massachusetts Circular Letter-urged by Sam Adams-reiterate
Dickinson’s arguments and encourage them to petition Parliament;
Britain order letter to be withdrawn or Mass. Legislature dissolved-
send troops
-1770-all taxes except one on tea repealed
-Boston Massacre-troops kill 5 Bostonians-widely publicized
-Gaspee-British customs ship burned by RIers –prompt legislatures
to form committees of correspondence
-Tea Act of 1773-British East India Company want to ship tea
directly to colonies-cheaper than smuggled tea-resisted by
Americans-refuse to allow ships to dock-Dec. 16, 1773-Bostonians
threw tea into harbor
-Intolerable Acts-Coercive Acts: 1. Boston Port Act-close port of
Boston to all trade until tea paid for; 2. increase power of Mass.
Governor at expense of legislature; 3. Administration of Justice Act-
royal officials accused of crimes in Mass. Tried elsewhere; 4.
Strengthen Quartering Act-quarter troops anywhere-Quebec Act-
extend Quebec to Ohio River, all Catholic and gov’t w/o rep.
assembly
-First Continental Congress-Philadelphia 1774-denounce
Intolerable Acts, strict non-importation, preparation of local militia,
agree to meet in May
Articles of Confederation WHAT IT SAID
1783-1787 -preserve sovereignty of states and create very weak national gov’t
-unicameral Congress-each state have 1 vote
-executive authority under Articles-committee of 13-1 member from
each state
-to amend articles-unanimous consent of all states
-GOV’T CAN: declare war, make treaties, determine amount of
troops and money each state should contribute to war effort, settle
disputes between states, admit new states to the Union, borrow
money
Washington; “Declaration of the Causes and Necessity for Taking -Creation of State Constitutions
up Arms” , “Olive Branch Petition” -CN and RI just kept colonial charter but delete British references
-Prohibitory Act-declare colonies in rebellion and no longer under -Mass. 1780-create constitution-insist constitution be made by
protection of king special convention not state legislature-would be responsible
-Common Sense-Thomas Paine-Jan. 1776-call for immediate -Penn. Extremely democratic and unworkable-unicameral
independence-sold well legislature
-Committee headed by John Dickinson-work framework for -Maryland and Virginia-safeguards against popular excesses
national gov’t; committee draft statement for reasons for declaring -most include bill of rights
independence-Declaration of Independence-Thomas Jefferson-July
4, 1776
-Christmas night 1776-Washington’s army cross Delaware and
defeat Hessians at Trenton; defeat British at Princeton
-France aid America by sending arms b/c it hated Britain
-Battle of Saratoga-General Burgoyne-two prong attack on Albany
to split colonies; only Burgoyne march-defeated by Benedict
Arnold at Saratoga-French openly join war
-Valley Forge-Howe takes Philadelphia-Washington’s army spend
winter at Valley Forge-trained by Barn von Steuben
-British attempt to move South-hope for more loyalists-Americans
commanded by Nathaniel Greene
-Yorktown-General Cornwallis surrender Oct. 17, 1781-French
navy and army help Washington
-War at sea-US. Navy and privateers prey on British merchants-
John Paul Jones
ACTIONS UNDER THE CONFEDERATION WEAKNESSES OF ARTICLES
-Trans-Appalachian West-1775-Daniel Boone open up “Wilderness -NOT ALLOWED TO: levy taxes, raise troops, regulate commerce
Road” to “Bluegrass” region of Kentucky; settle in Ohio; threat of -print large amounts of paper money-“Continentals” worthless
Indians-British military posts: supply Indians w/guns and encourage -army-pay far behind-threatened mutiny
to attack Americans -Newburgh Conspiracy (1783)-Horatio Gates-possibility of using
-Land Ordinance of 1784-territorial gov’t and orderly system by army to force states to give federal gov’t more power
which each territory could progress to statehood sometimes -Shay’s Rebellion (1786)-economic hard times and high taxes;
combined w/ordinance of 1785 Daniel Shays and farmers shut down courts to prevent judges from
-Land Ordinance of 1785-orderly surveying and distribution of land seizing property or condemning people to debtors’ prision
in townships-6 square miles-36 640 acre sections, one for edu. -citizens of Boston pay to raise army to suppress rebels; timely tax
-Northwest Ordinance of 1787-bill of rights for settlers and forbade relief-rebellion fade
slavery north of Ohio River -many people want stronger federal gov’t
-Jay-Gardoqui Negotiations-1784-Jay and Spanish Gardoqui-grant
lucrative commercial privileges benefiting east coast merchants in
exchange for Spain’s closure of Mississippi as outlet for agricultural
goods-angry response
Constitutional Convention - Reduced foreign trade and limited credit because of nonpayment of war debts led to economic depression. Congress didn’t have power to levy taxes, states printed worthless paper money. 13 states placed tariffs
on movement of goods across the state line.
-Washington held conference-Mt. Vernon (1785). Reps from VA, MA, DE, PA wanted to meet at Annapolis MA with rest of states. Only five states sent delegates to Annapolis Convention (1786). Alex and
Madison wanted to hold one in Philly to revise Articles.
-Constitution drafted at Philadelphia. Only RI didn’t come. 55 white males. 1787. Washington unanimous chairman. Secret conference. Madison: “Father of the Constitution.” Alex H, Gouverneur Morris, John
Dickinson.
-The Issues Debated: make Articles changed? Or make new document? Madison and Hamilton took control, wanted new document. Wanted based on checks and balances because of distrust of human nature.
Representation: VA Plan—Presented by Edmund Randolph (future attn. gen. for Washington). Written by Madison. Executive branch & Bicameral leg. Large states favored, rep. based on pop. William Paterson’s
“New Jersey Plan” wanted unicameral leg. with equal rep. for all states and increased powers for nat’l gov’t. The CT Plan, aka Great Compromise, had two house leg with equal rep in Senate, but House would
have rep according to size of pop. Slavery solved by the “Three Fifths Compromise:” each slave as 3/5 a person for taxation and representation. Slaves could be imported until 1808 (20 years), when Congress
could vote to abolish it. Trade: northern states wanted central govt to regulate interstate commerce and foreign trade. South – feared export taxes would be placed on tobacco and rice. Commercial Compromise let
Congress regulate interstate trade and foreign commerce, including tariffs on foreign imports, but it prohibited taxes on exports. Presidential term of office: office for life v. not, method for electing president
is ???. Decided to give president much power, power to veto acts of Congress, but only for four years. No limit to number of terms. Assigned each sate a number of electors equal to the total of that stat’s reps and
senators. Called electoral college, highest number of electoral votes=president, second highest=v.p. feared too much democracy would lead to mob rule. President who commits a crime can be impeached by
Congress. Sept. 17, 1787, approved a draft of Constitution. Specified a vote of nine states of thirteen was enough to pass Constitution.
-Struggle for ratification: supporters of constitution called “federalists.” Those against, “anti-federalists.” More federalists along Atlantic Coast and large cities, Anti-Feds along frontier farmers and settlers.
James Madison, Alex H, and John Jay had very persuasive “federalist papers” written for NY newspaper. 85 essays. Fed. Paper 10: beware of factions. Feds won victories in DE, NJ, PA. MA ratified after Sam
Adams and John Hancock switched to be Federalists. Won NH as last of 9 to ratify by promising a bill of rights, the absence of which was the antifederalists main argument. 1788—VA most populous state.
George Mason and Patrick Henry argued against it, lost by a small vote to Washington, Madison, and John Marshall after a bill of rights was promised. NY ratified after hearing of VA. + the most amazing
person’s arguments for the most amazing document. NC ratified 1789, RI last in 1790. Constitution the new “supreme law of the land.”
-Adding the Bill of Rights: Argument of Anti-Feds: we fought war to escape tyranny of central gov in Britain. What was to stop that form happening here? Feds said “Since members of congress were elected by
the people, you don’t need to protect them from themselves. And its better to assume all rights are protected than to create a limited list of rights, since unlisted rights could be violated at will. Federalists had to
agree to one, though, to allow the Constitution to be ratified.

George Washington -The French Revolution
1787-1797 France against Euro in 1792. Washington declared “Proclamation of
Federalist Neutrality.” (1793). Jefferson resigned because of it, wanted to
support France—said the “revolutionary spirit” and Britain is
seizing our ships. Citizen Genet: tried to encourage pop support for
France. Appealed to American people, not gov. Jefferson and
Washington appealed to French gov to remove him. Genet remained
in US, married and became a citizen. Jay Treaty (1794): Chief
Justice John Jay sent to Britain to talk it out of seizing American
ships and impressing seamen into the navy. Britain agreed to
evacuate posts on western frontier. Said nothing of seizures.
Ratified by the Senate, unpopular. Angered US supporters of
France. Maintained policy of Neutrality. Pinckney’s Treaty (1795):
Jay Treaty said to Spain that US might be coming close to Britain’s
ally (a foe). Spain decided to consolidate its holdings in N.
America. Thomas Pinckney (US minister to Spain) negotiated a
treaty to open lower Mississippi River and New Orleans to
American trade. Right of deposit granted to Americans so they
could transfer cargoes in New Orleans without paying duties to
Spanish gov. Spain agreed to accept US claim that Florida’s
northern boundary should be at the 31st parallel (not north as it said
before).
John Adams -The XYZ Affair (1798)
1797-1801 French warships and privateers kept taking US ships, angered
Federalist Americans, Adams sent delegation to Paris, ministers “X” “Y””Z”
called for bribes as we entered negotiations. Americans left,
newspapers reported, XYZ angered Americans, wanted War
“Millions for defense but not one cent for tribute” Hamilton hoped
to go to war to win French and Spanish Lands. Adams knew army
wasn’t strong enough, refused to declare war, sent new ministers to
Paris instead.
-The “Quasi-War”: Adams ended trade with France, Americans ship
-Organized new departments of the executive branch: appointed
Secretary of state, treasury, war, and attn gen (Randolph).
-Judiciary Act of 1789: Passed by Congress. Established Supreme
Court with one chief justice and five associates. Empowered to rule
on constitutionality of decisions made y state courts. System of 13
district courts and three circuit courts of appeals.
-Farewell address: Stay away from political parties, make no
permanent alliances in foreign affairs, don’t get involved in foreign
affairs, period; avoid sectionalism.
-Frontier Problems: Indian tribes on NW and SW borders resisting
American settlers. British in Canada encouraged Indians against
frontier settlement. 1794: Gen. Anthony Wayne defeated Indians at
the Battle of Fallen Timbers, and Treaty of Greenville cleared Ohio
territory of Indian tribes. Public Land Act of 1796, established
orderly procedures for dividing and selling federal lands at
reasonable prices.
-Emergence of Political Parties: debates during 1787-88 of
constitution gave hint of first beginnings. 1790s: Federalist Era,
dominated by two fed presidents. Opposition became Democratic-
Republicans. Federalists strength greatest in NE and favored growth
of federal power. DR: supporters in South and Western frontier.
Favored states rights and strict containment of fed power. 1796—
already organized.
-(1794): The Whisky Rebellion: Western Penn, farmers refused to
pay fed excise tax on whiskey, attacked collectors, Washington sent
in 15,000 state militiamen led by Hamilton. Rebellion collapse with
no blood. Unwarranted force? Or Successful? Jefferson most
critical, earned him support with farmers.
-Alien and Sedition Acts ( 1798): Public anger against France
strengthened Feds in congressional elections, won majority of seats
in House and Senate, wanted to enact laws to restrict DemReps:
Naturalization Act, increased from 5-14 the number of years
required for immigrants to qualify for US citizenship (most
immigrants DemReps), Alien Acts, allowed president to deport any
aliens considered dangerous and to detain any enemy aliens in time
of war, and Sedition Act, made it illegal for newspaper editors to
criticize either the president or Congress and imposed heavy
penalties for editors who violated the law. Response was KT and
-New States: 1791: VT (first new state). 1792: KT. 1796: TN
-The Bank Question: Hamilton proposed comprehensive plan: Pay
of nat’l debt at face value, have fed gov assume war debts for states,
protect nations industries and collect adequate revenues by
imposing high tariffs on imported good, create a nat’l ank to deposit
gov funds and to print banknotes to provide the basis for a stable US
currency. Support came form northern merchants, who could
directly gain from it. Antifeds feared the states would lose power as
the central gov gained it. Jefferson said it benefited only the rich at
expense of farmers. Jefferson agreed that US should pay off nat’l
debt at face value and assume payment of the war debts of the
states. In turn, Hamilton agreed to Jefferson’s idea to establish the
nation’s capital in the South, along the Potomac River. Tariff rates
set by Congress too low for Hamilton. He wanted to raise revenue
to pay the gov’t debts, so he persuaded Congress to pass excise
taxes, mostly on Whiskey. Jefferson said constitution didn’t give
power to create a national bank. Hamilton said that the “necessary
and proper” clause said it could. Washington agreed with Hamilton,
and proposed bank was voted into law. Chartered by the Fed gov,
Bnak of the US was privately owned. As a major shareholder in the
bank, the Fed gov could print paper currency and use fed deposits to
stimulate business.
-Federalists rapidly losing popularity, mostly because of Alien and
Sedition Acts and the new taxes to pay costs of preparing for a war
against France. Voted out of office in executive and legislature.
(1800)
-Ran for a second term with Charles Pinckney, but lost to Jefferson
and Burr.
-Burr and Jefferson tied. Hamilton told them to vote for Jefferson
-Passed over power with kindness and no violence: MAJOR
EVENT! Never happened before: called Revolution of 1800.
-Before he left, Fed Congress passed Judiciary Act of 1801 and Pres
 captains authorized to attack and capture armed French ships.
Congress created the Dept of the Navy, 1800, Napoleon new gov of
France, signed treaty-no war
Thomas Jefferson -The Barbary War (1801): N. African costal pirates, stole US
1801-1809 merchant ships, Washington and Adams had paid tribute to the
Democratic-Republican Barbary gov, Ruler of the Pasha of Tripoli demanded a higher sum
when Jefferson took office, he sent a fleet of Naval ships to
Mediterranean, fought until 1805, no decisive victory, but US got
respect and offered a measure of protection for US vessels in
Mediterranean waters.
-The Napoleonic Wars: Britain and France kept seizing US neutral
ships with their naval blockades of each other. Britain seemed worst
offender since it had larger Atlantic navy. US Mad at Britain’s
“Order in Council” vs. France’s “Continental System.” Britain
impressed US sailors into their army.
-The Chesapeake-Leopard Affair: 1807: off coast of VA, British
warship Leopard fired on US warship Chesapeake. Three
Americans dead, four other captive, impressed into navy, anti-
British feeling in US, Americans wanted war, Jefferson wanted to
put on the Embargo Act of 1807.
-Embargo Act of 1807:DemRep majority in Congress passed it.
Prohibited American merchant ships from sailing to any foreign
port, hoped British would stop violating the rights of neutral nations
rather than lose US trade, backfired, economic hardship to US not
Britain, British substituted supplies from South America for US
goods, merchant marine of US and shipbuilders of NE affected
most harshly. NE almost seceded from the Union. Jefferson
repealed it in 1809, said US ships could trade with all nations but
Britain and France.
James Madison -Nonintercourse Act of 1809-Americans can trade with all nations
1809-1817 except Britain and France
Democratic-Republican -Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)-restore U.S. trade with Britian and
France; if either nation agree to respect U.S.’s neutral rights at sea,
would prohibit trade w/ nation’s enemy; Napoleon agree and
Madison embargo Britain; didn’t really respect rights at sea
-War of 1812: Causes-Britain and France don’t respect American
rights as neutral nation, Americans sympathize w/France; -Frontier
Pressures-want more open land in frontier-Canada and Florida,
conflict with Indians-Tecumseh and Prophet attempt to unite all
tribes-William Henry Harrison defeat them at Battle of Tippecanoe
in 1811; -War Hawks-1810-new young Republicans want war
w/Britain (Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun); declare war June 1,
1812
-invasion of Canada fail; “Old Ironsides” naval battles-blockade by
Britain; Oliver Hazard Perry-fleet of ships on Lake Erie-pave way
to invade Canada and defeat British at Battle of Thames
VA resolutions. 1799—DemReps argued it violated first
amendment, no judicial review yet, tried to nullify laws of their
own in their state legislatures. KT leg adopted a resolution written
by Jefferson and VA leg adopted one by Madison. Declared states
had entered into a “compact” in forming the gov, and could nullify a
fed law breaking the compact. Rationale would be used in the
nullification controversy of the 1830s. Controversy faded: Feds lost
majority in Congress after 1800 election, and new DemRep
majority let the laws expire. The Supreme Court under John
Marshall asserted its power as the court of last resort to decide is a
law is unconstitutional.
-Reduced size of military, eliminated federal jobs, repealed excise
tax, lowered national debt. Named only DemReps to cabinet: James
Madison Secy of State and Albert Gallatin Secy of Treasury
-Louisiana Purchase: Louisiana Territory had port of New Orleans,
claimed by Spain, but in 1800 France forced Spain to give it to the
French empire to restore it in the Americas. In 1803, Napoleon lost
interest because he concentrated on French resources in the fight
against England and a rebellion led by Toussaint L’Ouverture
against French rule on the island of Santo Domingo resulted in
French losses. During Jefferson, frontier already in OK. 1802, Spain
closed port of New Orleans to America. Revoked the right of
deposit in the Pinckney Treaty, which allowed American farmers
tax-free use of the port, Americans wanted gov action, Jefferson
wanted port, feared if a foreign power controlled the river at
Orleans, the US risked entanglement in euro affairs. Jefferson sent
ministers to France, offer $10 million for New Orleans and strip
from New Orleans to Florida. If they failed, told to talk to Britain
for an ally, Napoleon wanted funds for war against Britain, offered
to sell New Orleans and entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million.
Unconstitutional, overstepping his role as Pres, claimed his right to
make treaties. Doubled size of US, removed foreigners from nations
borders, guaranteed extension of the western frontier to lands
beyond Mississippi. Acquisition of millions of acres gave Jefferson
hopes that future would be agrarian.
-Tried to overtook Fed measures, suspended Alien and Sedition
Acts, released those jailed under them, tried to impeach Fed judges,
eventually against Samuel Chase, Senate refused after no evidence
of crime. Largely a failure. Made judges more cautious about
partisanship, though.
-Andrew Jackson-lead battles in SW-against Creek Indians-
Horseshoe Bend-seize Spanish garrison at Pensacola
-Battle of New Orleans-Andrew Jackson decisively defeat British-
fought 2 weeks after peace treaty signed
-Treaty of Ghent-Dec. 24, 1814: halt fighting, return all conquered
territory to prewar claimant, recognition of prewar boundary
between Canada and U.S.
-Hartford Convention-Dec. 1814: Federalists oppose war and
Daniel Webster and other NE congressmen consistently block war
effort; met in Hartford-draft set of resolutions suggesting
nullification and even succession if interests not protected from
growing South and West; actions discredited b/c victory at New
Orleans and peace treaty; FEDERALIST PARTY CEASE TO BE
POLITICAL FORCE
-LEGACY OF WAR OF 1812
-1.U.S. gain respect of other countries-survive wars w/Britain
-2. accept Canada as part of British empire
Adams filled the vacancies with party supporters, like John
Marshall, new Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court. Guaranteed
continuation of Fed policies.
-Federal city, Washington, designed by Pierre L’Enfant.
-Marbury V. Madison: (1803) William Marbury, Adams’ midnight
appointment, sued Secy of State Madison to force delivery of his
commission as a justice of the peace in the fed district. Marshall
refused to rule, said law that gave Supreme Court such powers
exceeded that granted by the Constitution—unconstitutional. First
time to assert judicial review.
-Lewis and Clark, 1804, 48 men left St. Louis and returned with
scientific and anthropological info, strengthened the US claim to
Oregon territory, Zebulon Pike mapped Louisiana territory.
-The Essex Junto: (1804) NE Feds saw Western expansion as a
threat to their position in the Union, tried to organize a secession,
courted Aaron Burr (angry he wasn’t renominated to be VP) by
offering him governorship of NY, Hamilton crushed him.
-John Randolph and the Yazoo Claims: Jefferson’s DemRep
opponents, under leadership of John Randolph, called themselves
Quids. Accused president of complicity in the Yazoo Land
controversy which followed Georgia’s cession of her western lands
to the fed gov, created strife in DemRep party, weakened Jefferson.
-1806: Burr trial for treason for plan to take Mexico from Spain,
unite it with Louisiana and be king. John Marshall, narrow
definition of treason, acquitted him.
-ushers in age of steam-powered travel-successful voyage of Robert
Fulton’s Clermont (1807)
-John Jacob Astor-fur post at mouth of Columbia River (Astoria)-
lobby Congress to pass trade restrictions against British furs; 1st
American millionaire from American Fur Company
-Second Great Awakening-1801-Cane Ridge, Kentucky-emphasis
on personal salvation, emotional response to God’s grace,
individualistic faith; women were major part; blacks heavily
involved; nationalistic overtones-spark reform of 1830’s and 1840’s
-Literature: Washington Irving, Mercy Otis Warren (History of the
Revolution (1805)), Mason Weems (Life of Washington (1806)),
Noah Webster (Blue Backed Speller)
-Election 1808-backed by Jefferson-defeat Federalist Charles
Pinckney
-Election 1812-Madison defeat De Witt Clinton of NY-Federalist
and anti-war Republicans
-opposition to the War-“Mr. Madison’s War”-New England
merchants-making money off European trade, Federalist politicians-
view as scheme to conquer Canada and Florida, “Quids” (old
Republicans)-violate classic Republican commitment to limit
federal power and maintain peace
-Fletcher v. Peck (1810)-states can’t pass legislation invalidating
contract-first time state law ruled unconstitutional
-Martin v. Hunter’s Lease (1816)-Supreme court have jurisdiction
over state courts in cases involving constitution
 -British bombard Baltimore-“Star Spangled Banner”
-Barbary Wars (1815) Muslim Algiers navy led by Stephen Decatur;
gave free access to Mediterranean
James Monroe -Protective Tariff: (1816): first protective tariff in US history:
1817-1825 attempt to protect the US industry that developed to provide
Democratic-Republican traditionally euro goods to US during the War of 1812…feared
without it those new industries would be flooded by euro goods
again and would die out. Opposed by NE (had little manufacturing
at the time)
-Rush- Bagot Treaty (1817): Treaty of Ghent left many problems
with Canada unresolved. British and Americans agreed to
disarmament pact: limited naval armament on the Great Lakes,
extended to place limits on border fortifications, led to border
between US and Canada longest unfortified boundary in world.
-1817: Monroe told General Jackson to stop raiders across the
Florida border, get them into Spanish west Florida, even. 1818,
Jackson led militia into Florida, destroyed Seminole villages,
hanged some chiefs, captured Pensacola, drove out Spanish Gov,
and hanged two British traders accused of aiding Seminoles.
-Florida Purchase Treaty (1819) aka Adams-Onis Treaty: Spain
afraid US could take FL by force, concerned with Latin America,
gave western FL with all the east and own claims in Oregon
Territory to the US for the assumption of the $5 million in claims
against Spain and give up any US territorial claims to TX.
-Treaty of 1818: from improved relations between US and Britain,
led to shared fishing rights of the coast of Newfoundland, joint
occupation of the Oregon Territory for ten years, the setting of
northern limits of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel,
establishing the western US CANADA border line.
-Monroe Doctrine: feared euro would try to restore New World
colonies, Euro monarchies being restored after Napoleon falls,
Russia in Alaska (est. trading post at San Francisco Bay), British
navy powerful, Foreign Secy George Canning of Britain wanted to
keep their trade with Latin American republics, suggested to Rich
Rush, US minister in London to issue a joint Anglo American
warning to Euro powers not to intervene in South America, 1823,
Monroe: no joint efforts, only US: Monroe said no euros in NW
hemisphere’s affairs. Angers Britain, applied to them too!
-NEW ECONOMY: Cotton King, thanks to Cotton Gin, NE and
Chesapeake fished, deep=sea whaling (MA/RI) profitable, Eastern
seaboard and Gulf Coast ports timber, John Jacob Astor opened up
business to the NW coast for fur trade, Santa Fe Trial, from New
Mexico to Missouri, opened up Spanish territories to American
migration, influence, and claims.
-EDUCATION:
-1815-Few public schools, some states like idea of free schools, but
hard to finance, most schools private, coporate in NE, religious in
South and Mid-Atlantic, most aristocratic, trained leaders, most
didn’t train poor. Women unfit for training, female schools
concentrated on homemaking skills and fine arts, NY Free School,
one school for the poor-Lancastrian system—older student tutor
younger ones, gets around budget. Soon higher education school
more common, mostly in theology, some in law and medicine,
however.
-3. Federalist party end as national force
-4. nullification and secession set precedent used later by South
-5. Native Americans forced to surrender large areas of land
-6. U.S. factories built-step toward industrial self-sufficiency
-7. Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison-political leaders
-8. American nationalism; believe U.S. future in West not Europe
-1811-NY passes law-easier to raise money in stock market
-The Panic of 1819: first major financial panic since the
Constitution, fault of Second Bank of US, which tightened credit to
control inflation, state banks closed, value of money deflated, large
increases in unemployment, bankruptcies, imprisonment for debt,
most sever in West: Land speculation based on postwar euphoria
placed many in debt, Bank foreclosed large amounts of western
farmland, shook nationalism, led to demand for land reform, hatred
of national bank.
-After Panic, great prosperity: Demand for cotton, grain and
tobacco: American commerce good. Second national bank was good
for inflation, raised prices rapidly.
-Missouri Compromise: since 1819, balance of 11 and 11 (VT and
KT) in senate (free to slave rep), though North states outnumbered
South states in House of Rep (pop of north faster growing).
Missouri wanted to be a state-slavery well established: frightened
North, plus future status of slavery/no slavery in other Louisiana
Territory? Tallmadge Amendment: NY Rep proposed this
amendment to the bill for Missouri’s admission: Prohibition of
introduction of more slaves into Missouri and requiring of children
of Missouri slaves to be emancipated at 25. Would have been
gradual freeing of slaves in Missouri, defeated in Senate, enraged
southerners, Clay’s proposal: “Missouri Compromise”: Missouri is
slave state, ME is free state, rest of Louisiana Territory north of
36’30 slavery is prohibited. Ended sectional feelings for a while,
preserved sectional balance for over 30 years.
-Population quadrupled since 1800: high birthrate, many new
immigrants. African-American and Natives grew even though
slaves couldn’t be imported after 1808, but not nearly as fast as the
white population. More people lived out west than previously (1/3
West of the Alleghenies) Most immigration from British Isles.
-Roads: Pennsylvania’s Lancaster Turnpike (built early 1790s)
connected Philly with the farmlands around Lancaster. Success
stimulated construction of more toll roads that connected most of
the nation’s major cities by the 1820s. National (Cumberland) Road,
paved highway to west from MA to IL. Began in 1811, ended in
1850s. Diff states, different ownership of segments of it, fed/state
funded.
-Erie Canal completed in NYS in 1825 linked western farms and
eastern cities, stimulated growth, canal-age.
-Steamboats made transportation fast, cheap. First industry to
receive public funding (large amt)
-Railroads built in late 1820s, began in 1830s to compete with
canals as a method for carrying passengers and freight. Changed
small western towns, i.e. Cleveland, Cincinnati, Detroit, Chicago
became commercial centers.
-Farming became “commercial agriculture”
-Market Revolution: As society became urban, women wanted
employment in cities: domestic servants, teachers, very few in
Lowell system/factory work, most working women were single,
married women worked at home with kids, arranged marriages less
common, legal restrictions on women still existed.
-Madison’s Secy of State, won overwhelming majority against
Rufus King-won decisively again in 1820, all electoral votes but
one!
-Clay’s American System: Clay (KT): leader of house of rep,
method to advance nation’s growth, three parts: protective tariff,
national bank, and internal improvements. Protective tariffs promote
American manufacturing and raise revenue to build a national
transportation system of federally constructed roads and canals,
national bank help keep system running by providing national
currency, tariffs benefit the east, internal improvements benefit the
west and south, national bank helps all. Two parts already around in
1816: Congress adopted protective tariff and chartered the Second
Bank of the US (First expired in 1811). Madison and Monroe
objected to internal improvements, Monroe vetoed acts of Congress
providing funds for road-building and canal-building projects.
-Cultural Nationalism: Monroe voted for by younger voters than
usual, excited about new nation expanding westward and had little
interest in Euro politics now that the Napoleonic Wars and War of
1812 were over. Though nation was entering an era of unlimited
prosperity. People like Gilbert Stuart, Charles Willson Peale and
John Trumball (painters), Noah Webster’s speller, promoted
patriotism.
-Era of “Good Feelings”: Nationalistic, optimistic, goodwill…istic,
DemReps dominating politics.
-Federalists die: opposed war of 1812, presided over convention at
Harford, defeat in 1816 election.
-DemRep party began adopting some more Federalist ideas:
national bank, building up navy.
-Western settlement/migration: WH Harrison and Andrew Jackson
got Indian lands in Indiana and Florida, NE had economic problems
(embargo) and wanted to seek a new future across Appalachians,
south tobacco planters needed new land to replace the soil used up
(good land for cotton in AL, Mississippi, AR), new
roads/canals/steamboats/railroads=better transportation, Euros came
more by cheap land speculation in Great Lakes and Ohio, the
Cumberland, and Mississippi River valleys. Led to question: should
West have slavery?
-Manufacturing began in America: inventions protected by patent
laws, interchangeable parts (Eli Whitney), factory system based on
Sam Slater’s first in 1791, caused by War of 1812 and tariffs
stimulating need for domestic manufacturing, NE became nation’s
leading manufacturer (good waterpower for new machinery and
good seaports for goods, decline in maritime industry made capital
available). NY, NJ, PA, followed lead. Led to growth of financial
businesses.
-Craft Unions organized in 1790s and increased with the factory
system, skilled workers couldn’t compete with factories, had to get
jobs there, long hours, low pay, poor conditions, goal to reduce
workday to ten hours, lots of obstacles: Immigrant replacement
workers, state laws outlawing unions, frequent economic
depressions with high unemployment.
-Darthmouth College v. Woodward (1819)-contract for private corp
can’t be altered by state
-McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)-constitutionality of national bank,
could state tax federal institution; implied powers for bank, state
 can’t tax b/c federal law supreme
-Cohens v. Virginia (1821)-Supreme Court could review state
court’s decision involving powers of fed gov’t
-Gibbons v. Ogden (1821)-could NY grant monopoly if conflicted
w/ congressional charter; no, fed gov’t interstate trade
John Quincy Adams -Election of 1824-candidates Sec of Treasury William H. Crawford, Sec of State John Quincy Adams, Speaker of House Henry Clay, -Expansion of the Electorate: most states eliminated property
1825-1829 Andrew Jackson-war hero; vote split, Jackson and Adams voted on by House-Clay support Adams, House chooses Adams-Clay become qualifications for voting; Mass. First, Thomas Dorr led bloodless
Democratic-Republican Sec of State-“Corrupt Bargain” “rebellion” in RI to expand franchise; free blacks excluded from
-Tariff of Abominations (1828)-high tariff-satisfy northern manufacturers but alienate southern planters polls in most states-gradually more excluded from social and
-ask Congress for money for internal improvements, aid to manufacturing, national university, astronomical observatory-viewed as waste of economic mainstream when they did have vote
money by Jacksonians -elections normally do not attract enthusiasm until 1824-legsislative
-Election of 1828-Adams sought reelection, Jacksonians use discontent of south and west; dirty campaign-accuse Adams’s wife of being caucuses made presidential nominations and kept ruling cliques in
born out of wedlock and accuse Jackson’s wife of adultery; Jackson Wins power-system failed; members of electoral college elected by
people
-1828-first labor strike-Paterson, NJ; child workers
Andrew Jackson -Role of President-present himself as president of the people; frugal-oppose federal spending and national debt; interpret powers of -Lowell System-textile mills-Mass. Young women-factories also use
1829-1837 Congress narrowly-vetoed more bills than all 6 presidents before (Maysville Road in Kentucky) child labor
Democrat -“kitchen cabinet”-group of politicians not in the official cabinet but advise him; official cabinet have less power -Two-Party System: Democrats-supporters of Jackson (resemble old
-Peggy Eaton affair-wife of Sec of War, not accepted by other cabinet wives, when Jackson try to force them to accept her, most of cabinet Jeffersonain Democrats); Whigs-supporters of Henry Clay
resign, leads to resignation of Calhoun as vice president, Van Buren is vice president (resemble Federalist party); Democrats (Southerners, westerners,
-Indian Removal Act (1830)-force resettlement of Native Americans-create Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1836 to assist resettled tribes; small farmers, urban workers)-favor local rule, limited gov’t, free
Georgia pass laws forcing Cherokees to migrate west-Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)-Cherokees not foreign nation, can’t sue in federal trade, oppose monopolies, national bank, high tariffs; Whigs (NE
court; Worcester v. Georgia (1832)-laws of Georgia had no force w/in boundaries of Cherokee territory-clash between Marshall & Jackson; and mid-Atlantic, upper-midwest states, Protestants of old English
“Trail of tears”-Cherokees leave Georgia stock, middle class professionals)-support Clay’s American system,
-Nullification crisis-SC declare Tariff of Abominations unconstitutional-nullification theory-each state had right to decide whether to obey a oppose immorality, vice, crime
federal low or declare it null and void-advanced by Calhoun; Webster (Mass)-Hayne (SC) debates (1830)-nature of the Union under -Election of 1836-Van Buren nominated by Democrats; Whigs
Constitution; Jackson support protecting Union, Calhoun-liberties first; 1832-SC hold convention to nullify tariffs of 1828 and 1832- nominate 3 candidates and hope to put in House, fail; Van Buren
Jackson persuade Congress to pass Force Bill-give him authority to take military action; Proclamation to the People of South Carolina- elected
nullification and disunion were treason -Mexico offer land grants to Americans (ie. Stephen Austin); sought
-Bank of the United States-managed by Nicholas Biddle-Jackson and others suspicious that Biddle abuse power and help rich; Clay bring to tighten control (restrict immigration and increase taxes)-1836-
up bank in 1832 to make it an issue in election (recharter bill)-vetoed by Jackson-Jackson win election of 1832 declare independence-Antonio López de Santa Anna defeat Texans
-Killing the Bank-withdraw all federal funds; aided by Sec of Treasury Roger Taney-transfer funds to various state banks-“pet banks” at Alamo and Goliad; 4/23/36-defeat Santa Anna at San Jacinto;
-Specie Circular-require all purchases of federal lands made in gold and silver rather than paper-banknotes lost value and land sales drop- Jackson refuse to admit Texas b/c slavery issue
Panic of 1837 -California also settled by Americans (Santa Fe Trail)-traders,
MANIFEST DESTINY-nationalism, rapidly expanding population, reform impulse of 1830s, desire to acquire new markets and resources merchants whalers-has potential to be slave
-Charles River Bridge-could take away grant for monopoly if not in
best interest of people (Roger B. Taney)
Martin Van Buren -Tension between U.S. and Great Britain: -1. Canada-Maine -Panic of 1837-inherit the problems; persuade Congress to establish -does not recognize and annex Texas-seeks recognition in Europe-
1837-1841 boundary in Aroostook Valley disputed-Britain try to build road, Independent Treasury to handle gov’t funds-begin in 1840 British and French hope to counterbalance American power-trade
Democrat conflict with Maine’s militia-“Aroostook War” (1838); -2. Caroline -Election of 1840-Whigs nominate William Henry Harrison-“Old agreements
Affair (1837)-Caroline carry supplies to Canadian rebels, burned by Tippecanoe”-vice president, John Tyler; Democrats-Van Buren, no
Canadian loyalists; -3. British decline to return escaped slaves who vice president; stress “log cabin” origins of Harrison compared to
had taken over U.S. merchant ship (Creole); -4.British ships opulence of Van Buren; Harrison wins
patrolling African coast to suppress slave-smuggling sometimes
stop American Ships
William Henry Harrison -dies 1 month after inauguration from pneumonia
1841 -serve shortest term in history
Whig
John Tyler -Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842)-deal with problems with Britain: -reject entire Whig program of national bank, high protective tariffs, -Texas: Sam Houston negotiate w/Britain to hasten annexation;
1841-1845 -1. Canada-Maine boundary compromised; -2. British express internal improvements; Clay tries to push bills through, vetoed Southerners fear Britain would use Texas as base to undermine
Whig regret over destruction of Caroline; -3. British promise to avoid -all Cabinet members resign, Tyler expelled from party slavery; obstacle to manifest Destiny; Calhoun, Sec of State,
“officious interference” in freeing slaves in cases such as Creole; -4. -Preemption Act (1841)-allow settlers who squatted on unserveyed negotiate annexation treaty w/Texas-too pro-slavery and rejected by
cooperate in patrolling African coast to prevent slave-smuggling federal lands 1st chance to buy once put up on market Congress
-joint resolution to annex Texas (1845) -Election of 1844-Democrats nominate Polk, staunch Jacksonian
and favored territorial expansion; Tyler drop out; Whigs nominate
Clay, wavered and cost votes; anti-slavery Liberty Party-James G.
Birney-take votes away from Clay and Polk wins
James K. Polk -Oregon Treaty (1846)-1.divies Oregon territory in half at 49th -Wilmont Proviso-would forbid slavery in any of the territories -Election of 1844-favored territorial expansion, especially Oregon
1845-1849 parallel; -2. U.S. grant Vancouver Island to Britain and guaranteed acquired from Mexico; made by Penn. Congressman David (“Fifty-four Forty or Fight”)—for all of Oregon form Britain
Democrat right to navigate Columbia River Wilmont -California declare independence from Mexico (June 1846)-Bear
-Slidell Mission (1845): -1. persuade Mexico to sell California and Flag Republic; John C. Frémont
New Mexico territories; -2. settle dispute between Mexico-Texas -Free-Soil Movement-Northern Democrats and Whigs who support
 border; mission fail
-War with Mexico: 2/24/46-Mexican army cross Rio Grande and
kill 11 Americans; Zachary Taylor-drove Mexican army across Rio
Grande; General Winfield Scott-invade Mexico and take Mexico
City
-Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo-Mexican Cession (1848)-1. Mexico
recognize Rio Grande as southern border of Texas; -2. U.S. take
California and New Mexico for $15 million and assume claims of
American citizens against Mexico
-offer to buy Cuba for $100 million but Spain refuse; small forays
fail
Zachary Taylor -Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850)-Great Britain and U.S. agree that
1849-1850 neither nation attempt to take exclusive control of any future canal
Whig route in Central America
SETTLEMENT OF WESTERN TERRITORIES
-Fur Traders’ Frontier-1820s trade w/ Native Americans for animal
skins-James Beckwourth, Jim Bridger, Kit Carson, Jedediah Smith-
info about trails and frontier conditions
-Overland Trails-Oregon, California, Santa Fe, and Mormon trails;
threat of disease and depression, harsh conditions, few Indian
attacks
-Farming Frontier: 1830s and 1840s-Preemption Acts-gave
squatters rights to settle public lands and purchase cheaply once for
sale; move west cost some money-eliminate poorer; isolation of
life, rural communities develop (schools, churches, clubs, political
parties)
-Urban Frontier-rose b/c of railroads, mineral wealth, farming-
professionals and businesspeople attracted-San Francisco and
Denver-instant cities; Salt Lake City-supplies to travelers
INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOY-1840s-new factories (shoes, sewing
machines (Elias Howe) , clothing, firearms, precision tools, iron
products)
-Samuel F. B. Morse-electric telegraphy (1844)
RAILROADS-1840s and 1850s-largest industry-local merchants
and farmers buy stock to connect area; 1850-U.S. gov’t grant 2.6
mil acres of land to build Illinois Central Railroad; cheap and rapid
transportation-promote western agriculture; united NE and MW
Millard Fillmore
1850-1853
Whig
Franklin Pierce -Ostend Manifesto (1852)-dispatch 3 diplomats and secretly
1853-1857 negotiate to buy Cuba from Spain;
Democrat -Gadsden Purchase (1853)-strip of land in SW for railroads;
purchased from Mexico for $10 million
-Commodore Matthew C. Perry-persuade Japan’s gov’t to open 2
ports to U.S. vessels-Treaty of Kanagawa (1854)
-The Compromise of 1850-California want to enter as free state
(Taylor support both CA and NM as free; some southerners want to
secede-meet in Nashville); Henry Clay makes compromise: -1.
admit CA as free; -2. divide remainder of Mexican Cession into 2
territories (Utah and NM)-allow popular sovereignty; -3. give land
in dispute between Texas and NM territory to NM and fed gov’t
assume Texas’s public debt of $10 million; -4. ban slave trade in
D.C. but slavery allowed; -5. new Fugitive Slave Law and enforce;
Webster, Clay, and Calhoun give last speeches of lives-Webster pro-
union and Calhoun con-rights for South; William H. Seward-con-
antislavery
-when Taylor dies, Fillmore president-strong supporter of
Compromise of 1850
-Stephen A. Douglas-diff. Coalitions to pass each part of
compromise separately
-Fugitive Slave Law-track runaway slaves and return to owners;
cases under jurisdiction of federal gov’t; special U.S.
commissioners authorized to issue warrants and arrest fugitives;
citizens who attempt to hide runaways subject; any captured person
who claim to be free black and not slave-denied trial by jury
FOREIGN COMMERCE
-1. shipping firms encourage trade and travel across Atlantic-regular schedule; -2. whale oil to light homes-whaling boom 1830 to 1860-NE
merchants; -3. clipper ship-shorten trip from east and west coast; -4. steamships-mid-1850s-took place of clipper ships-carry more, lower
cost, follow more regular schedule
-Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)-Stephan A. Douglas want northern
railroad and promote western settlement; propose Nebraska
Territory be divided up into Nebraska and Kansas-settlers free to
decide slavery issue; nullify Missouri Compromise
-Republican Party-Wisconsin (1854)-reaction of Kansas Nebraska
Act; Free-Soilers and antislavery Whigs and Democrats; call for
repeal of Kansas-Nebraska Act and Fugitive Slave law; northern
Wilmont Proviso and all blacks excluded from Mexican Cession –
keep territories open for whites; advocate free homesteads
-South sees attempts to restrict expansion of slavery as violation of
constitutional right to property-some propose extending Missouri
Compromise line to Pacific
-Popular Sovereignty (squatter sovereignty)-Lewis Cass-issue of
slavery determined by residents of territory
-Election of 1848-Democrats-Cass and popular sovereignty; Whigs-
war hero Taylor-no position on slavery; Free-Soil party-Van Buren;
Taylor wins
-1849-gold rush in California-population soar
-gold and silver rushes to Colorado, Nevada, Black Hills in
Dakotas-mining camps
-1/3 miners Chinese
-Underground Railroad-“conductors” and “stations”-help escaped
slaves reach North or Canada; Harriet Tubman made at least 19 trips
to help slaves escape; Frederick Douglas, Sojourner Truth-help
emancipate slaves
-Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852)-Harriet Beecher Stowe-about conflict
between Tom and owner Simon Legree; move northerners, South
claim it as proof of North’s prejudice
-South reaction-argue slavery beneficial for slave and master; found
in Bible; contrasted northern wage workers with slaves
-Sociology for the South (1854)-George Fitzhugh-question principle
of equal rights for unequal men
-Impending Crisis of the South (1857)-Hinton R. Helper-use
statistics to demonstrate that slavery has negative impact on
economy
-Cannibals All! (1857)-Fitzhugh
-Know-Nothing Party (American Party)-opposition to Catholics and
immigrants; drew support away from Whigs
-“Bleeding Kansas”-anti-slavery farmers mostly settle Kansas,

James Buchanan ELECTION OF 1860
1857-1861 -Republicans: Abe Lincoln-exclusion of slavery from territories,
Democrat protective tariff, free land for homesteaders, internal improvements;
South warned if Lincoln elected, would secede
-Democrats-divided North and South; N. Douglas-popular
sovereignty; S. John C. Breckinridge-unrestricted extension of
slavery in territories and annexation of Cuba
-Constitutional Union-former Whigs, Know-Nothings, moderate
Democrats-nominate John Bell
-Lincoln win w/o single S. state
RESULTS OF THE ELECTION: SC hold special convention-vote
unanimously to secede (Dec. 1860); Florida, Georgia, Alabama,
Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas secede; Feb. 1861-meet in
Montgomery, AL-Confederate States of America-create
constitution-restrict gov’t power to impose tariffs and restrict
slavery; Jefferson Davis and Alexander Stephens (pres and vice-
pres)
and western moderates-oppose slavery in territories
-Election of 1856; Republicans-John C. Frémont from CA-no
expansion of slavery, free homesteads, protective tariff (11 of 16
free states); Know-Nothings-Fillmore; Democrats-James Buchanan
of Penn.-not identified w/K & N act;
-stay out of Kansas
-Panic of 1857-prices drop for mid-western farmers, increase
unemployment in N. cities; cotton prices high-South less affected-
believe plantation economy superior
-Lecompton Constitution-proslavery from Kansas-not supported by
most settlers-Buchanan ask Congress to accept, did not; 1858-cons.
defeated by settlers
-1858-Republicans did well in elections; Southerners feel
threatened by economic program (tariffs) and antislavery plank;
threat to “constitutional right” to hold slaves as property
-doesn’t prevent secession of south-compromise
-Crittenden compromise-Senator John Crittenden of Kentucky
propose constitutional amendment to guarantee right to hold slaves
in all territories south of 36˚30’-rejected by Lincoln
slaveholders from Missouri set up homesteads to win state for
South; New England Emigrant Aid Company (1855)-abolitionists
and Free-Soilers, pay to transport antislavery settlers to Kansas-
fighting; pro-slavery creates legislature at Lecompton; anti-slavery
create legislature in Topeka; 1856-proslavery kill 2 in Lawrence,
John Brown retaliate and kill 5 in Pottawatomie Creek
-1856-Senator Charles Sumner attack Democrats-“The Crime
Against Kansas”-charges against Butler; Butler’s nephew Preston
Brooks beat Sumner with cane; Southerners applaud Brooks
-Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)-Scott live in free territory of
Wisconsin for 2 yrs-sue for freedom; Chief Justice Roger B. Taney
and court rule: -1. Scott had no right to sue in federal court b/c not a
citizen; -2. Congress had no power to take property w/o due
process-slaves property, can’t exclude slavery from any territory;
-3. Missouri Compromise unconstitutional
-Lincoln-Douglas Debates-1858-Lincoln challenge Douglas for IL
Senate seat-attack Douglas’s indifference to slavery- “house-
divided” speech; Freeport-Lincoln question how popular
sovereignty and Dred Scott decision can coexist-Douglas respond
that slavery cannot exist if local citizens didn’t pass and enforce
laws-piss off Southerners; Lincoln emerge as national figure
-John Brown-Oct. 1859—led small band of followers to attack
federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, VA-want to use guns to arm VA
slaves for revolt; federal troops under Robert. E. Lee capture
Brown-hanged for treason-further divide N. and S.
Abraham Lincoln -South hope Britain and France aid war effort
1861-1865 b/c need cotton
Republican -Trent Affair-Confederate diplomats James
Mason and John Slidell go to Britain on Trent
to gain recognition for gov’t; stopped by
Union warship and Mason and Slidell POWs;
Britain threaten war unless diplomats released;
Lincoln give in
-Confederate commerce-raiders-purchased
from Britain-damage U.S. merchant ships-ie.
Alabama
-U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis
Adams persuade Britain to cancel sale of Laird
rams to Confederacy
-failure of cotton diplomacy-getting cotton
from Egypt and India; no decisive Confederate
victory; Emancipation Proclamation-
antislavery feelings of British population
THE CIVIL WAR
-Fort Sumter-SC attack fort in Charleston harbor-Lincoln send supplies-4/12/61-begin war
-executive power-1. call for 75,000 volunteers to put down “insurrection” in South; -2. spending for war; -3. suspend writ of habeas corpus
-Virginia, NC, Tennessee, Arkansas secede after Fort Sumter
-keeping border states (Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, Kentucky)-MD- martial law; Missouri-U.S. troops prevent pro-S. from gaining control (active guerrilla
forces throughout war); Kentucky-neutrality
-Advantages and Disadvantages: Military-South: defensive war, coastline diff. To blockade, experienced military leaders and high troop morale; North: larger
population and U.S. Navy; Economic-North-most banking and capital of country, factories, railroads, farmland; Political-South-“States’ rights” liability-need
strong central gov’t
-Confederate States of America-1 6 yr term for president; states hold back power from central gov’t; shortage of money tried loans, income taxes, impressment
of private property-issue inflationary paper money
-Union Strategy (Winfield Scott)-1. use U.S. navy to blockade southern ports (Anaconda Plan) and cut supplies from reaching the South; -2. divide Confederacy
in 2-take Mississippi River; -3. army of 500,000 to take Richmond
-Major Battles-First Battle of Bull Run-1st major battle of war, Antietam-Lee try to win in North to convince Britain to join; General George McClellan
(commander of Union forces)-fail to follow, Fredericksburg-McClellan replaced with Ambrose Burnside-reckless; Monitor vs. Merrimac-ironclad ships-prevent
South from challenging blockade; Ulysses S. Grant fights in West-victorious; battle at Shiloh-losses on both sides; Vicksburg-Union gain control of Mississippi
River; Gettysburg-Lee invade Penn. Lose much of army; Grant become commander-“total war”; Sherman’s March-sweep across south and destroy everything,
burn Columbia, SC, destroy will to fight; Appomattox Court House (April 9, 1865)-Lee surrender
-Confiscation Acts (Aug. 1861 and July 1862)-refuse to return captured slaves to Confederate owners; free slaves of people rebelling against U.S.; use freed
slaves in Union army
-Emancipation Proclamation (Jan. 1, 1863)-free all slaves in states still in rebellion; enlarge purpose of war and more slaves escape
-Election of 1864-Union Party-Lincoln and Andrew Johnson (Senator from Tennessee); McClellan runs; Lincoln wins
-killed by John Wilkes Booth-April 14, 1865
EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON CIVILIAN LIFE-620,000 dead
-Political change: Republicans: radical faction (immediate abolition of slavery), moderate faction (concerned about eco for whites); Democrats-most support war
but criticize Lincoln’s handling, Peace Democrats (Copperheads)-oppose war and want peace-ie. Clement L. Vallandigham
-Draft-both N. and S.-Conscription Act (March 1863 N)-men 20-45 liable for draft; can be exempt if find substitute or pay $300 fee; opposition among poor-fear
jobs taken by blacks; draft riots-Irish attack blacks and wealthy whites in NY; send troops and temp suspend draft
-political dominance of North; “Gettysburg Address” (11/19/63)
-Financing war-N. $2.6 bil from bonds, raise tariffs, excise taxes, income tax, issue Greenbacks (paper money)=inflation; National Banking System (1863)
-speed up mass production and organization of factories; many made money selling war goods (finance industrialization in post-war)
-Economic Program: Morrill Tariff Act (1861)-raise tariff rates for revenue and protection; Homestead Act (1862)-settlement of Great Plains-free 160 acres land
if farm it for at least 5 yrs; Morrill Land Grant Act (1862)-use sale of federal land to maintain agricultural and technical colleges; Pacific Railway Act (1862)-
building of transcontinental railroad over northern route
-Women at work-farms, plantations, factory jobs, military nurses, soldiers’ aid society; nursing open to women; further women’s rights movement
RECONSTRUCTION
-Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863)-1. full presidential pardons granted to most southerners who took oath of allegiance to Union and U.S.
Constitution and accept emancipation of slaves; -2. state gov’t reestablished once 10% of citizens took loyalty oath
-Wade-Davis Bill (1864)-require 50% of voters to take loyalty oath; permit only non-Confederates to vote for new state constitution; pocket vetoed by Lincoln
-Freedmen’s Bureau (March 1865)-provide food, shelter, medical aid for blacks and homeless whites; efforts at resettlement failed; create schools for blacks
under Oliver O. Howard; taught 200,000 blacks how to read
-Last Speech-4/11/65-urge acceptance of Louisiana and think intelligent or soldier blacks get vote
Andrew Johnson -French Emperor Napoleon III take Mexico; General Philip -Thirteenth Amendment (Dec. 1865)-abolish slavery -Ex Parte Milligan (1866)-gov’t act improperly in Indiana where
1865-1869 Sheridan sent w/military force, U.S. recognize revolutionary Benito -Reconstruction proclamation similar to Lincoln’s but some civilians subject to military trial; can only be used when
Republican Juarez; invoke Monroe Doc and put pressure; Napoleon III disenfranchisement of former leaders and officials of Confederacy civilian courts unavailable
withdraws and ones w/ more than $20,000 in taxable prop; ratify 13th -Election of 1866-Johnson’s political enemies, radical and moderate
-Seward’s Folly-purchase Alaska from Russia (1867) for $7.2 mil amendment and recommend vote for blacks; retain pardoning Republicans-win 2/3 majority in both houses
ability
CONGRESSIONAL RECONSTRUCTION-Radical Republicans -Black Codes-restrict rights and movements of newly freed blacks: POST-WAR SOUTHERN LIFE
(Thaddeus Stephens, Charles Sumner, Ben Wade) -1. can’t rent property or borrow money for it; -2. forced to accept -Economic results: property destroyed or confiscated by Treasury
-pass a Civil Rights Act and extend Freedman’s Bureau over working contracts; -3. can’t testify against whites in court agents, many men killed or maimed, poverty
Johnson’s veto -Fifteenth Amendment-suffrage for all blacks -Political Results-“carpetbaggers”-Northerners who came to South
-Fourteen Amendment-define citizenship and forbade states to deny -Election of 1868: Democrats: Horatio Seymour of NY and Francis to participate in Reconstruction gov’t; “scalawags”-Southerners
rights to citizens, reduce representation for states that forbade P. Blair Jr; Republicans: Grant and Schuyler Colfax; Grant wins who support Reconstruction regimes
blacks to vote, forbade paying Confederate debt, former narrowly -Social programs expanded-higher taxes and state debts; corruption:
Confederates ineligible to hold public office political machines (ie. “Boss” Tweed’s Tammany Hall machine)
-Military Reconstruction Act (1866)-divide South into 5 military -Ku Klux Klan-intimidate blacks and white Republicans out of
districts ruled by governors; have to make constitution giving votes voting; response to Union League-Republicans control black vote;
to blacks and ratify 14th amendment want to redeem S. gov’t
-limit Supreme Court power to review cases about congressional
reconstruction-new Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase acquiesced
-reduce presidential power: Army Act-reduce president’s control of
army, Tenure of Office Act-forbid cabinet members to be dismissed
w/o Senate permission
-impeach Johnson b/c dismiss Stanton (TOA violation)-not removed
Ulysses S. Grant -corruption in administration-rely on dishonest men b/c has no political experience -Liberal Republicans-oppose corruption and favor sectional
1869-1877 -“Black Friday” Scandal-Jim Fiske and Jay Gould scheme to corner the gold market; persuade Grant that stopping gold sales good for harmony, hard money, laissez-faire economics: ran Horace Greeley
Republican farmers; price of gold increase a lot, businessmen ruined for president in 1872 but lost
-Credit Mobilier Scandal-Union Pacific Railroad use dummy construction company to take millions in subsidies; bribe many congressmen -Election of 1876-Republicans nominate Rutherford B. Hayes;
-“Salary Grab Act” (1873)-100% pay raise for president and 50% for Congress-retractable in 2 yrs Democrats-NY reform governor Samuel J. Tilden; disputed
-Sanborn Contract Fraud-Sanborn given contract to collect unpaid taxes 50% commission-commission was in Republican campaign funds electoral votes-special commission give all to Hayes; Democrats
-Whiskey Ring Fraud-distillers and treasury officials defraud money from excise tax on whisky; Grant’s sec involved threaten to send to House
-Bribing of Belknap-sec of war accept bribes involved in admin of Indian affairs -The Compromise of 1877-Hayes become president if: -1. end
-Panic of 1873-overspeculation and overbuilding-business failure; debtors on farms sought Greenback paper money; Grant veto bill for federal support for Republicans in South; -2. support building of S.
more Greenbacks; Congress demonize silver-“crime of ‘73”; Specie Resumption Act (1875)-call for nation’s paper money to be redeemed transcontinental railroad; -3. serve 1 term
in gold -National Grange Movement-started in 1868 by Oliver H. Kelley-
-Amnesty Act of 1872-remove last restrictions on ex-Confederates except for top leaders; allow southern conservatives to vote Democratic social and educational organization for farmers; political actions to
and take state gov’t defend against middlemen, trusts, railroads; cooperatives-businesses
-National Labor Union (1868)-attempt to organize all workers; higher wages, 8hr day, equal rights for women and blacks, monetary reform, owned and run by farmers to save costs; attack storage fees for
worker cooperatives; win 8 hr day for federal gov’t workers; decline after unsuccessful strikes in 1877 crops and freight rates-lobby state legislatures and laws passes
-Knights of Labor-Terence V. Powderly-(1869)-membership to all workers; worker cooperatives, abolition of child labor, abolition of trusts regulating rates charged by railroads; illegal for railroads to fix
and monopolies; favor settling disputes by arbitration not strikes, some locals still strike; Haymarket bombing-meeting of workers, prices and give rebates to privileged
someone throw bomb in Chicago and lose support -Munn v. Illinois (1877)-Supreme Court upheld right of state to
regulate businesses of public nature
- transcontinental railroads Union Pacific and Central Pacific (hire
Chinese)-1869-meet at Promontory Point
Rutherford B. Hayes -recognize gov’t of Porfirio Diaz in Mexico-encourage trade -pull last of federal troops protecting blacks and other Republicans -Republican Factions: “Stalwarts”-led by Roscoe Conkling-favor
1877-1881 expansion and U.S. investment in railroads, mines, agri, oil -Sioux War (1876-1877)-discovery of gold in SD; George A. old spoils system; “Half-Breeds”-led by James G. Blaine-civil
Republican -Pan American-Sec of State James Blaine advocate creation of Custer’s “last stand” service reform and merit appointments to gov’t posts
International Bureau of American Republics to promote customs -1887-Nex Perece War in Idaho -Election of 1880-“Half-Breed” James A. Garfield and “Stalwart”
union of trade and political stability in W. Hemisphere -Indians defeated (military, disease, railway construction, Chester A. Arthur; defeat Winfield S. Hancock and William English
-mediate border disputes: Argentina and Paraguay in 1876; 1880 alcoholism, virtual extermination of bison)-Helen Hunt Jackson-A -Greenback Labor Party-elect 14 members to Congress in 1878-
Colombia and Chile; 1881 Mexico and Guatemala, Argentina and Century of Dishonor promoote inflation of farm prices and cooperative marketing of
Chile, Peru and Chile -use federal troops to restore order after strikes in many cities agricultural produce; 1880 ran James Weaver for president-public
-end War of the Pacific -Great Railroad Strike of 1877-strike on Baltimore and Ohio control and regulation of private enterprises (ie. Railroads)
-1876-Interoceanic Canal Commission recommend Nicaraguan Railroad shut down 2/3 of trackage; joined by 500,000 workers -INDUSTRIAL EXPANSION: U.S. become leader in iron, oil, coal-
route for canal linking Atlantic and Pacific from other industries, Hayes use federal troops to end labor Andrew Carnegie-modern steel industry; John. D. Rockefeller-
-1878-treaty w/ Samoa-trading rights and naval base at Pago Pago violence Standard Oil
-1878-treay w/ Japan granting tariff autonomy -New South-Birmingham, AL-South’s leading steel producer; textile
industry; Duke family-tobacco producers
-elite class rise up at this time; many suffer crushing poverty
-“Gospel of Wealth”-God grant wealth to few; wealthy use wealth
to help society: philanthropy: libraries, schools
-Social Darwinism-Graham Sumner-survival of the fittest
James A. Garfield -assassinated by Charles Guiteau (wanted job)
1881
Republican
Chester A. Arthur -1882-Robert Wilson Shufeldt-open trade and diplomatic relations
1881-1885 with Korea
Republican -Berlin Conference (1884)-trade in Congo; attend Third
International Red Cross Conference
-1884-pact w/ Nicaragua for joint ownership of isthmian canal in
Central America
Grover Cleveland -1886-U.S. refuse to hand over Irish national accused of terrorist
1885-1889 attack in London
Democrat -diseased meat in Britain and Germany-ban uninspected meat; gov’t
regulation and inspection of meat for export
-1886-Treaty w/ Hawaii for Pearl Harbor Naval Base
-1889-after Haitian revolution, Blaine resist pressure for U.S. to
establish naval base at Port-au-Prince
Benjamin Harrison -sailors from U.S.S. Baltimore killed in Valparaiso (1891)-threaten
1889-1893 war with anti-American revolutionary gov’t of President
Republican Balmaceda; Blaine bring about Chilean apology
-1891-Queen Lydia Kamekeha Liliuokalani resist American
attempts to promote protectorate over Hawaii; 1893-American
sugar planters overthrow Hawaiian gov’t and establish one friendly
to U.S.
Grover Cleveland -Britain and Venezuela (1895)-border disputes between Guiana and
1893-1897 Venezuela-America mediate and support Britain once it recognize
Democrat Monroe Doctrine in Latin America
-Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)-Japan win over China-signal that
China’s weakness may lead to colonization-U.S. want Pacific naval
base to protect interests
-1894-revolutions in Brazil and Nicaragua-U.S. support existing
gov’t to maintain stability and favorable trade treaties
-reject annexation of Hawaii in 1894
William McKinley -1889-U.S.-establish 3-party protectorate over Samoa with Britain
-Pendleton Act (1883) –establish open competitive exams for civil
service positions
-1883-construction of new steel ships; 1884-establishement of U. S.
Naval War College-Newport, RI
-1882-suspend Chinese immigration to U.S. for 10 yrs
-Presidential Succession Act of 1886-death of Vice President
Hendricks-succession from president pro tempore of Senate to
Cabinet officers in order of creation of departments
-insist executive appointments and removal prerogative of executive
and not Senate
-Election of 1888-Democrat Cleveland lose to Republican Ben
Harrison-want high protective tariff
-Interstate Commerce Act (1886)-require railroad rates to be
reasonable and just; set up Interstate Commerce Commission
(ICC)-investigate and prosecute pools, rebates; help railroads more
than farmers
-Republican Thomas B. Reed-Speaker of House and change rules
so he has absolute control in running House
-Force Bill (1890)-try to protect black voters in South through
federal supervision of state elections; blocked in Senate
-Dependent Pensions Act (1890)-grant service pensions to Union
veterans
-Sherman Anti-Trust Act (1890)-trusts subject to federal
prosecution if found to be combinations or conspiracies in restraint
of trade: often applied to labor unions and farmers’ cooperatives
-Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1890)-Congress buy 4.5 mil oz of
silver each month and issue Treasury notes redeemable in gold and
silver=inflation and lowered gold reserves
-McKinley Tariff (1890)-raise tax on foreign products to 48%
-Depression of 1893-withdrawl of British investments from
American market; loss of business confidence; National Cordage
Comp bankrupt
-Repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act-Cleveland try to limit
outflow of gold reserves
-Wilson-Gorman Tariff (1894)-protective tariff to ease depression;
-Pollack v. Farmers’ Loan and Trust co. 1895-graduated income tax
declared unconstitutional
-Dingley Tariff (1897)-raise protection to new highs
-Yellow Journalism-Joseph Pulitzer-New York World, William
-missionaries in Pacific, Asia, Africa, Latin America, Middle East-
religion, W. edu, science, technology, commercial ventures
-Railroads-Cornelius Vanderbilt to merge local railroads to New
York Central Railroad; promote settlement on Great Plains, link
west with east; gov’t give land grants; offer rebates to larger
businesses and charge exorbitant freight rates for smaller customers
-Wabash v. Illinois (1886)-individual states couldn’t regulate
interstate commerce
-Farmers Alliances-serve need for edu and scientific methods
-National Alliance (1890)-meet in Ocala, Florida, platform: -1.
direct election of U.S. senators; -2. lower tariff rates; -3. graduated
income tax; -4. new banking system regulated by federal gov’t;
treasury notes to increase amount of money in circulation
-Andrew Carnegie-Carnegie Steel-vertical integration-control every
stage of industrial process; turned into U.S. steel by J.P. Morgan
-John D. Rockefeller-Standard Oil Trust-horizontal integration-buy
out competitors-monopoly
-American Federation of Labor (1886)-Samuel Gompers-skilled
workers; higher wages and improved working conditions; urge walk
out until employer agree to negotiate contract; largest union by
1901
-1890-naval Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan publish The Influence of
Sea Power on History-control of seas w/strong navy necessary for
world power
-Our Country-Josiah Strong-Americans had duty to spread word of
God around the world
-1893-Frederick Jackson Turner-“Frontier Thesis”-frontier
necessary for democracy
-Election of 1892-Democrat Grover Cleveland and Adlai Stevenson
defeat Republican Ben Harrison and Whitelaw Reid-Cleveland-
conservative economic stand (gold standard)
-Populist Party-James Weaver and James Field for 1892 election;
leaders of party (Ignatius Donnally, Thomas Watson, Mary Lease,
Jerry Simpson)-party platform: coinage of silver to gold at ratio of
16:1; federal loans to farmers; graduated income tax; postal savings
banks; public ownership of railroads; telephone and telegraph
system; prohibition of alien land ownership; immigration
restriction; ban on private armies to break strikes; 8hr wor day; 1
6yr term for president; direct election of senators; initiave and
referendum; secret ballot
-Homestead Strike (1892)-Iron and steel workers strike against
Carnegie Steel to protest wage cuts; strikebreaking Pinkerton
security guards; some deaths
-Jacob Riis-How the Other Half Lives (1890)-document poverty,
illness, crime, despair of slums
-1895-The Laws of Civilization and Decay-Brooks Adams-nation
must expand or face decline
-Election of 1896-Rep. William McKinley vs. Dem. William
Jennings Bryan-support platform similar to Populists; “cross of gold
speech”; McKinley win-promise to stabilize Cuban revolution
-March of Unemployed (1894)-Jacob Coxey led march on
Washington-want gov’t work relief program; force and arrests
-Pullman Strike (1894)-Eugene V. Debs and American Railway
Union struck over wage cuts and job losses; broken w/ federal
troops
-United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895)-Sherman Anti-Trust Act
apply only to commerce, not manufacturing
-Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)-“separate but equal”
-Election of 1900-Rep choose Roosevelt for Vice President; run
1897-1901 and Germany
Republican -Cuban revolt against Spain hurting American interests in economy;
“yellow journalism” spur war and Assistant Secretary of Navy
Theodore Roosevelt push for war
-annex Hawaii in 1898
-War declared April 21, 1898-Teller Amendment-War to free Cuba;
Spain quickly defeated
-Philippines-Commodore George Dewey take-capture Manila
-Treaty of Paris (1900)-end war; Cuban independence, cede
Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam to U.S., payment of $20 mil for
Philippines
-Philippines rebel under Emilio Aguinaldo b/c not given
independence-revolution suppressed
-Hawaii annexed 1898, 1900 claim Wake Island
-Open Door Notes-Sec of State John Hay-guarantee equal
opportunity of trade and sovereignty of Manchu gov’t
-Boxer Rebellion (1900)-struck at foreign settlements in China-
multinational force suppress rebellion-gain concessions
-Platt Amendment (1901)-Cuba cannot make treaty with foreign
state, contract excessive public debt, required to allow U.S. to
preserve order and keep naval base at Guantanamo Bay
Theodore Roosevelt “Big Stick” diplomacy
1901-1909 -Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901)-U.S. can build canal w/o Britain
Republican -Panama Canal-engineer separation of Panama from Colombia;
recognize as independent country; Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty
(1903)-grant U.S. control of canal zone for $10 million and annual
$250,000; canal completed in 1914
-Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine-U.S. reserve right to
intervene in internal affairs of Latin American nations to keep
European powers from using military force to collect debts to
Western Hemisphere; interfere in Venezuela, Haiti, Dominican
Republic, Nicaragua, Cuba
-Rio de Janeiro Conference (1906)-meeting of International Bureau
of American Republics-Sec of State Elihu Root attempt to de-
emphasize U.S. military and political intervention to promote
political goodwill, economic development, trade and finance in
Latin America; promote Pan American Railway project
-China-promote trade and other interests; segregation and
restrictions of Chinese immigrants, Chinese leaders boycott
American goods and services-no major effect
-Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)-Japan win war against Russia;
Roosevelt negotiate Treaty of Portsmouth, NH which ended war;
receive Nobel Peace Prize in 1906; Japan want more territory and
blame U.S.
-Taft-Katsura Memo (1905) and Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)-
Japan and U.S. pledge -1. mutual respect for Pacific possessions; -2.
support for Open Door policy in China
-Great White Fleet (1907)-show American strength; naval fleet to
Asian ports
-Algeciras Conference (1906)-U.S. participate w/8 other European
nations, guarantee equal opportunity of trade for Morocco
-The Second Hague Conference (1907)-46 nations meet in
Netherlands to discuss disarmament and creation of international
court of justice; little more than resolution banning use of military
force for collection of foreign debts accomplished
-“Gentlemen’s Agreement” (1908)-Japanese gov’t agree to restrict
emigration of workers to U.S.; Roosevelt persuade California to
repeal discriminatory laws
-Insular Cases (1901-1903)-Supreme Court rule that constitutional
rights do not extend to territorial possessions; Congress had right to
administer islands
William H. Taft -Reciprocal trade agreement between U.S. and Canada repudiated
Randolph Hearst New York Journal-exaggerate Spanish atrocities in
Cuba-create climate receptive to war
-DeLôme Letter-Feb. 9, 1898-Spanish minister in Washington
criticize McKinley; U.S.S. Maine blown up in Havana harbor-
demand for war with Spain
-Federal Bankruptcy Act (1898)-reform and standardize procedures
for bankruptcy and responsibilities of creditors and debtors
-Erdman Act (1898)-mediation by chair of Interstate Commerce
Commission and commissioner of Bureau of Labor in unresolved
railroad labor controversies
-Currency Act (1900)-standardized amount of gold in the dollar;
separate gold reserve set apart from general funds-gov’t bonds sold
to maintain reserve
INDUSTRIAL WARFARE: lockout, blacklisting, yellow-dog
contracts-to be hired, must agree not to join union, private guards
and state militia, court injunctions against strikes
-“square deal”-favor neither labor nor business; square deal for both
-Roosevelt’s Anti-Trust Policy (1902)-pledge strict enforcement of
Sherman Anti-Trust Act to break up illegal monopolies and regulate
large corps for public good; order Justice Department (Attorney
General P. C. Knox) to prosecute corps: Northern Securities
Company-railroad holding corp by J.P. Morgan, Rockefeller’s
Standard Oil Company
-Hepburn Act (1906)-ICC membership 5->7, set own fair freight
rates, regulatory power extended over piplines, bridges, express
companies, require uniform system of accounting by regulated
transportation companies (strengthen Interstate Commerce Act)
-Elkins Act (1903)-illegality of railroad rebates
-Pure Food and Drug Act (1906)-prohibit manufacture, sale, and
transportation of adulterated or fraudulently labeled foods and drugs
-Meat Inspection Act (1906)-federal and sanitary regulations and
inspections in meat packing facilities
-Immunity of Witness Act (1906)-corporate officials could no
longer make plea of immunity to avoid testifying in cases dealing
w/their corporation’s illegal activities
-Conservation Laws-1901-1908-create federal irrigation projects,
national parks and forests, water power (Internal Waterways
Commission), National Conservation Commission-oversee
resources
-Department of Commerce and Labor (1903)-address concerns of
business and labor; Bureau of Corporations investigate and report
on illegal activities of corporations
-Coal Strike (1902)-negotiate between Union Mine Workers union
and anthracite mine owners after strike over wages, safety
conditions, and union recognition; 1st time gov’t didn’t
automatically side w/management
-Panic of 1907-brief economic recession-caused by: questionable
bank speculations, lack of flexible monetary and credit policies,
gold standard
-St. Louis World’s Fair (1904)-celebrate centennial of Louisiana
Purchase; participation of Asian nations to promote foreign trade
-National Monetary Commission (1908)-chaired by Senator Nelson
Aldrich-recommend what would later become basis for Federal
Reserve System: secure Treasury reserve and branch banks to add
and subtract currency from monetary supply
-anti-trust policy-Attorney General George Wickersham-44
against Bryan-against imperialism and gold standard; McKinley
wins
-U.S. Steel Corp-1901; Standard Oil Company of NJ-1899
-Thorstein Veblen’s Theory of the Leisure Class (1899)-attack
predatory wealth and conspicuous consumption of new rich
-Frank Norris’s McTeague (1899)-man’s regression to animalistic
behavior in world of unregulated capitalist competition; The
Octopus (1901)-condemn monopoly
-Thomas Edison-inventor-Menlo Park, NJ, research lab, light bulb,
phonograph, motion pic. Camera; George Westinghouse-inventor-
air brake for railroads, transformer
-Consumer goods: R. H. Macy, Marshall Field. Frank Woolworth 5
and 10 cent stores; mail-order comp: Sears, Roebuck and
Montgomery Ward; packaged food
-Horatio Alger myth-self-made man-work hard=success
-expanding middle class: accountants, clerks, salespeople, lawyers,
doctors, public employees
-wages barely above level for subsistence; need women and
children to work; women: textile, garment, food-processing
-Workplace-monotonous, dangerous
-Progressive reform in states: primary elections, initiative
referendum, root out political bosses on state and municipal levels
-Commission form of Government (1903)-progressives remove
corrupt mayor of Galveston, Texas; replace w/ 5 elected
commissioners who were experts in fields-many cities adopt
-Manager-Council-expert manager hired by elected city council to
direct work of various departments of city (Dayton, Ohio 1913)
-State Reform Leaders: Robert LaFollette of Wisconsin, Albert
Cummins of Iowa, Charles Evans Hughes of New York, James M.
Cox of Ohio, Hiram Johnson of California, William S. Wren of
Oregon, Albert Beveridge of Indiana, Woodrow Wilson of NJ
-City Reformers-John Purroy Mitchell of NYC, Tom L. Johnson
and Newton Baker of Cleveland, Hazen Pingree of Detroit, Sam
Jones of Toledo, Joseph Folk of St. Louis
-Reformer’s goals-middle-class-correct excessive powers of corps
and radical extremes; business and labor-preserve economic
opportunities and free trade; goals: honest gov’t, economic
regulation, environmental conservation, labor recognition, new
political structures, gender equality in work force (Oregon Ten Hour
Law), end racial segregation (NAACP), child labor laws, prison
reform, regulation of stock market, direct election of senators, more
efficient foreign service
-Muckrakers-investigative journalists and authors who advocate
reform; McClure’s, Collier’s, Cosmopolitan, Everybody’s
(magazines); “The Shame of the Cities”-Lincoln Steffens, “History
of Standard Oil Company”-Ida Tarbell, “The Treason of the
Senate”-David Phillips, “Frenzied Finance”-Thomas Lawson
-Literature with social message: Following the Color Line-Ray
Stannard Baker, The Bitter Cry of the Children-John Spargo,
Poverty-Robert Hunter, The Story of Life Insurance-Burton
Hendrick, The Financier-Theodore Dreiser, The Jungle-Upton
Sinclair, The Boss-Henry Lewis, Call of the Wild, The Iron Heel and
The War of the Classes-Jack London, A Certain Rich Man-William
Allen White, The Promise of American Life-Herbert Croly
-1903-Wright Brothers 1st piloted flight at Kitty Hawk, NC
-Election of 1908-William H. Taft for Rep, Williams Jennings
Bryan for Dem (low tariff, anti-monopoly) endorsed by AFL;
Socialists-Eugene Debs; Taft win, Rep get Congress
-1905-W.E.B. DuBois-Niagara movement-call for federal
legislation to protect racial equality and full rights of citizenship
-1913-Henry Ford introduce continuous-flow process on automobile
1909-1913 by Canadian legislature-fear economic and political domination
Republican -Dollar Diplomacy-avoid military intervention; hope American
financial investments would encourage economic, social, political
stability-thwarted by growing anti-imperialism
-Railroads in China (1911)-want U.S. bankers included in British,
French, and German plan to invest in railroads in China, secure
American participation; U.S. excluded from agreement between
Russia and Japan to build railroads in Manchuria
-Intervention in Nicaragua (1911-1912)-U.S. intervene in financial
affairs and send marines when civil war break out
-Lodge Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine-non-European powers
excluded from owning territory in Western Hemisphere; Henry
Cabot Lodge (Mass.); Japan wanted to buy Baja Peninsula from
Mexico
Woodrow Wilson -Moral Diplomacy-moral approach to foreign affairs
1913-1921 -Jones Act (1916)-1. grant full territorial status to Philippines; -2.
Democrat guaranteed bill of rights and universal male suffrage; -3. promise
independence as soon as stable gov’t established
-Puerto Rico (1917)-grant U.S. citizenship to all inhabitants and
limited self-gov’t
-Panama Canal (1914)-persuade Congress repeal act that granted
U.S. ships exemption from paying standard canal tolls
-Conciliation treaties-Sec of State William Jennings Bryan-
negotiate treaties in which nations pledge to: -1. submit disputes to
international commissions; -2. observe 1-yr cooling off period b/f
taking military action
-troops in Haiti (1915) and Dominican Republic (1916)
-Mexico-General Victoriano Huerta seize power in 1913; U.S. put
arms embargo and send fleet to blockage port of Vera Cruz to aid
revolutionaries; several American seamen arrested and Huerta
refuse to apologize (1914)-U.S. navy occupy Vera Cruz-Argentina,
Brazil, Chile mediate dispute; Huerta replaced with Venustiano
Carranza (1914)-U.S. first support Pancho Villa (revolutionary
against Carranza) b/c Carranza refuse to agree to American terms
allowing businesses; withdraw support from Pancho Villa once
Carranza agree; Villa attacks U.S. settlements in Texas and NM;
Wilson order General John J. Pershing to pursue Villa into Mexico
WORLD WAR I
-breaks out in Europe in 1914 (assassination of Archduke Francis
Ferdinand-heir to Austrian throne); U.S. declares neutrality
-Unrestricted submarine warfare by Germans; sink Lusitania-
British passenger ship w/Americans on it; Wilson angry b/c violates
Americans’ rights as citizens of neutral nation
-Gore-McLemore Resolution-try to prohibit American travel on
armed ships or on ships carrying munitions (failed)
-“Sussex pledge”-Germans attack Sussex-Americans insist
Germany cease all surprise sub attacks; agree but reserve right to
indictments in anti-trust suits; broke American Tobacco Trust
(1911) and suit against Standard Oil
-Political Rift-can’t heal Rep. split between conservatives and
progressives over tariff reform, conservation, almost dictatorial
power held by Speaker of the House Joseph Cannon
-Anti-Cannon Crusade-1910, Rep and Dem join to strip Speaker
Cannon of power to appoint the Committee on Rules and serve on it
himself; Taft fail to align w/ progressive; Democrats gain House in
1910 elections, Rep Dem coalition run Senate
-Ballinger-Pinchot Dispute (1909-1910)-Gifford Pinchot (chief of
U.S. Forest Service) charge Sec of Interior Richard Ballinger of
giving away natural resources to private corporate interests; Taft
support Ballinger
-Mann-Elins Act (1910)-extend regulatory function of ICC over
cable and wireless companies, telephone and telegraph lines, power
to begin own court proceedings, suspend questionable rates,
separate but temp commerce court to handle rate-dispute cases
-Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909)-turn measure to lower tariff into
protective measure-Taft made mistake of endorsing it
-Postal Savings Bank (1910)-certain U.S. post offices authorized to
receive deposits and pay interest
-New Battleship Contract (1910)-State Department arrange for
Bethlehem Steel Corporation to receive contract to build battleships
in Argentina
-New Cabinet Posts-Department of Commerce and Labor divided
into 2 positions
-Sixteenth Amendment (1913)-graduated income tax
-Seventeenth Amendment (1913)-all U.S. senators elected by
popular vote
-New Freedom-limit big business and big gov’t-reform by ending
corruption and reviving competition by supporting small businesses
-Underwood Tariff (1913)-substantial lowering of tariffs; done by
special session of Congress 1st day of presidency; graduated income
tax 1% to 6%
-Federal Reserve Act (1914)-national system of 12 district banks
supervised by Federal Reserve Board; Federal Reserve Notes
(dollar bills)
-Clayton Antitrust Act-strengthened provisions of Sherman
Antitrust Act for breaking up monopolies; exempt unions from
being prosecuted as trusts
-Federal Trade Commission-regulatory agency can investigate and
take action against any “unfair trade practice” in any industry
except banking and transportation
-Federal Farm Loan Act (1916)-12 regional federal farm loan banks
established to provide farm loans at low interest rates
-Child Labor Act (1916)-prohibited shipment in interstate
commerce of products manufactured by children under 14 yrs old
-Nineteenth Amendment (1920)-women’s suffrage
-Adamson Act (1916)-8-hr day for workers on interstate railroads
w/time and half for overtime and max of 16 hrs in shift
-Kerr-McGillicuddy Act-workmen’s compensation for federal
employees
MOBILIZATION AT HOME
-first ship supplies (faster)-create war agencies: Bernard Baruch-
War Industries Board set production priorities and established
centralized control over raw materials and prices; Herbert Hoover-
Food Administration-encourage rationing; Harry Garfield-Fuel
Administration-efforts to save coal, nonessential factories closed,
daylight saving time; Taft-National War Labor Board-help arbitrate
assembly line
-Social programs-public aid to mothers of dependent children
(1911, Illinois); minimum wage (Mass. 1912)
-1909-NAACP created
-Industrial Workers of the World (IWW or Wobblies)-radical labor
organization; promote violence and revolution; Carlo Tresca,
Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, Daniel DeLeon, Mary Harris Jones-strikes
against textiles in 1912; little appeal to average worker; decline
after Red Scare of 1919
-literature: optimistic in realism, put faith in American people to
solve social and economic problems w/honest and efficient
programs
-1912-Hollywood center for silent film production; Paramount
Pictures; serials, epic features, Mack Sennett comedies
-1913-X-ray tube; William Coolidge; 1909-Arthur Little-plastics;
1909-Leo Baekeland-synthetic fibers; 1912-Adolphus Busch-
applied Diesel engine to submarine
-Election of 1912; Roosevelt return to national politics-Progressive
Party (Bull Moose Party)-“New Nationalism”-regulation of large
corps, tariff commission, women’s suffrage, minimum wages and
benefits, direct election of Senator, initiative, referendum, recall,
presidential primaries, prohibition of child labor, Federal Trade
Commission to regulate economy, stronger executive, gov’t plans;
Rep Taft; Dem-Woodrow Wilson-“New Freedom”-progressive
programs similar to Roosevelt, break-up of large corporations
-1910-all states have secret or Australian ballot (state not political
party printed ballots)
-1911-National Urban League-help blacks migrating to northern
cities
-1914-Robert Goddard-liquid rocket fuel
-1915-some form of direct primary in every state-try to stop party
bosses
-Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918)-declare Child Labor Act (1916)
unconstitutional
-Black Rights (progressives did nothing about segregation and
lynching b/c view other reforms more important b/c benefit all
Americans and also prejudiced); Booker T. Washington: head of
Tuskeggee Institute, Alabama Exposition speech-argue blacks’
needs for education and economic progress foremost importance,
only after establishing secure base hope to gain political and social
equality; W.E.B. Du Bois-The Souls of the Black Folk (1903)-
criticize Washington’s approach and demand equal rights for blacks;
political and social rights prerequisite for economic independence
-Urban migration (1910-1930)-blacks from South migrate to
northern cities b/c: -1. deteriorating race relations; -2. destruction of
cotton crop by boll weevil; -3. job opportunities in factories
-Campaign for women’s suffrage-1900-National American Woman
Suffrage Association (NAWSA)-vote to broaden democracy (allow
them to care more for families); National Woman’s party-more
militant (mass pickets, parades, hunger strikes)-Alice Paul
-WORLD WAR I
-Committee on Public Information-George Creel-propaganda urging
Americans to “do your bit” for the war
-American Protective League-“Hate the Hun”-attack all things
German
-Schenck v. United States-Supreme Court upheld constitutionality of
Espionage Act-right to free speech could be limited when it
represented a “clear and present danger” to public safety
-African Americans fight in war; segregated units; few allowed to
be officers; barred from Marine Corps-hope to earn equal rights at
home
-effects on society: more jobs for women (lead to 19th amendment),
 continue if British didn’t stop violations of international law
-Entering the War-Jan. 17, 1917-Germans resume unlimited
submarine warfare against all ships; Zimmerman Telegram-Feb. 24,
1917-German telegram to Mexico, want Mexico to attack U.S. to
regain Texas, New Mexico, Arizona-many believe war w/Germany
necessary; Russian Revolution-wouldn’t be allied to czarist regime
and can fight war to “defend democracy”-declared 3/2/17
-Fighting the War: U.S. Navy implement convoy system of armed
escorts for merchant ships-ensure Britain and France not starved;
American Expeditionary Force (AEF)-General John J. Pershing;
push back Germans at Château-Thierry; defeat Germans at Meuse-
Argonne offensive; Germans surrender Nov. 11, 1918
-Fourteen Points (Wilson’s plan for “peace without victory”)-
recognition of freedom of seas, end to secret treaties, reduction of
national armaments, “impartial adjustment of all colonial claims”,
self-determination in Austria-Hungary, general association of
nations for peace (League of Nations)
-Treaty of Versailles-Big Four (David Lloyd George, Georges
Clemenceau, Vittorio Orlando, Wilson); terms of treaty: -1.
Germany stripped of all colonies in Asia and Africa, admit guild for
war, French occupation of Rhineland for 15 yrs, reparations to
Britain and France; -2. new nations formed from land taken from
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia; -3. join League of Nations-
Article X call for each nation to stand ready to protect independence
of other nations
Warren G. Harding -Washington Conference: 1921: reps from Belgium, China, France,
1921-1923 Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Portugal, three agreements:
Republican The 5 Power Treaty: largest navies would maintain the ratio with
their largest warships US: 5, Great Britain: 5, Japan: 3, France and
Italy 1.67. and US can’t fortify its possessions in Pacific. Four
Power Treaty: US, France, Great Britain, and Japan had to respect
each other’s territory in the Pacific. 9 Power Treaty: all nations at
conference had to respect Open Door policy of China. Gave Japan
unintentional naval supremacy in Pacific.
Calvin Coolidge -Kellogg-Briand Pact: Led by Jane Addams and other women.
1923-1929 Arranged by Secy of State Frank Kellogg and Aristide Briand
Republican (French minister) signed by most nations in the world, renounced
war, but permitted defensive wars and didn’t provide for action
against violators of the agreement.
-The Dawes Plan: Proposed by Charles Dawes, accepted in 1924,
American banks loaned money to Germany so they can pay off their
reparations to the Allies.
-Latin America: US investment there doubled during the 1920s.
Marines removed from Nicaragua in 1925, revolution erupted,
Marines went back, Revolutionary Augusto Sandino fought Marines
until national guard under Anastasio Somoza replaced them.
Somoza ruled Nicaragua until 1979 when they were overthrown by
the Sandinistas.
disputes between workers and employers-labor gain higher wages,
8-hr day, union membership
-financing the war-Liberty Bonds, personal income and corporate
taxes, excise tax on luxury goods
-Espionage Act (1917)-imprisonment for up to 20yrs for people
who tried to incite rebellion in armed forces or obstruct draft
-Sedition Act (1918)-prohibit anyone from making “disloyal” or
“abusive” remarks about U.S. gov’t
-Selective Service Act (1917)-sec of War Newton D. Baker-people
drafted by lottery
-Battle for Ratification: irreconcilable faction-don’t want U.S.
membership in League; reservationists-Senator Lodge-would accept
League if certain reservations added; Wilson tours West speaking
for treaty, suffers stroke, treaty defeated; new treaty made with
Germany
-Quota Act of 1921: limited immigration to 3% of the amount of
foreign-born people from a given country counted in the 1910
Census
-Appointed Charles Evans Hughes as the Secy of State, Herbert
Hoover as Secy of Commerce, Andrew Mellon as Sec of the
Treasury, Chief Justice became Taft. Corrupt choices: Harry M.
Daugherty as attn gen and Albert Fall as Secy of Interior
-Pardoned Eugene Debs
-The Revenue Act of 1921 (and 1924): reduced maximum tax rate
to 50%, lower bracket taxes reduced, inheritance/corporate income
taxes stayed same. Idea by Mellon, reduced debt by ave of 500 mill
a year.
-The Fordney-McCumber Tariff: 1922, high rates on farm products
and protected rayon, china, toys, and chemical industries, others got
mod protection, farm equipment duty-free, Tariff Commission
could approve raising or lowing rates.
-The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921: Fed gov had unified
budget, established Bureau of the Budget, Congress could vote on
it.
-Quota Act of 1924: set quotas of 2% based on the Census of 1990
(before the “new” immigrants arrived: to discriminate against those
of Southern and eastern Europe)
-Said “The Business of America is Business” and “The man who
builds a factory builds a temple”
-McNary-Haugen Bill: Coolidge vetoed it twice. George Peek and
Hugh Johnson wanted gov to buy and resell wheat at the world
price plus the tariff, surplus would be sold abroad at the world
price, and the difference made up by a fee on all farmers in
proportion to the amount of the things they had sold. 1927 and
1928, didn’t’ pass Coolidge.
-1925: George Norris of Nebraska wanted to lease the dam and
nitrate plants at Muscle Shoals AL to private business, Coolidge
vetoes in 1928. Later becomes the base for the TVA.
-1924, Coolidge vetoes the idea to give veterans of WWI 20 year
endowment policies with values based on their length of service.
-The Revenue Act of 1926:cut surtax to max of 20%, abolished gift
tax, cut estate tax in half.
blacks migrate north
POSTWAR PROBLEMS
-soldiers returning from work looking for jobs, take away from
women and blacks
-farmers-falling prices; consumers go on buying spree-inflation and
short boom-1921-recession and 10% unemployed
-Red Scare: anti-Communist hysteria; Palmer raids-Attorney
General A. Mitchell Palmer-special office under J. Edgar Hoover to
gather information on radicals-many arrested and deported, loss of
credibility b/c no riots on May Day 1920 as warned and concerns
about civil liberties
-Labor Conflicts-1919 strike in Seattle-shipyard workers for higher
pay, troops called; Boston (Sept. 1919)-police strike to protest firing
of few officers who tried to unionize-Mass. Gov Calvin Coolidge
send in National Guard; strike of U.S. Steel Corporation-federal
troops called (1919-1920)
-Race Riots-migration of blacks cause tensions b/c competition for
jobs and housing; East St. Louis, IL (1917)-largest riot, 1919-
Chicago, 40 people killed; return of African American
soldiers=racial violence and lynchings in South
-Harding (people called him a “dark-horse” candidate) v. James Cox
v. Eugene Debs. Harding with 61% pop vote and 4:1 ratio electoral
votes
-Wilson had angered many previously Democratic supporters like
immigrants and civil libertarians during his administration; Harding
won on isolationism and anti-League of Nations.
-Sacco and Venzetti Case: 1921 convicted of robbery and murder,
poor Italians/anarchists, put to death in 1927. Meant people were
racist.
-1923, Harding died heart attack, Coolidge (VP) become President
–Daugherty, took bribes in exchange for not prosecuting criminals,
Fall took bribes for granting oil leases new Teapot Dome. Charles
R. Forbes, head of Veterans’ Bureau, stole millions from funds.
-Election of 1928: Coolidge v. John W. Davis *dark horse* :
Progressive party formed after Robert Lafollette did not win the
Republican nomination: attacked monopolies, wanted nationalized
railroads, direct election of the President, etc.
-Coolidge won by HUGE popular vote percentage, 3:1 ratio
electoral votes.
-Election of 1928: Coolidge declined to run again, Hoover v. Alfred
E. Smith, Hoover wins by a huge electoral majority and popular
majority.
Herbert C. Hoover -agreed with isolationism: viewed peace conferences and treaties as
1929-1933 moral efforts and opposed using economic sanctions against
Republican aggressors b/c lead to military involvement
-Japanese Aggression in Manchuria-Sept. 1931-take over terriroty,
rename Manchukuo, establish puppet gov’t-League condone action
but Japan walks out
-Stimson Doctrine-Sec of State Henry Stimson declare U.S. honor
Nine-Power Treaty (1922) by refusing to recognize legitimacy of
any regime like “Manchukuo” established by force
-pursue friendly relations w/countries in Latin America-arrange for
troops to leave Nicaragua by 1933 and leave Haiti by 1934
Franklin Delano -Good-Neighbor Policy-improve relations w/other countries in
Roosevelt Western Hemisphere b/c: interventionist policies don’t make sense
1933-1945 b/c businesses no longer have capital to invest, and b/c rise of
Democrat militarist regimes in Germany and Italy-seek cooperation for
defense of Hemisphere
-Pan-American conferences-1933-U.S. pledge never again to
intervene in internal affairs of Latin American Country; 1936-
pledge to submit future disputes to arbitration and warn if European
power attempt to attack, Hemisphere would retaliate
-1934-Platt Amendment nullified-only naval base at Guantanamo
Bay kept
-Mexico-1938-Lázaro Cárdenas seize oil properties owned by U.S.
corps, Roosevelt encourage negotiation
-London Economic Conference (1933)-international economic
conference called by League of Nations-Hoover allowed U.S.
participation-Roosevelt w/drew support
-1933-recognize Soviet Union-to increase trade and boost economy
-Philippines-Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934)-provide for
independence of Philippines by 1946 and gradual removal of U.S.
military presence from islands
-The Agricultural Marketing Act: 1929 (before crash) created
Federal Farm Board to lend money to agriculture to buy wheat and
cotton and held them for higher prices.
-Hawley-Smoot Tariff: 1930, raised duties on agricultural and
manufactured imports, Euros did it to US imports, both economies
failed.
-Voluntarism: urged business leaders to avoid lay-offs and wage
cuts, and got no-strike pledges form labor leaders, urged all citizens
to contribute to charities to help their suffering.
-Debt moratorium: 1931, Dawes Plan ended, Hoover suspended
payment of international debts, Britain and German accepted, not
France, international economy suffered from loan defaults.
-Public works: 1930, $750 million for public buildings, river and
harbor improvements, and highway construction to stimulate
employment.
-Reconstruction Finance Corporation: 1932, authority to borrow
money to loan to railroads, banks, etc. prevented failure of firms but
criticized as relief for the rich.
-The Federal Home Load Bank Act: 1932, created home loan banks
to make loans to building and loan associations, savings banks, and
insurance companies to help avoid foreclosures on homes.
-Relief: 1932: Garner-Wagner Bill vetoed, which would have given
funds for relief. Did compromise, allowed RFC to lend money to
states for relief, to make loans to states and cities for public works.
-1932, Bonus Army veterans marched to DC, wanted immediate
payment of bonus approved in 1926 for payment in 1945, Hoover
sent in Douglas MacArthur and Dwight D. Eisenhower and George
Patton to remove them.
-Farm Holiday Association: 1932: Headed by Milo Reno, urged
farmers not to take their products to market to try to raise prices.
Picketing led to violence, strike collapsed.
-New Deal-three R’s-relief, recovery, reform; Brain Trust-group of
advisers who assisted him while governor of NY, Louis Howe-chief
political advisor-advise on economic matters; appoint most diverse
cabinet-Frances Perkins-first woman to serve on cabinet
-First Hundred Days-call special session for Congress to enact all
laws requested by Roosevelt
-Bank Holiday-president ordered banks to close Mar. 6, 1933-gov’t
help reorganize them-reopened once sound
-Beer-Wine Revenue Act-legalize sale of beer and wine
-Twenty-first Amendment (1933)-end Prohibition
-Fireside chats-March 12, 1933-go on radio to assure listeners
banks reopened after Holiday safe
-Emergency Banking Relief Act-gov’t examine finances of banks
closed during Bank Holiday; reopen those judged to be sound
-Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC)-guaranteed
individual bank deposits up to $5,000
-Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC)-refinancing of small
homes to prevent foreclosure
-Farm Credit Administration-provide low-interest farm loans and
mortgages to prevent foreclosures on property of farmers
-Wanted voluntary cooperation of business and gov to abolish
poverty
-Why Prosperity? Productivity Increased: Frederick Taylor’s time
and motion studies applied, scientific management, Henry Ford’s
assembly line. Energy technologies: more use of oil and electivity,
coal used only for railroads and some homes. Oil used for factories
and accounted for 23% of US energy (3% in 1900), electrical
motors increased production 300 times. Gov Policy: Favored
growth of big business, offered tax cuts and didn’t enforce antitrust
laws.
-Farm Problems: crop prices kept high during wartime demands and
policy of a wartime minimum price for crops. Farmers losing
money fast, high burden of debt.
-Wages rose but the union movement didn’t, membership declined,
most companies had open shop (open hiring of nonunion members),
welfare capitalism (offering their employees improved benefits and
higher wages), efforts to unionize turned violent.
-Stock prices increased, especially after 1925 and 1928-9, but in
1929, “Black Thursday,” millions shares traded, investment banks
tried to raise it again by busing, “Black Tuesday,” market crashed.
-Causes of Crash: Uneven distribution of income, top 5% had 33%
of wealth, Stock market speculation (buying on margin), Excessive
use of credit, Overproduction of consumer goods, weak farm
economy, government policies (too little regulation) Global
economic problems (US forced all reparations be paid in full, but
tariff policies reduced sale of Euro goods in America)
-25% of workforce unemployed, 20% of banks closed, GNP
dropped almost to ½ its original value, national income declined by
½ its value.
-Klu Klux Klan: as strong in Midwest as in South, against
Catholics, Jews, foreigners, communists, and blacks. Founded in
1915, declined after Grand Dragon David Stephenson convicted of
murder (leader of Indiana’s Klan).
-Scopes Trial: 1925, taught evolution in school in TN, ended career
of William Jennings Bryan (acted like an expert on Bible).
Convicted, but overturned.
-Volstead Act 1919: enfourced prohibition, but now people hated it.
People smuggled in beer into speakeasies, Chicago Gang by Al
Capone fought for control of the industry, lots of Organized crime
became big business.
-Nativism: People didn’t like new Catholic/Jewish Eastern/Southern
European immigrants—Feared they would steal jobs.
-Election of 1936-Roosevelt vs. Alf Landon-criticize Democrats for
spending too much money but accept New Deal legislation;
Roosevelt win with landslide-support of Solid South, white ethnic
groups, Midwestern farmers, labor unions, blacks
-Liberal Critics-Socialists and extreme liberals criticize as doing too
little for unemployed and working poor; feel president fail to
address problems of minorities, women, elderly
-Conservative Critics-business leaders alarmed by increasing
regulations, prounion stance, deficit financing; American Liberty
League-anti-New Deal-conservative Democrats and Republicans
-Father Charles E. Coughlin-Catholic priest-found National Union
for Social Justice-call for issuing inflated currency and nationalizing
all banks-radio broadcasts
-Dr. Francis E. Townsend-propose 2 % federal sales tax to create
fund by which every retired person over age 60 receive $200/month
if spent-lead to Social Security System
-Huey Long-“Share Our Wealth” program-promise minimum
annual income of $5,000 for every American family paid for by
taxing wealthy
-Committee of Industrial Organizations (CIO)-John L. Lewis-part
-Reciprocal Trade Agreements-gave president power to reduce
tariffs by up to 50% if nations reciprocate w/similar reductions
-Fascism: Italy-Benito Mussolini; Germany-Adolf Hitler and Nazis;
Japan-militarists and nationalists pursuade emperor best way to gain
raw materials is to invade China and SE Asia
-American isolationists-Nye committee conclude in 1934 main
reason for going to war was to serve greed of bankers and arms
manufacturers (led by Gerald Nye)
-Neutrality Acts: 1935-president can prohibit all arms shipments
and forbid U.S. citizens to travel on ships of belligerent nations;
1936-forbade extension of loans and credits to belligerents; 1937-
forbade shipment of arms to opposing sides in civil war in Spain
-Spanish Civil War-General Francisco Franco (Fascist) vs.
Loyalists-1939, fascists prevailed
-America First Committee (1940)-isolationists mobilize American
public opinion against war, speakers
-appeasement: allow aggression: Ethiopia (1935)-allow Italy to
invade; Rhineland (1936)-Germany march troops into, violate treaty
of Versailles; China (1936)-U.S. gunboat Panay sunk by Japanese
planes, apology quickly accepted; Sudetenland (1938)-Germany
take it, Britain and French agree to allow Hitler to take
-Start of War-Germany invade Poland; Blitzkrieg-lightning war-air
power and fast moving tanks used by Germany
-“Cash and Carry” (1939)-belligerent could buy U.S. arms if used
own ships and paid cash
-Destroyers-for-bases deal (1940)-Britain receive 50 older but still
serviceable destroyers in exchange for U.S. rights to build military
bases on British islands in Caribbean
-Four Freedoms-propose lending money to Britain for purchase of
U.S. war materials-defense of freedom of speech, religion, from
want, from fear
-Lend-Lease Act (1941)-permit Britain to obtain all U.S. arms it
needed on credit
-Atlantic Charter-Roosevelt and Winston Churchill affirm peace
objectives after war: sound peace, self-determination, no territorial
expansion, free trade
-Shoot on Sight-U.S. defend British ships carrying Lend-Lease
materials-Greer sunk, Roosevelt order Navy to attack all German
ships on sight
-U.S. prohibit export of steel and scrap iron to all countries but
Britain and W. Hemisphere (after Japan join Axis); froze all
Japanese credits in U.S. and cut off Japanese access to vital
materials (after Japan occupy French Indochina); attempt at
negotiation fail
-Pearl Harbor (Dec. 7, 1941)-Japanese planes bomb Pearl Harbor,
Hawaii; declare war Dec. 8, 1941
-overcome German subs on Atlantic (sonar, radar, bomb naval
bases) and bomb German cities; Operation Torch (Nov. 1942)-
General Dwight Eisenhower and Bernard Montgomery-take North
Africa; invade Italy-Mussolini fell from power
-D-Day-liberate France-Battle at Normandy; final push toward
Berlin; Battle of the Bulge (desperate counterattack by Germans);
Germans surrender May 7, 1945; discover Holocaust-6 million
Jews murdered by Hitler
-Battle against Japan-Battle of Coral Sea (May 7-8, 1942)-aircraft
carriers stop Japanese invasion of Australia; Battle of Midway-
decisive battle; “island hopping”-isolate Japanese islands w/naval
and air power; Douglas MacArthur command army in S. Pacific
-Casablanca (Jan. 1943)-Roosevelt and Churchill agree to invade
Sicily and demand “unconditional surrender” from Axis powers
-Teheran (Nov 1943)-Big Three-Roosevelt, Churchill, Stalin-meet
for first time-British and Americans drive to liberate France in
-Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA)-grants of
federal money to states and local gov’ts that were operating relief
for jobless and homeless-director Harry Hopkins
-Public Works Administration (PWA)-directed by Sec of Interior
Harold Ickes-allotted money to state and local gov’t for building
roads, bridges, dams, and other public works-source of jobs
-Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)-employed young men on
projects on federal lands and paid families
-Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)-regional development and
public planning-build dams, operate electric power plants, control
flooding and erosion, manufacture fertilizer-sold cheap electricity
-National Recovery Administration (NRA)-Hugh Johnson-
temporarily suspend antitrust laws-set codes for wages, hours of
work, levels of production, and prices of finished goods-attempt to
guarantee reasonable profits and fair wages; allow workers right to
organize and bargain collectively (declared unconstitutional in
Schechter v. U.S.)
-Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA)-encourage farmers
to reduce production and paid subsidies to reduce output-attempt to
raise prices (declared unconstitutional in 1935)
-Civil Works Administration (CWA)-hired labors for temporary
construction projects sponsored by federal gov’t
-Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)-regulate stock market
and limit speculative practices that led to Wall Street crash
-Federal Housing Administration (FHA)-insuring bank loans for
building new houses and repairing old ones
-took U.S. off gold standard-dollar set at $35 per oz of gold, no
longer redeemable in gold
-Works Progress Administration (WPA)-provide jobs-construction
or painting murals, write histories, perform in plays-National Youth
Administration (NYA)-provide part-time jobs to help young people
stay in school or until they could get job
-Resettlement Administration (RA)-Rexford Tugwell-provide loans
to sharecroppers, tenants, and small farmers; federal camps where
migrant workers could find decent housing
-National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act (1935)-guaranteed
worker’s right to join union and union’s right to bargain
collectively; outlaw practices unfair to labor; National Labor
Relations Board (NLRB)-enforce law and protect workers’ rights
-revenue act of 1935-significantly increased tax on incomes of
wealthy few; increase tax on large gifts from parent to child and on
capital gains
-Social Security Act (1935)-federal insurance program based on
automatic collection of taxes from employees and employers; give
monthly payments to those over 65; unemployment compensation,
disability benefits, dependent children and mothers receive benefits
-Court-reorganization plan-Roosevelt angry Supreme Court
defeating New Deal programs-president can appoint additional
justice to court for everyone over 70.5 years-outraged-Congress
refuse to pass
-Fair Labor Standards Act-minimum wage, maximum workweek of
40 hrs and time and half for overtime, child-labor restrictions on
those under 16 yrs old
-Fair Employment Practices Committee (1941)-set up committee to
assist minorities in gaining jobs in defense industries
-Indian Reorganization Act (Wheeler-Howard) (1934)-return lands
to control of tribes and support preservation of Native American
cultures-repeal Dawes Act of 1887
-Selective Service Act (1940)-registration of all American men
between 21 and 35 and for training of 1.2 million troops
-1942-War Production Board (WPB)-established to manage war
industries; Office of War Mobilization (OWM)-set production
of AFL and want union membership to be extended to all workers;
suspended from AFL and became Congress of Industrial
Organization and break away from AFL-chief rival-organize
unskilled workers in automobile, steel, and southern textile
industries
-Strikes-General Motors plant in Michigan-sit-down-yield to
demands to recognize United Auto Workers union (UAW); strike
fail at Ford plant; U.S. Steel Corporation recognize CIO union;
Memorial Day 1937-demonstration at Republic Steel in Chicago=4
deaths-most steel companies agree to deal with CIO by 1945
-U.S. v. Darby Lumber Co. (1941)-upheld constitutionality of Fair
Labor Standards Act
-Keynesian economics-deficit spending acceptable b/c in difficult
times gov’t need to spend to initiate economic growth
-Life During the Great Depressioin-Women: accused of taking jobs
from men even though jobs they took men didn’t want; Dust Bowl
Farmers-drought-many migrate to CA-look for non-existent jobs;
John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath (1939); blacks-racial
discrimination for jobs-increased racial tensions-no support from
Roosevelt b/c fear losing S. vote; support from Eleanor Roosevelt
and Harold Ickes-singer Marian Anderson refused use of
Constitution Hall, arrange special concert at Lincoln memorial
-Mexican Americans-discriminated against for agricultural jobs in
CA and South; many forced to return to Mexico
-Election of 1940-Rep choose Wendell Willkie; Roosevelt win b/c
strong economic recovery and fear of war
-African Americans during war-move North and West b/c of jobs;
serve in armed forces; race riots in New York and Detroit (1943);
“Double V” slogan-victory over fascism and for equality at home;
membership in NAACP and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)-
1942-work more militantly for black interests
-Smith v. Allwright (1944)-unconstitutional to deny blacks
membership into political party to prevent from voting in primaries
-Mexican Americans-many work in defense industries or serve in
military; 1942 agreement-allow Mexican farm workers to enter U.S.
during harvest season w/o going through formal immigration
process-riots-zoot suit riots
-Native Americans-serve in military and defense industry-many
never return to reservations
-Japanese Americans-those on West Coast sent to interment camps
(1942-Executive order 9066)
-Korematsu v. U.S. (1944)-upheld constitutionality of internment
policy as necessary during war
-Women-many work in military in noncombat roles or enter
workforce-“Rosie the Riveter”
-Propaganda-maintain public morale and encourage people to
sacrifice and conserve resources-Office of War Information control
news about troop movements and battles
-Election of 1944-FDR run again against Thomas Dewey-win 53%
of popular vote
-Costs of War: 300,000 Americans die, 800,000 wounded; $320
billion, debt $250 billion
-United Nations (1944)-Dumbarton Oaks-U.S. Soviet Union, Great
Britain, China propose UN; 50 nations meet in San Francisco in
April 1945-Oct. 24, 1945 come into existence
 spring 1944; Soviets invade Germany and eventually join war
against Japan
-Yalta (Feb 1945)-Germany would be divided into occupation
zones; free elections in liberated countries of Eastern Europe;
Soviets enter war against Japan; Soviets control southern half of
Sakhalin island and Kurile Islands-special concessions in
Manchuria; New world peace organization (United Nations) formed
at conference in San Francisco
Harry S. Truman -Ending the War: Allies crossed into the Rhine in March 1945,
1945-1953 Eisenhower’s forces met the Soviet Army at the Elbe. Battle for
Democrat Okinawa, many dead Americans, but destroyed Japan’s defenses. In
1945, Germany surrendered.
-Potsdam: Stalin, Truman, and Attlee met in Germany in 1945 and
agreed to issue a warning to Japan to surrender unconditionally, and
to hold war-crime trials of Nazi leaders.
-Bombing Japan:
Manhattan Project (1942) directed by J. Robert Oppenheimer
developed atomic bomb (A-Bomb). Successfully tested on July 16
1945 in Alamogordo, New Mexico. Truman warned Japan to
surrender after Okinawa, they refused. Truman launched bomb on
Hiroshima, than on Nagasaki. 250,000 Japanese died from impact
and aftermath.
-Japanese surrender: after second bomb, as long as Emperor could
be a titular head of state. Formal surrender received by Gen.
MacArthur on Sept. 2, 1945 in Tokyo harbor about the battleship
Missouri.
-Effects of the War: 300,000 Americans died, 800,000 wounded.
Spent over $320 billion, ten times greater than spending for WWI.
Federal spending increased 1000% from 1939-1945. National debt
reached $250 billion. Establish UN in 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks
near Washington DC. Reps from US, Soviet Unions, Great Britain,
China, proposed name to be United Nations. 1945, first meeting of
50 nations in San Francisco, drafted a charter for it. Senate
approved, came into existence in 1945.
-End of 1945, Soviet Union controlled most of Eastern Europe,
Outer Mongolia, Manchuria, N. Korea, Kurile Islands, and Sakhalin
Island, took over Poland, Hungary, Rumania, and Bulgaria…failure
of Soviet containment.
-Bolshevik Rev in 1917 was a threat to capitalism, led to US Red
Scare of 1919; US didn’t recognize govt of Soviet Union until
1933, Stalin can’t be trusted: Nonagression Pct of 1939 (Stalin and
Hitler agreed to divide E.Euro), rejected UN Baruch Plan (removal
of atomic weapons, but Russia agreed to have Atomic Energy
Commission); denial for Soviets to participate in the World Bank
created at the Vretton Woods Conference in 1944 (said it was
capitalistic).
-Soviets brought Communists to power in their land, said it was a
buffer against “Hitler behavior.”—US said violates self-
determination
-Germany and Austria divided into four zones, one French, British,
US, and Soviet. Soviet zone (E. Germany) became communist
(German Democratic-Republic). Soviets wanted it weak and wanted
it to pay a lot of money. US and Britain refused to allow reparations
from their zones because they thought Germany needed to develop
economically. Soviets tightened their control, attempted to force
Americans, British, and French out of their subdivided Berlin City.
-Containment policy: stop spread of communism (1947) formed by
Gen. George Marshall (Secy State), Dean Acheson, and George F.
Kennan, expert on Siviet affairs. “Russia will abandon its
Communism if we contain.”
-The Truman Doctrine: because of communism in Greece and
priorities and controlled raw materials; cost-plus system-pay
contractors cost of production plus certain percent for profit;
destroy unemployment; Office of Price Administration (OPA)-
freeze prices, wages, rents, rationing commodities such as meat,
sugar, gasoline, tires
-Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Act (1943)-empower gov’t to take over
war-related business whose operations threatened by strike; used in
1944 to run railroads briefly
-Financing the War-increase income tax, sell war bonds
-G.I. Bill: Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944: as soldiers
returned, they were allowed to continue education at the gov
expense. 2 million GIs attended college, started postwar boom in
higher education. Veterans got $16 billion in low-interest gov
backed loans to buy homes/farms/stat businesses. Stimulated
postwar economic expansion.
-Truman was moderate, not liberal like FDR
-Employment Act of 1946: watered down version of Truman’s full
employment bill. Created council of Economic Advisors to counsel
the president and Congress on means of promoting national
economic welfare. Hindered later by conservative congress.
-Truman wanted to keep inflation in check by controlling prices as
in wartime. Democrats sided with Reps by relaxing controls of
Office of Price Administration, inflation rate of almost 25% in first
year of peace.
-Strikes: workers wanted wages to catch up after wage controls. 4.5
million workers struck in 1946. United Auto Workers under Walter
Reuther and steelworkers under Philip Murray struck General
Motors and US Steel, want wage increases. Truman says 18 cent
increase, US Steel raises prices to do it. Truman seized the mines
and used soldiers to keep them operating until the United Mine
Workers under John L. Lewis finally ended strike.
-Established Committee on Civil Rights in 1946: strengthened the
civil rights division of the Justice Dept which aided black leaders
against segregation.
-1948: ordered end of racial discrimination in the dept of the fed
gov and all three branches of the military. End of segregation within
the military also change life on bases, which were mostly Southern.
-Truman wanted to pass Fair Employment Practices Commission to
prevent employers from discriminating against hiring blacks,
southern Dems blocked it.
-Taft-Hartley Act (1947): pro-business. Truman vetoes, overrode his
veto. Check union power. Outlawed closed shop, permitted states to
pass laws outlawing the union shop, outlawed secondary boycotts,
president can invoke 80-day period before a strike a strike could be
called. Divided the parties further.
-Rep Congress passes 1951 22 Amendment
-The Fair Deal: 1949, mostly defeated because Congress=hate
Truman, too concerned with Cold war. Wanted to enact health
insurance, aid to edu, civil rights leg, funds for schools, housing,
farm reform. Only pass was increase in minimum wage and the
inclusion of more workers under Social Security.
-Farm Policy: Charles Brannan wants to continue price supports for
crops and minimum incomes, failed.
-1947: Truman appoints Hoover to Commission on Organization of
the Executive Branch. 1949: Organization Act, allowed president to
make changes that congress could veto.
-Presidential Succession Act of 1947: speaker of the House and
president Pro tempore of Senate ahead of Secy of state and after VP.
-Used Smith Act of 1940 (illegal to advocate overthrow of gov by
force) to jail Communist leaders.
-Loyalty Review Board: reviews gov employees in response to the
House Committee on Un-American Activities.
-Post WWII USA: 15 million soldiers returning, scarcity of jobs,
but the per-capita income of Americans increased, in savings
accounts since wartime shortages meant there had been few
consumer goods to buy. Consumer demand for cars and housing
combined with gov and road-building overcame uncertainty,
introduced unprecedented prosperity and growth. -1950s: Highest
SOL ever in US History.
-Baby boom: marriages and births increased, young/larger
families=50 million new babies born from 1945-1960, focused
women on raising kids, but1960 1/3 married women worked outside
the home.
-William J. Levitt: developed suburbia with Levittown, mass-
produced, low-priced family home son Long Island, NY. Most
middle class Americans lived in the suburbs, but cities become
poorer as the wealthier moved to suburbs.
-The Sunbelt: people moved to FL and CA because of lower taxes,
better climate.
-1946: Churchill’s Iron Curtain: separates democracies from
authoritarian communist states. From news of a communist-spy
ring.
-1946: Reps get control of Congress (people mad at inflation and
strikes)
-1948: clear victory by Truman over Thomas E. Dewey.
COLD WAR WITH ASIA:
-Douglas MacArthur—reconstruction of Japan. Set up parliament,
Hirohito ceremonial head of state, no power, new constitution,
renounced war, limited military, Japan depends on US military.
-US Japanese Security Treaty: 1951 occupation ends, Japan gives
up Korea and Pacific islands, Us troops can be in military bases.
-The Philippines: 1946: Philippines republic (passed by Congress
1934), US stayed in naval and air bases there.
-China: Chiang Kai-Shek controlled Kyomintang (Nationalist) party
and central gov. We gave aid to prevent Japanese conquering.
George Marshall to settle Nationalists v. Communists, Mao wins,
Nationalists went to Taiwan. Mao makes People’s Republic of
China.
-Korean War: 1950, N, Korea invades South, MacArthur
commands, drives N. Koreans north of 38th parallel, wants a naval
blockade of China and bombs north of the Yalu River, Truman says
no, criticizes the president for the war, Truman removes him 1951.
-The Hiss Case: 1948: Whittaker Chambers charged Alger Hiss as a
communist spy. Convicted of perjury.
-McCarran Internal Security Act: 1950, communist organizations
must register with attn gen and prevent members from defense work
and travel abroad. Truman vetoed, passed anyway.
-Rosenberg Case: 1950: Julius and Ethel, Harry Gold, charged with
giving atomic secrets to Russia, executed after conviction 1953.
 demand for control of Turkey’s Dardanelles by Russia. Congress,
give $400 mill to aid democracies in 1947.
-The Marshall Plan: 1947: Europe ruined by war, spread
communism. George Marshall aid Euro nations’ economy and
strengthen their democratic gov. Called “European Recovery
Program” aka Marshall Plan over 4 year period. Western Europe
grew, increased US exports, ended threat of communism.
-The Berlin Airlift: 1948: first crisis. Soviets cut off access to
Berlin, Truman sent in planes with supplies to West Berlin, send
bombers to English bases, 1949, Stalin opened up Berlin. Led to
two Germanys, one US ally (Fed Rep) and one soviet (German
DemRep..East)
-NATO: 1949: join military defense to protect Western Europe.
Military alliance, led by Eisenhower, troops went to protect Europe.
Soviets responded with Warsaw Pact 1955, defense of communist
states.
-Arms Race: Soviets tested first atomic bomb in 1949, Truman
approved development of the H-bomb (1952)
-NSC – 68: Report, said Cold War can win if defense spending goes
20% GNP, ally with non-communists, build up arms (1950).
Dwight D. Eisenhower -New Foreign Policy: Secy State John Foster Dulles: more
1953-1961 aggressive. Wanted to challenge Soviet Union and China. :
Republican “Brinkmanship”
-First H-Bomb from US exploded 1952, Russia, 1953
-Stalin dies, 1953. Nikita Khrushchev becomes leader in 1955.
-1954: -French wanted to take back Indochina (lost it to Japan).
Vietnamese resisted, increased support for Ho Chi Minh. Anti-
colonial war integrated into Cold war rivalry against communists
and anticommies. Truman gave aid to French, China and Soviets
helped Viet Minh guerrillas. French wanted US to help rescue
forces at Dien Bien Phu, Vietnam, besieged by Ho Chi Minh,
Eisenhower refused. Dien Bien Phu fell to Nationalists.
-Dulles wanted a SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) but
got only Philippines, Thailand, Pakistan in 1954.
-Quemoy and Matsu (off coast of China) occupied by Chiang Kai-
Shek but China claimed in. 1955, Eisenhower got permission to
defend Taiwan.
-The Suez Canal Crisis: US lend money to Egypt under Colonel
Gamal Abdul Nasser to build Aswan Dam, didn’t give arms. Nasser
befriended China 1956 US took back loan, Nasser nationalized the
Canal in turn. France, Great Britain, and Israel attacked Egypt but
Eisenhower told them to leave, mad they hadn’t told him of it. Last
time Britain/France act as major powers in Global History. Cease
fire.
-The Geneva Accords: France, Great Britain, Soviet Union, and
China signed them in 1954. Divided Vietnam along 17th parallel.
North by Ho Chi Minh, south by Bao Dai, Ngo Dinh Diem
overthrew Bao and prevented elections.
1953, Armistice, border the same.
-Used covert action (1953) (Undercover intervention) CIA helped
overthrow gov’t in Iran that tried to nationalize foreign oil
companies. Allowed return for Reza Pahlavi (shah or Iran). He gave
use cheap oil and bought our exports.
-1954: Guatemala, CIA overthrew liberal gov that threatened
business (Jacobo Arbenz Guzman). Supported ruthless dictator.
Anti-American feeling, Venezuelans attacked Nixon during his tour
in 1958.
-Domino Theory: If South Vietnam falls, others will fall to
Communism too.
-The Eisenhower Doctrine: 1957: economic and military aid to Mid
Eastern lands threatened by communism. Applied in 1958 in
Lebanon, sent marines to prevent civil war between Christians and
-Joseph McCarthy: 1950, from Wisconsin, list of communists
working in the State Dept, attacked diplomats, scholars, actors,
contributed to defeat of two senators in electoral votes, made
charges against Army (Army-McCarthy hearings), televised, was
censured and discredited by the Senate in 1954.
-National Security Act of 1947: centralized Dept of Defense (no
war Dept) to coordinate military, creation of National security
Council (NSC) to make foreign policy, creation of CIA for spies.
-1948: Selective Service System and draft (peacetime) made
-Walter Lippman, journalist, coined term COLD WAR and said
containment tried to do too much.
-Secy of Defense, Charles Wilson—he was pro-business
-Fiscal conservative: first priority to balance budget, accepted New
Deal programs, but was a moderate. He extended social Security to
10 million more, raised minimum wage, added public housing.
-Created Dept of Health, Education and Welfare, led by Oveta Culp
Hobby, first woman in Republican cabinet. (1953)
-Soil-bank program for farmers to reduce production and increase
income.
-Opposed fed health care insurance and federal aid to education
-1956 Highway Act: authorized lots of miles of highways linking
the major cities. Taxes on fuel, tires, and vehicles to improve
defense. Created jobs, accelerated growth of suburbs, helped
trucking industry, more homogenous national culture. Hurt
environment.
-1957 and 1960: provided for a Civil rights Commission and Justice
Dept had power to protect blacks voting rights. Southerners ignored
it.
-Opposed TVA: Instead, privately owned power plant )(Dixon
Yates) to supply electricity to TN. Corruption, turned to Idaho
Power Company , right to build three dams on Snake River.
-Atomic Energy Act of 1954: allowed construction of private
nuclear power plants under Atomic Energy Commission license and
oversight.
-Rural Electrification Administration: 97% American farms had
electricity. 1954: gov financed export of farm surpluses in exchange
for foreign currencies and provided surpluses free to needy nations,
including milk to children and the poor for governmentally issued
food stamps.
-1954: Joint Canadian US construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway.
-Appointed Earl Warren as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court in
1953 and William Brannan as associate justice.
-Sherman Adams Scandal: 1958: Chief of Staff took a bribe to help
an Industrialist in Boston deal with the bureaucracy.
-Landrum-Griffen Labor-Management Act of 1959: control unfair
union practices by establishing rules like penalties for misuse of
funds.
-Alaska (49th state) –1959 and Hawaii same year.
-Completed integration of military, desegregated public services in
DC
-Civil Rights Act of 1960: right for blacks to register at fed courts
-1959: VA laws nullified which prevented state funds from going to
integrated schools. Beginning of the end for Southern “Massive
-On ticket with Nixon, Nixon almost dropped, may have stolen
funds, stayed with Checkers speech. Versus Adlai Stevenson. Won
electoral landslide.
-Steady growth rate, inflation averabing 1.5%, small surplus
-Per capita income more than tripled from 1945-1960.
-Sputnik: 1957, Russian satellites orbited earth, US wanted to prove
they were powerful too: (1958) National Defense and Education Act
(NDEA)—authorized giving millions of money to schools for
science and foreign language education. Created NASA to explore
space. Space Race Start.
-Background to Board (Ada Lois Sipuel v. Board of Regents and
Sweatt V. Painter (1949 and 1950) said blacks can attend integrated
law schools) Civil Rights: Desegregating schools: Brown V. Board
overturned Plessy (South tried to close schools, White Citizens
Councils arose, Gov Faubus of AK sent Nat’l Guard to prevent nine
blacks from entering—Eisenhower sent in fed troops to help the
kids enter) NAACP lawyer Thurgood Marshall. 1955: Montgomery
Bus Boycott: Rosa Parks—1956: segregation laws determined
unconstitutional.
-Nonviolent protests: MLK Jr formed Southern Christian
Leadership Conference (SCLC), organized ministers and churches
in South to get behind the struggle. Student Nonviolent
Coordinating Committee (SNCC) formed later to keep it organized.
-Popular Culture in the Fifties:
Television center of life, one TV for every 3 1/3 Americans,
comedies, westerns, quiz shows, sports. FCC chairman Newton
Minnow “Vast wasteland (is what TV is). Media advertising,
McDonalds golden arches as ex. People shopped at franchises, not
“mom and pop” stores anymore. Read more than ever, new
paperback books, popular music had new mass marketing of LP
record albums and 45 rpm records.
-Corporations rose in America, “Fortune” magazine list of 500 best
companies; William Whyte documented loss of individuality in
corporate world in book The Organization Man (1956). Big unions
powerful after AFL and CIO merged in 1955, became more
conservative as workers got middle class status. Disneyland opens
(1955)
-Religion: Organized religions expanded. Will Herberg’s Protestant,
Catholic, Jew commented on religious tolerance of the times and
the lack of interest in doctrine as religion became a form of social
interaction.
 Muslims.
-OPEC and Oil: 1960: Arab nations formed OPEC.
-Spirit of Geneva: Stalin died in 1953, Ike wanted to slow arms
race. Met in Geneva (1955). Soviets refused to allow photography
of planes, but Khrushchev called for a “peaceful coexistence with
West,” step to end CWar.
-Hungarian revolt: German and Polish demanded reforms form
Communist government. US Neutral, didn’t want to go against
Moscow (backing the Communist leaders).
-Second Berlin Crisis: 1958, Khrushchev gave West six months to
pull troops out of West Berlin. US refused Eisenhower invited
Khrushchev to US in 1959, met at Camp David, put off the crisis,
agreed to a Paris summit.
-U-2 INCIDENT: May 1960, American spy plane shot down over
Soviet Union, and pilot Francis Gary Powers was captured.
Eisenhower took responsibility and Khrushchev called of the Paris
summit conference to take place in a few days.
-Cuban communism: 1959, Fidel Castro overthrew dictator
Fulgencio Batista. Castro nationalized American businesses in
Cuba, Eisenhower cut off US trade with it, Castro asked Soviets for
help, set up communist state, CIA trained anticommunist Cuban
exiles to retake island, but that left up to Kennedy.
John F. Kennedy -Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961): Kennedy let CIA train exiles to retake
1961-1963 Cuba. Cubans landed, didn’t set off the uprising, trapped on beach,
Democrat surrendered after Kennedy rejected idea of using more forces to
save them. Castro used it to get aid from Soviets.
-Berlin Wall: 1961, Kennedy and Khrushchev met, Nikita told him
in Vienna to pull Us out of Berlin, Kennedy refused and built up his
defense funds, East Germans built a wall around them, Kennedy
said he’d keep the support coming to West Berlin.
-Cuban Missile Crisis: (1962): Russians preparing sites in Cuba that
could launch weapons at US, Kennedy set up a naval blockade of
Cuba until weapons were removed, Nikita agreed to get rid of
weapons if Kennedy didn’t invade Cuba again. 1963: nations signed
the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, banning the testing of nuclear
weapons. All signed but France and China.
-Flexible-Response Policy: Kennedy and McNamara, increase
spending on conventional arms and military forces, not nuclear,
increased temptation to send troops into Vietnam, reduced risk of
nuclear war.
-1961—Alliance for Progress, US give money to Latin America.
-1963: supported successful military coup against Diem after
French defeat in 1954.
Lyndon B. Johnson -1964, Johnson pushed Gulf of Tonkin resolution through Congress,
1963-1969 allowing them to use military force in Vietnam once N. Vietnamese
Democrat gunboats fired on American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin.
-1965 attack by the Vietcong on Pleiku, Johnson ordered Operation
Tolling Thunder, first long bombing of N. Vietnam, sent troops to
South Vietnam led by Gen. William Westmoreland, search and
destroy operations, increased troops almost 4x from 1965-1968.
-“Hawks” defended policy, said we had to resist aggression, Secy
State Dean Rusk spoke on domino theory, justified their presence,
otherwise other Asian countries would fall.
-Tet Offensive: 1968, Vietcong attacked a lot of bases and Saigon,
won a victory as Americans began turning against the war.
-Free Speech movement: U.CA @ Berkeley had sit-ins in 1964 to
protest prohibition of political canvassing on campus, led by Mario
Savio, police broke it up, protests spread.
-Students protested Vietnam War in Central Park in NYC in 1967,
SDS became more militant, turned to Lenin for ideology.
-1968, over 100 campus demonstrations took place, led to
resistance.”
-1960: Woolworth lunch counter in NC: Four blacks had a sit-in,
followed by many other sit-ins as a peaceful way to protest.
-1958: first arms limitation by voluntarily suspending the above-
ground testing of nuclear weapons.
-Farewell address: warned nation to guard against influences
Role of Women:
-Baby and Child Care (1946) by Dr. Benjamin Spock—reaffirmed
traditional role of women, but well educated women began
working, but got lower wages.
-Social Critics:
“The Lonely Crowd” by David Riesman criticized replacement of
individuals with conformists. “The Affluent Society” by John
Kenneth Galbraith failure of rich Americans to address need for
social spending for the common good. “White Collar” and “The
Power Elite” by C. Wright Mills portrayed dehumanizing corporate
world and threats to freedom. “The Catcher in the Rye”-J.D.
Salinger comments on phoniness. Joseph Heller “Catch-22)—on
stupidity of the military and war.
-Jack Kerouac (“On the Road”) and Allen Ginsberg (“Howl”)
advocated spontaneity, use of drugs, and rebellion. Called
“Beatniks”. Influenced 60s
-The New Frontier: difficult , wanted to aid education, support -Election of 1960: Nixon v. Kennedy; televised debates showed
health care, create a Dept of Urban Arrairs, civil rights reforms, but positive image of Kennedy
died in Congress, some passed later under Johnson. -Kennedy attacked Nixon’s administration for recession
-Economically, faced down big steel execs over inflationary price -One of closest election in history
increase, achieved a price rollback, increased spending for defense -Youngest President
and space exploration, raise in minimum wage and extending it to -Assassinated in 1963 in Texas by Lee Harvey Oswald, determined
more people as lone assassin by the Warren Commission, headed by Earl Warren
-The Housing Act: provided almost $5 billion over four years to (Chief Justice)
preserve urban lands, develop mass transit, and construct housing. -Peace Corps established in 1961.
(1961) -MLK’s march onto Washington 963, most successful
-didn’t want to press civil rights: might alienate white voters. But demonstration in US history, blacks and whites marked in sup[port
1962, James Meredith, black air force veteran, wanted to enroll in of Kennedy’s civil rights bill, I have a dream speech.
University of Mississippi, Kennedy sent in federal marshals and -Freedom riders, 1961, sponsored by the CORE, boarded buses in
troops to control violence and protect his right to attend class. Washington and traveled to New Orleans to test racial
Happened again in Alabama in 1963. discrimination ban laws. Met some violence, but continued to their
-Justice Department began to push for civil rights, desegregation of destination.
interstate transportation in the south, integration of schools , and
supervision of elections.
-tax cut of $10 led to economic book in 1964. -1969: Man on the moon, Aldrin and Armstrong.
-Civil Rights Act of 1964: outlawed racial discrimination by -Racial Riots: 70% of blacks lived in city ghettoes, 1965, Watts in
employers and unions, created Equal Employment Opportunity LA erupted in riot, national guard brought in, casualties, many
Commission to enforce law, eliminated remaining restriction on wounded, thousands arrested, damages to property. 1966, riots in
African American voting NY, Chicago, and Newark, Detroit in 1967. Kerner Commission
-Medicare Act of 1965: hospital insurance for retirees, voluntary appointed to investigate riots said they were directed at a system
plan to cover physicians’ bills, Medicaid to grant states money to that prevented blacks from getting good jobs and put them in
help poor below retirement age. ghettoes.
-Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965): gave money to -Black Power: SNCC, Stokely Carmichael, violent, 1964, unwilling
school districts to improve lower-class education. Head State to work with whites, 1966, wanted civil rights movements only
available to educate mentally-challenged kids. done by blacks, moved to Black Panthers, urban revolutionaries in
-Immigration Act of 1965:discontinued national origin system, California (Oakland) H. Rap Brown also called for “Black Power.”
based immigration on skills and political asylum. -1968, MLK killed in Memphis by James Earl Ray, let to riots in
-Housing and Urban Development Act of 1965: provided housing over 100 cities.
units and money to renew urban communities. Established Dept of -Black officials: Associate Justice Thurgood Marshall, Secy of
Housing and urban Affairs in 1966, made rent supplements Housing and Urban Affairs Robert Weaver, Senator Edward W.
available to poor. Brooke.
-1965-Voting Rights Act: allowed attn gen to appoint officials to -United Farm Workers, under Cesar Chavez, turned a grape picker
register voters, response to MLKs voter registration drive, marching strike in Delano, CA, into a national campaign by attaching the
 occupation of Columbia University to protest its involvement in
military research and its poor relations with minority groups, police
with clubs broke it up, some gathered in Chicago to protest the war
during the DNC, police violence against them aroused anger, the
antiwar movement began to split between those favoring violence
and those opposed to it. SDS broke into rival groups, radical
factions used bombs, Tom Hayden left, in 1970 the New Left had
lost political influence b/c it abandoned its original commitment to
nonviolence and democracy.
-Election of 1964: Johnson against Barry Goldwater, won over 60%
of the vote.
-His reforms part of a system called “The Great Society”.
-Election of 1868, Johnson withdrew candidacy, Humphrey took
place, vs. Nixon, Nixon won by 1%.
Richard M. Nixon -Vietnamization: all non-South Vietnamese troops be withdrawn in
1969-1974 phases, rejected by North Vietnamese, Vietnamization, tried to build
Republican up South Vietnamese forces while withdrawing American ones.
1969, reduced troop strength considerably, but ordered bombing of
Cambodia, a neutral country to flush out Vietcong.
-Two Moratorium Days in 1969 brought about several hundred
thousand protesters, and reports of an American massacre of
Vietnamese at My Lai began controversy over the war again.
-Nixon instituted the draft with a lottery system in 1970, in 1973 he
abolished the draft and established an all-volunteer army.
-1970, Nixon sent troops into Cambodia to clear Vietcong, resumed
bombing of N. Vietnam.
-1970: Kent State University, National Guardsmen fired on
protestors against the war, murder at Jackson state University,
colleges closed down by strikes, Congress repeals the Gulf of
Tonkin resolution.
-Pentagon Papers: Def. Department documents leaked to press,
revealed gov had misled Congress about its intentions in Vietnam
(1971).
-1972, US and N. Vietnam negotiated in Paris, cease-fire, return of
American POW, withdrawal of US forces from Vietnam, Henry
Kissinger, National Security Advisor, “Peace is at hand.”
-1972, Nixon resumed bombing, said North Vietnam was not nice,
1973, settlement, N. Vietnam has control over the South and will
release American POWs, when the US would withdraw its
remaining troops. Huge amount of American casualties, cost a lot of
money.
-War Powers Act of 1973L need congressional approval to commit
combat troops over 90 days.
-China: Henry Kissinger traveled to China and Soviet Union. Nixon
went to meet Mao in 1972, US agreed to support China’s admission
to the UN.
-1972, the SALT was signed, US and USSR agreed to stop making
nuclear ballistic missiles and to reduce the number of antiballistic
missiles to 200 each.
-Arab-Israeli War of 1973, Arabian staged an oil boycott to push
western nations into forcing Israel to withdraw. Kissinger
negotiated withdrawal of Israel from some land and the Arabs lifted
boycott. OPEC raised oil from $3 to $11.65 a barrel. US gas prices
doubled and inflation shot above 10 percent.
Gerald Ford -North Vietnamese pushed into South Vietnam, wanted more arms
1974-1977 to South, Congress rejected, Saigon fell to North Vietnamese 1975.
Republican -Democrats ran James Carter, Gov. of Georgia. Carter wins.
-1975-U.S. friendly gov’t in Cambodia fell to Khmer Rouge-Ford
ordered attack on base that captured the Mayguez
from Selma to Montgomery AL.
-The Counterculture: Founders alienated by bureaucracy,
materialism, and Vietnam War, turned from politics in favor of
alternative society, heirs of the Beatniks. Formed communes in San
Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district or in rural areas, called
Hippies, experimented with eastern religions, drugs, sex, etc, Tim
Leary, Theodore Roszak, and Charles Reich.
-Women’s Lib: Betty Friedan wrote “The Feminine Mystique” in
1963, argued middle class society stifled women, attacked cult of
domesticity.
-NOW: National Organization for Women, Friedan and others
founded it in 1966, wanted equal employment and pay. Limited to
middle class, Equal rights amendment failed to pass. Abortion
rights stirred up a counter “right to life” movement during the
women’s liberation movement in 1966.
-Tried to block renewal of Voting Rights Act and delay
implementation of school desegregation in Mississippi
-Proposed anti-busing bill after Supreme Court ordered busing of
students in 1971 to achieve desegregation, failed in Congress.
-1969—Appointed Warren Burger as Chief Justice, but railed with
Clement Haynesworth and Harrold Carswell, then chose Harry
Blackmun, Lewis Powell Jr, and William Rehnquist as associate
justices: Burger court more conservative than Warren court, but still
struck down death penalty in 1972 and abortion.
-“New Federalism”: Passed in 1972, 5 year plan to give federal
revenues to the states.
-Congressional Bills: 18 year olds right to vote (1970), increased
social security benefits and funding for food stamps (1970),
established occupational safety and Health Act (1970), Clean Air
Act (1970) laws to control water pollution (1970, 1972) and Federal
Election Campaign Act (1972)…none supported by Nixon.
-Unemployment increasing , inflation increasing, GNP decreasing,
because of federal deficits in the 1960s, international competition,
and rising energy costs. Nixon cut spending, raised taxes,
encouraged Fed Reserve to raise interest rates, economy got worse,
1970, Congress gave him the power to regulate prices and wages,
declared a 90-day price and wage freeze, took US off the gold
standard, then established mandatory guidelines for wage and price
increases, 1973 returned to voluntary wage and price controls,
except on health care, food, and construction, inflation increased,
cut back on gov expenditures, impounding funds already
appropriated by congress.
-Congressional Laws after Watergate: (1974) limited amounts of
contributions and expenditures in presidential campaign,
strengthened the 1966 Freedom of Information Act by requiring gov
to act when asked for information and to prove its case for
classification when attempting to withhold information on grounds
of national security.
ELECTION OF 1972:
George McGovern V. Nixon and Spiro T. Agnew. Nixon won
landslide.
George Wallace ran again as Independent Party candidate,
paralyzed in 1972 from Arthur Bremer.
-Pardoned Nixon in 1974
-Faced economic problems: said it was because of inflation, “Whip
Inflation Now” (WIN) buttons given to public, ,economy declined,
Ford asked for tax cuts for business and argued against social
program spending.
-search for abuses in CIA-found engineered assassinations of
migrant labor system through a grape boycott.
-American Indian Movement (AIM) founded 1968, had sit-ins, then
turned to courts.
-The New Left: most Americans under 30 by 1965, college
enrollments increased, SDS organized by Tom Hayden and AL
Haber of the U. of Michigan in 1960, Hayden’s Port Huron
Statement in 1962 called for democracy, SDS got most ideology
from C. Wright Mills, Paul Goodman, and Herbert Marcuse.
-The Watergate Scandal:
1972: James McCord, security officer for the Committee for the Re-
election of the President, and four others broke into Democratic
headquarters at the Watergate apartment complex in DC, caught
going through files and installing electronic devices. Nixon said he
didn’t’ know about it. 1973, trial began, McCord wrote a letter to
US District Judge John J. Sirica saying Republican officials had
known in advance about the burglary. Jeb Stuart Magruder and John
W. Dean said they were involved. Dean said that Nixon had been
involved in covering it up. H.R Haldeman, John Ehrlichman,
Richard Kleindienst resigned, Nixon said he wasn’t involved,
refused to allow investigation into White House documents. Nixon
agreed to let Archibald Cox to be appointed, Cox got warrant for
tape recordings of White House conversations, Nixon ordered Elliot
Richardson to fire Cox, Richardson and William Ruckelshaus
resigned. Called the “Saturday Night Massacre” in 1973. Peter
Rodino of NJ looked into impeachment. Nixon accused of not
paying income taxes from 1969-1972 and of using public funds for
improvements to his house in CA and FL, IRS assessed him ½
million in back taxes and interest. 1974, aides named Nixon as a
conspirator, Nixon refused to give in 64 tapes, went to Supreme
Court, Nixon finally released tape of June 1972, revealed he had
used the CIA to keep the FBI from investigating it. Nixon resigned
in 1974.
-THE VICE PRESIDENTIAL SCANDAL: Spiro accused on
income tax fraud and bribe acceptance in MD, reigned in 1973,
replaced by Gerald Ford under new 25th amendment.
-Opposite of Nixon
-NYC almost bankrupt in 1975, Ford opposed federal aid but Senate
and House Banking Committees guaranteed the loan.

Jimmy Carter -Wanted to base it on human rights
1977-1981 -Panama Canal: Negotiated treaty with Panama, passed 1978,
Democrat transferred canal to Panama in 1999.
-Ended recognition of Taiwan in 1979 and recognized the People’s
Republic of China.
-1979, proposed SALT II, limited strategic arms with the Soviet
Union, cap of amount of bombers and missiles for each side, limited
warheards and new weapons systems, didn’t reach Senate.
-1978: Camp David Accords: Israel and Egypt, Anwar Sadat and
Menachem Begin to MD to end war, Israel said to return occupied
land in the Sinai in exchange for Egyptian recognition, completed in
1982, could not negotiate Palestinian refugee problem.
-1979, Soviets invaded Afghanistan, Carter stopped shipments of
grain and tech to them, withdrew support for SALT II, and barred
Americans form the Moscow Summer Olympics (1980).
Ronald Reagan -Challenged Muammar al-Qadhafi, leady of Libya, sent sixth fleet
1981-1989 ships within the Gulf of Sidra, gunboats challenged American ships,
Republican planes destroyed the gunboats and bombed Libyan shoreline,
Reagan launched air strike against Libyan bases from Great Britain
in 1986 thinking the pub popular with his soldiers was ordered to be
bombed by Qadhafi.
-Mikhail Gorbachev ruled Russia in 1985, Reagan softened stance,
Reagan thought they hadn’t adhered to the SALT II (even though it
didn’t get passed), and he would expand his American defense
system.
-Arms Control: 1987, Reagan and Gorbachev signed an agreement
eliminating medium-range missiles from Europe.
-Iran-Contra: 1986, William Casey, head of CIA, Colonel Oliver
North of the NSC, Admiral John Poindexter, NSA, and Robert
McFarlane sold arms to Iranians to encourage them to use influence
to get American hostages in Lebanon released, profits then given to
the Nicaraguan Contras to get around congressional restriction on
funding them. President forced to appoint a special prosecutor, and
Congress held hearing on it in 1987.
-Nicaragua: US didn’t support peace plan signed by five Central
American nations in 1987, but the Sandinistas and the Contras
agreed on a cease-fire.
Salvador Allende
-1978: voluntary wage and price guidelines, successful, but did not
apply to oil/housing/food.
-Named Paul A Volcker as Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board,
Paul tightened money supply to reduce inflation, but it increased
interest rates, which depressed sales of cats/houses, and increased
unemployment.
-Offered amnesty to Americans who fled draft during Vietnam War
-Established departments of Energy and Education, placed civil
service on Merit basis, created a “superfund” to cleanup chemical
waste dumps, established controls over strip mining, protected
Alaska from development.
RELEASED HOSTAGES BY UNFREEZING IRANIAN ASSETS
AFTER A NEGOTIATION WITH ALGERIA AND IRAN (1981)
- Tax Policy: “Supply-side” economics, if gov left more money in
the hands of the people, they would invest not spend the excess on
consumer goods, would mean greater production, more jobs, more
prosperity, and more income for the govt despite lower tax rates.
-Economic Recovery Tax Act: 1983, wanted 30% tax cut, got 25%
over 3 years, percentage the same for everyone, to encourage
investment, capital gains, gift, and inheritance taxes reduced and
business taxes liberalized, anyone with income could invest up to
$2000 a year in an Individual Retirement Account (IRA), deferring
all taxes on both the principal and its earning until retirement.
-wanted funding for Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)SDI would
destroy incoming enemy missiles from outer space, Congress didn’t
give it to him because they feared it was impossible.
-1982 Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act revered some
concessions made to business in 1981, Social Security benefits
became taxable income in 1983, 1984 Deficit Reduction Act
increased taxes by another $50 billion. Deficit increased.
-Opposed “equal pay for equal work” and the renewal of the Voting
Rights Act of 1965.
-Ended antitrust suits against IBM and ATT, fulfilling promise to
reduce govt involvement in business.
- Tax Reform Act of 1986 lowered tax rates, got rid of progressive
taxation
-Opposed debt relief for bankrupt farmers that Congress wanted to
pass
-1987: “Black Monday” Dow Jones dropped over 500 points,
market losing money fast, in 1988 Congress reduced taxes b/c
feared a recession.
IRANIAN CRISIS! HOSTAGES GALORE!
- 1978, shah of Iran fled country, replaced with Ayatollah Ruhollah
Khomeini, US supported shah with arms and money, revolutionaries
hated America, exiled Shah came to US for cancer treatment,
Iranians attacked US embassy in Teheran, took occupants hostage,
demanded shah be returned to Iran for trial and wealth be given to
Iran, carter said no, froze Iranian assets in US, put trade embargo
against them, appealed to UN and world court, Iranians freed the
black and women hostages, but kept the 52 others, 1980, Carter
tried to rescue them, didn’t work, Secy of State Cyrus Vance
reigned before the raid, Carter criticized.
-Ran against Carter, won with a large victory.
-Assassination attempt by John W. Hinckley in 1981.
-Appointed Sandra Day O’Connor to Supreme Court, but didn’t
give lots of positions to minorities or women.
-In first term, appointees accused of conflict of interest (Anne
Gorsuch Burford and Rita Lavelle of the EPA, Edwin Meese
advisor and later attn gen and Michael Deaver, deputy chief of
staff). Ray Donovan, Secy of Labor was indicted but acquitted of
charges that he made payoffs to government officials while he was
in private business.
-1984: Election: Reagan v. Walter Mondale. Reagan supported by
Moral Majority, founded by Jerry Falwell. Reagan got 60% of the
vote.
-Unemployment declined.
-US became debtor nation for first time
-Challenger space shuttle exploded in 1986, reinforced doubts about
the SDI. First private citizen to go to space died.
-Supreme Court: Replaced Burger with Rehnquist, appointed
O’Connor, Scalia, and Kennedy (all conservatives)