Cynodact

USGS Weeds in the West project:
Status of Introduced Plants in Southern Arizona Parks
Factsheet for:
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.
William L. Halvorson, Principal Investigator

Patricia Guertin, Research Specialist
U.S. Geological Survey / Southwest Biological Science Center

Sonoran Desert Field Station
University of Arizona
125 Biological Sciences East
Tucson, Arizona 85721
Prepared by Patty Guertin

December 31, 2003
Funded by: U.S. Geological Survey

National Park Service
Table of Contents:
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. ................................................................................................................... 4
bermudagrass, devilgrass, Bahama grass, dogtoothgrass, couch grass, vinegrass, wiregrass,
scutchgrass ...........................................................................................................................................4
Included taxa and synonymous names: .......................................................................................... 4
species taxonomy ................................................................................................................................. 4
images of plant..................................................................................................................................6
similar native or non-native species that could confuse identification.................................. 6
biology .................................................................................................................................................... 7
growth and reproductive strategy:...................................................................................................7
seed production: ................................................................................................................................8
vegetative reproduction:...................................................................................................................8
seed dispersal:...................................................................................................................................9
seed longevity: ..................................................................................................................................9
ecology.................................................................................................................................................... 9
origin and history of introduction: ...................................................................................................9
ecological distribution / habitat:.......................................................................................................9
climatic and site requirements, and limitations: ..........................................................................10
germination:....................................................................................................................................11
soil preferences: ..............................................................................................................................12
competitive abilities:.......................................................................................................................12
why it does well as an exotic: .........................................................................................................13
effect on natural processes/description of the threat ............................................................... 13
known general distribution............................................................................................................. 14
United States: .....................................................................................................................................14
Arizona, by county: .............................................................................................................................14
National Park Service, southern Arizona group: ..............................................................................15
Casa Grande Ruins National Monument ......................................................................................15
Chiricahua National Monument....................................................................................................15
Coronado National Memorial.........................................................................................................15
Fort Bowie National Historic Site..................................................................................................15
Montezuma Castle National Monument and Montezuma Well unit ...........................................16
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument .......................................................................................16
Saguaro National Park...................................................................................................................16
Tonto National Monument.............................................................................................................17
Tumacacori National Historical Park............................................................................................17
Tuzigoot National Monument ........................................................................................................18
Weeds in the West Project..................................................................................................................18
control methods and management strategies ............................................................................. 18
Competition:........................................................................................................................................18
Hand labor: .........................................................................................................................................18
Mechanical: .........................................................................................................................................18
Mowing/Clipping:................................................................................................................................19
Grazing:...............................................................................................................................................19
Fire: .....................................................................................................................................................20
Herbicides: ..........................................................................................................................................20
Biological controls:..............................................................................................................................22
Control strategies: ..............................................................................................................................22
contacts or technical specialists .................................................................................................... 22
bibliography........................................................................................................................................ 24
additional sources and websites .................................................................................................... 34
websites with great plant photos: ......................................................................................................35
2
websites with simple plant descriptions:...........................................................................................35
3
bermudagrass, devilgrass, Bahama grass, dogtoothgrass, couch

grass, vinegrass, wiregrass, scutchgrass
family: Poaceae
Included taxa and synonymous names:

the first name in each species list is the current and synonymous name used by
Kartesz (1994).
the name in bold type occurring within each species list indicates the plant name
used within these documents, which is also the name provided in the southern
Arizona NPS exotics database ‘soaraz~1.xls’ (Holden 1996).
two varieties occur in Arizona:

var. aridus Harlan & de Wet
no synonymous names
var. dactylon (L.) Pers.

Capriola dactylon (L.) Kuntze
Panicum dactylon L.
- in this paper, variety not named
species taxonomy
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., bermudagrass: From Anderson (1999), ARS, USDA (1970),
California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia (2002), Copple and Pase
(1978), Downton (1975), Felger (1990, 2000), Gleason (1963), Gould (1951), Hamilton et al.
(1960), Hickman (1993), Hitchcock (1951), Kearney and Peebles (1960), McDougall (1973),
Munz (1974), USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program (1997), Ruyle and Young (1997), Shreve
and Wiggins (1964), USDA, Forest Service, Iverson (2002), USDA,NRCS, The PLANTS
database (2001):
(A glossary is provided at the end of this section for the plant terminology used in this section.)
life strategy: a warm-season, C4, long-lived perennial, herbaceous graminoid; 4-18 in.
(10-46 cm) tall; mat-forming by means of stolons and rhizomes. Using Raunkiaer life
form descriptors, it can be characterized in two ways: as a geophyte (a plant which
perennates by subterranean buds) and a hemicrytophyte (a plant which develops its
buds just above, or below the soil-surface, where they are protected). Reproduces by
rhizomes, stolons, and seeds. 2n=36.
structure: a wiry, spreading, prostrate, long-lived perennial, herbaceous graminoid;
mat-forming by means of stolons and scaly rhizomes, and can develop into a dense turf.
roots: fibrous roots arise from nodes on the extensive stout rhizomes, both shallow and
deep; rhizomes hard, scaly. Fibrous roots also initiate where nodes of stolons touch the
ground.
4
stems: culms mostly creeping and stoloniferous, upright when young; flowering culms
erect; stolons (above-ground stems) can root at the nodes. The stolons have short
internodes, producing erect, wiry inflorescences at the nodes. Rhizomes (underground
stems) are hard and scaly.
branching: branching occurs at culm nodes; plant highly branched.
leaves: leaves on stolons and rhizomes short, scaly; not as stem leaves. Stem leaves
mostly 2-ranked (distichous).
culms/blades/sheath: culms mostly creeping and stoloniferous; branched; flowering
culms erect. Culms flattened, usually erect or ascending, 4-16 in. (10-40 cm) tall, short
internodes; glabrous. The old bladeless sheaths of the stolon and the lowest one of the
branches often form pairs of sharp, hard scales. Stem leaf blade flat, spreading, 1-4 in.
(2.5-10 cm) long, 0.04-0.1 in. (1-4 mm) wide; scabrous especially on margins, usually
glabrous, to pilose on upper surface; midrib prominent dorsally, with 2 veins on each side
of midrib. Sheaths usually overlapping, 2-ranked; keeled, hyaline margins, usually
glabrous to sparsely pilose at throat.
collar/ligule/auricle: collar usually glabrous, occasionally with long hairs. Ligule
ciliate, 1mm long, having scattered long hairs; with lateral tufts of long, stiff hairs.
Auricles none.
inflorescence: inflorescence of several slender spicate branches digitate at culm apex;
3-7 spikes, 0.8-2.8 in. (2-7 cm) long, 0.04-0.08 in. (1-2 mm) wide, divergent. Spikelets
sessile, appressed, numerous, in two rows along one side of slender, continuous,
somewhat triangular rachis; spikelets imbricate.
spikelets/glumes/lemma/palea: spikelets 1-flowered, perfect; laterally compressed, 0.1
in. (1.7-2.5 mm) long. Glumes narrow, lanceolate, acuminate, 1-veined with midvein
scabrous; subequal, shorter than the floret, about two-thirds the length of lemma; first
glume lunate; second glume lanceolate. Rachilla strongly compressed, disarticulates
above glumes, prolonged behind palea as a naked stipe, sometimes bearing a
rudimentary lemma. Lemma 0.1 in. (2-2.5 mm) long, firm, strongly laterally compressed,
strongly keeled, acute; 3-veined, the lateral veins positioned close to margins,
pubescent/ciliate on keel. Palea narrow, acute, as long as lemma, 2-veined, glabrous.
seeds: caryopsis oval; straw colored, orange red, or reddish brown; free within lemma
and palea.
taxonomic glossary (Harris and Harris 1997):
acuminate: tapering to a sharp point

acute: tapering to a pointed apex, having more or less straight sides
appressed: pressed close or flat
ciliate: having a marginal fringe of hairs
digitate: lobed, veined, or divided from a common point, like the fingers of a hand
disarticulating: separating at maturity at a joint
distichous: two-ranked, in two vertical ranks or rows on opposite sides of an axis
dorsal: the back or outward surface or an organ in relation to the axis; abaxial
geophyte: having perennating buds located below ground on a rhizome, tuber, bulb, or corm
glabrous: smooth, hairless
hemicryptophyte: plant with perennating buds located at or just below soil surface
hyaline: being thin, transparent to translucent, and membranous
imbricate: overlapping like shingles on a roof
lanceolate: much longer than wide; with the widest point below the middle
5
lateral: at or on the side
lunate: crescent-shaped
perfect: having both male and female reproductive organs
pilose: having long, soft, straight hairs
pubescent: covered with short, soft hairs
scabrous: rough to the touch (due to epidermal cell structure, or short stiff hairs)
sessile: attached directly, without a stalk
images of plant
photo by Patty Guertin
illustration from Hitchcock (1951)
photo by Patty Guertin
similar native or non-native species that could confuse identification
Cynodon dactylon (bermuda grass) is sometimes confused with Digitaria sanguinalis (large
crabgrass) due to similarities in their inflorescences and habit. Their inflorescences generally
look similar, yet the arrangement of spikelets along the rachis (inflorescence stalk) differ.
Digitaria sanguinalis spikelets are not sessile on the rachis as bermuda grass; large
crabgrass spikelets have a short pedicel (stalk), and are arranged in two rows along opposite
sides of the rachis. Cynodon dactylon spikelets have no stalks, and are arranged in two rows
along one side of a more or less flattened triangular rachis. Both plants have prostrate
6
spreading culms/stems that can root at the culm nodes, although crab grass does not have
rhizomes (underground stems) nor stolons (aboveground prostrate, branching stems), as
bermuda grass does (Anderson 1999, Spencer 1940, Whitson et al., 1992).
Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve (2000) reports that Cynodon dactylon
and Distichlis spicata (native salt grass) are sometimes confused, the vegetative forms being
similar. Cynodon dactylon has a ligule of short, white hairs; also, there is a fringe of hairs
along the keel of the lemma, although the inflorescences differ greatly between plants. Its
inflorescence is an umbel-like panicle consisting of 3-7 digitate spicate branches. Distichlis
spicata's ligule is a very short, fringed membrane. The plant is dioecious; both the male and
female inflorescences are a contracted panicle.
biology
Much information for this section was taken from two excellent sources: Carey (1995;
Website: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/cyndac/index.html), and
Newman (1992; Website: http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/esadocs/documnts/cynodac.html). For a
more in-depth discussion of this plant, refer to these publications.
growth and reproductive strategy:

Cynodon dactylon is a warm-season, prostrate, perennial herbaceous graminoid,
having a C4 photosynthetic pathway (Downton 1975, Horowitz 1996, Keeley and
Thullen 1989, USDA, Forest Service, Iverson 2002). There have been numerous
biotypes found in various parts of the world (Holm et al. 1991). Cynodon dactylon
plant material from California was found to be polyploid; 2n=36 (Heiser and
Whitaker 1948). It can reproduce by seeds, but primarily regenerates asexually /
vegetatively. The seeds germinate from spring through fall when favorable moisture
and temperatures occur (California Department of Food and Agriculture,
EncycloWeedia 2002). University of California (1998) notes that Cynodon dactylon
seed can germinate and regrowth can occur when the soil temperatures are above 55-
60ºF (13-16ºC). In trials in Botswana, Cynodon dactylon seed did not display any
dormancies, although they remain attached to the inflorescence into the dry season,
which "may be enough to avoid untimely germination" (Veenendaal and Ernst 1991).
Cynodon dactylon begins growth late in the spring and continues during the hot
summer months (U.S. Department of Agriculture 1957); initial spring growth uses its
stored carbohydrate reserves of the rhizomes, mainly a starch (Horowitz 1972f in Ott
1983). The rhizomes comprise 90% of the plant's underground tissue, and with the
roots, accumulate 70% of plant reserves (Horowitz 1972f in Ott 1983). Rhizome
growth begins earlier in the spring than plant aerial growth (Horowitz 1972c in
Newman 1992). A dense turf is formed by stolons along the soil surface and by the
scaly, branched rhizomes occurring underground (both are stem tissue; rhizome is
also storage tissue). At each of the stolon and rhizome nodes, roots, branches, and
new plants can initiate which subsequently develop inflorescences of finger-like
(digitate) spikes (California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia
2002, Horowitz 1996). Rhizomes generally occur in the upper 2 in. (5 cm) of soil, but
may reach depths of 14 in. (35 cm) (California Department of Food and Agriculture,
EncycloWeedia 2002) or more.
Cynodon dactylon flowers from May until November in Arizona (Parker 1972). Day
length doesn't influence timing of the plant's flowering (Evans et al. 1964 in FAO
2002). The flowers are perfect (having both female and male reproductive parts), and
are cross pollinated via wind (Plants for a Future 2002). Cynodon dactylon plants
7
continue to produce seed throughout the hot summer months (University of
California 1998). Starch reserves of the plant are lowered during the active growing
phase, but begin to accumulate again during the reproductive phase and after seed
production, when plant development slows (due to shorter days and lower
temperatures) (Ott 1983). Reserve carbohydrates will build up through autumn into
midwinter (Holm et al. 1991).
When the temperatures cool in the fall the plants become dormant; generally soil
temperatures are approximately 50ºF (10ºC) (California Department of Food and
Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002, U.S. Department of Agriculture 1957). The growth
of established Cynodon dactylon shows a low rate of growth during winter, when the
foliage partially wilts but the subterranean parts survive (Horowitz 1972c). Cynodon
dactylon can be quickly damaged by frost (Holm et al. 1991). When soil temperatures
rise in the spring, the plant becomes active again (Duke 1983) using stored
carbohydrates to support new shoot growth (Holm et al. 1991).
seed production:
Cynodon dactylon var. dactylon (2n=36) does not produce mature seeds and
reproduces only vegetatively. Cynodon dactylon var. aridus (2n=18) is more resistant
to hot and dry conditions and reproduces by seeds and vegetatively (Nir 1978 in
Horowitz 1996). Cynodon dactylon also has biotypes and improved hybrids, some of
the hybrids being sterile and not producing seeds but only reproducing vegetatively
(Anderson 1999). Seed production and viability vary with biotype and climatic
conditions (Ott 1983).
Generally, seed production is sparse and seeds are sometimes sterile (Fernald 1950
in Carey 1995, Horowitz 1996), except in the southwest U.S. where (in Arizona and
southern California) it is grown as a seed crop. Seedset in the southeastern U.S. is
less than 1%, and as much as 95% in Arizona and southern California (Anderson
1999). Cynodon dactylon can produce up to 230 seeds/inflorescence; this, in the
following 3 months after initiation of seed set (Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry
2001)
vegetative reproduction:
Cynodon dactylon generally reproduces vegetatively from extensively creeping
stolons (above ground) and rhizomes (below soil surface) (both stem tissue); roots,
branches, and new plants initiate from their nodes. Fragments of both the stolons
and rhizomes can generate new plants from their nodes (Anderson 1999, California
Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002, Fuls and Bosch 1990 in
Carey 1995, Horowitz 1996). Carey (1995) notes a study of six Cynodon dactylon
variants from southern Africa, in which vegetative reproduction was greater by
rhizomes than by stolons (Fuls and Bosch 1990).
Bud activity on nodes of stolons and rhizomes is regulated by apical dominance,
which can be altered by sectioning the plant’s stolons or rhizomes. Dormant buds
become activated when they are segmented, such as when mechanical cultivation
would section the plants. Horowitz (1996) reports that plantlets with new rhizomes
became established in summer after 1-2 months (Horowitz 1972c, Koller 1975).
Cynodon dactylon has the potential to spread and expand quickly. Horowitz (1972f in
Horowitz 1996) reports from an experimental plot that a sprig of Cynodon dactylon
planted in soil formed a dense sod after 1.5 and 2.5 years measuring 13 and 25 m2,
respectively. The average expansion rate of the mat was approximately 1 m2 per
month, and in the summer the maximum exceeded 2 m2. In another study after the
summer growth of a plant, half of the total dry mass of the plant consisted of its
rhizomes (Horowitz 1972c in Horowitz 1996).
8
Spread of this plant can occur by rhizome and stolon fragments being transported by
vehicles, machinery, hay and other crops, animals (in their hooves, etc.), running
water, ship ballast, and packing materials (Anderson 1999, Chambers and Hawkins
2002, Holm et al. 1991).
seed dispersal:
Cynodon dactylon seeds are dispersed by water (including irrigation), soil movement,
agricultural and landscape machinery, as a commercial seed contaminant, in
livestock feed and bedding, human activities (Anderson 1999, California
Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002, Newman 1992) and in
ship ballast and packing materials (Holm et al. 1991). Seeds eaten by animals
remain viable after passing through and animal (Holm et al. 1977 in Newman 1992),
and can be widely dispersed (Carey 1995, Drezner et al. 2001).
Cynodon dactylon is further spread through its commercial use as forage and turf,
being widely used in the Sonoran Desert region as a lawn grass (Chambers and
Hawkins 2002).
seed longevity:
Cynodon dactylon seeds can survive and remain viable 3-4 years under field
conditions, although hybrids and some Cynodon rarely produce viable seeds
(California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002).
ecology
Much information for this section was taken from two excellent sources: Carey (1995;
Website: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/graminoid/cyndac/index.html), and
Newman (1992; Website: http://tncweeds.ucdavis.edu/esadocs/documnts/cynodac.html). For a
more in-depth discussion of this plant, refer to these publications.
origin and history of introduction:

Cynodon dactylon is native to Africa, although some questions are raised about it
also being native to India and other locations (Eurasia, Indo-Malaysian area)
(Hansen 1924, Holm et al. 1991, Mitich, year unknown, Usher 1974). It was
introduced onto this continent in Georgia by 1751 (Elmore and Cudney 1998, Usher
1974); Gov. Henry Ellis brought it into Savannah, Georgia (Mitich, year unknown).
Cynodon dactylon was established in California by 1860 (Frenkel 1977 in Burgess et
al. 1991). It was reported to be growing in Arizona outside of cultivation by 1891
(Toumey, unnumbered specimen, in Burgess et al. 1991). Spaulding (1909 in Burgess
et al. 1991) reports its presence at the Desert Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona in 1909,
and was one of three exotic species recorded there at that time.
To date, Cynodon dactylon is a desired hay, pasture, and lawn grass, and is used as a
principal pasture grass in southeastern United States. Presently, its hybrids are
used extensively as lawn grasses (Usher 1974). And is cultivated throughout the
world in the tropics and subtropics as feed for livestock. It also has been used in soil
stabilization projects for preventing soil erosion (Anderson 1999). Around Yuma,
Arizona, it is grown as a seed crop.
ecological distribution / habitat:
In its native area: Cynodon dactylon inhabits grassland communities in which fire is
a regular occurrence (Belesky et al. 1991 in Carey 1995).
9
On the North American continent: In the United States, Cynodon dactylon is most
common in the subtropical regions (Fernald 1950 in Carey 1995, Gleason and
Cronquist 1991, Great Plains Flora Association 1986, Hitchcock 1951). In the
southwestern United States, Cynodon dactylon occurs in irrigated areas, along
streambanks, in moist soil types, or in areas receiving warm season moisture
(California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002, Hickman
1993, Welsh et al. 1987). It is commonly found in landscapes, orchards and
vineyards, gardens, turf, industrial areas, waste places, roadsides, riparian areas,
and grasslands near streams and marshes (Elmore and Cudney 1998, Parker 1972).
In Arizona in natural areas, it can be found in mats along sandy washes of remote
canyons, usually below 6000 ft. elevation (Gould 1951), and frequently encountered
as an understory grass in velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina) bosques (Brown et al.
1977 in Carey 1995). Cynodon dactylon can be found in disturbed areas where
moisture collects (tanks, springs, seeps, irrigation canals ditches, roadsides)
(Chambers and Hawkins 2002). At the Desert Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona,
Cynodon dactylon is scattered and locally abundant in disturbed, low-lying areas
(Burgess et al. 1991).
It is beginning to occur as vegetation-type associations in some environments;
examples being a Mixed honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa var. glandulosa)-
saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima)- Cynodon dactylon association replacing some
native associations in the Rio Grande floodplain in Big Bend National Park, Texas
(Boeer and Schmidly 1977 in Carey 1995), and the Cynodon dactylon Herbaceous
Alliance in Tuzigoot National Monument in Arizona, an association occupying
abandoned agricultural areas (USGS - NPS Vegetation Mapping Program 2001).
In other areas of the world: Cynodon dactylon presently grows throughout tropical
and subtropical areas of the world extending into temperate zones along coastal
areas, between latitudes 45ºN and 45ºS (Holm et al. 1991).
climatic and site requirements, and limitations:
With differing soils and climates plants vary in appearance; these differences occur
in size, color, texture of inflorescences and leaves, size of spikes, and grazing value
(Duke 1983).
Cynodon dactylon is adapted to a wide range of climates, from rainy tropics to arid
land in irrigated areas (Holm et al. 1977 in Horowitz 1996). Cynodon dactylon
commonly occurs in regions receiving more than 16 in. (41 cm) of rainfall a year
(Carey 1995); it requires a surface source of water or irrigation in areas with less
rainfall (Thornburg 1982 in Carey 1995). Holm et al. (1991) notes that in the tropics,
Cynodon dactylon occurs in areas having 24-32 in. (60-80 cm) of annual rainfall,
although is it also a weedy plant of arid lands thriving along rivers and in irrigated
areas. The USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program (2000) notes that once established
on moderately deep to deep soils, Cynodon dactylon maintains a dense sod/mat, non-
irrigated, with 16 inches of rainfall. In Organ Pipe National Monument, Arizona,
Bennett and Kunzmann (1989) note that Cynodon dactylon occurs in damp areas but
has shown no tendency to spread into the drier areas. Cynodon dactylon can
withstand long, dry periods, yet does not produce well on dry soils (Holm et al. 1991).
Cynodon dactylon is able to withstand floods (Burton and Hanna 1985 in Newman
1992, Holm et al. 1991), sedimentation, and long periods of inundation (USDA NRCS
Plant Materials Program 2000), although growth is minimal without adequate soil
aeration (Burton and Hanna 1985 in Newman 1992). Cynodon dactylon cannot
withstand conditions of waterlogging, with its yield declining as the period of
submergence increases (Kumar and Abrol 1982).
10
Cynodon dactylon responds to high light intensities, requiring sunny locations (Holm
et al. 1991, Newman 1992, USDA, Forest Service, Iverson 2002); its growth is poor in
shaded areas (California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002,
Holm et al. 1991, Newman 1992, Parker 1972, Plants for a Future 2002).
Cynodon dactylon's growth is greatly influenced by temperature (Nir 1978 in
Horowitz 1996); optimal temperatures in Israel range between 95-104°F (35-40°C),
with minimum occurring about 59°F (15°C) (Keeley and Thullen 1989 in Carey
1995). California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia (2002) report
similar temperatures: optimal growth at daytime temperatures between 95-100ºF
(35-38ºC). Daytime minimum temperatures for Cynodon dactylon must exceed 50°F
(10°C); minimum temperature regime is an eight hour day of 59°F (15°C) with a
sixteen hour night at 41°F (5°C) (Youngner 1959 in FAO 2002).
Rhizomes form at temperatures above 59-68°F (15-20°C), with the optimum
sprouting of rhizomes between 73-95°F (23-35°C) in Israel (Horowitz 1972c in Ott
1983). In California, optimal rhizome growth occurs between 68-86ºF (20-30ºC)
(California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002). Both stolon
and rhizome branching intensities were reduced in response to lower light and lower
nutrient levels (Dong and de Kroon 1994 in Carey 1995). Half the biomass of
rhizomes and roots was produced compared to the control in trials in which plants
were shaded by 64% (Burton et al. 1959 in Newman 1992). Carbohydrate reserves of
the plant (in rhizomes) are affected by temperature; the levels are altered by the
ratio between respiration and photosynthetic rate (McKell et al. 1969 in Newman
1992). Also, when nitrogen is limiting and growth unfavorable, the rhizomes
accumulate carbohydrates (Adegbola and McKell 1966 in Newman 1992). Regrowth
by stolon and rhizome fragments is greatest from soil depths up to 2 in. (5 cm)
(California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002).
Rhizomes can survive considerable dehydration and extended periods of drought, but
can't survive extended periods of temperatures below freezing, or exposure to the sun
where they risk desiccation. Rhizomes and roots become dormant at soil
temperatures below 65ºF (18ºC) (California Department of Food and Agriculture,
EncycloWeedia 2002).
Plants go dormant and foliage turns brown when average daytime temperatures are
below 50ºF (10ºC) (California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia
2002).
Above ground plant tissues are killed at temperatures below 30ºF (1ºC) (California
Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002, Parker 1972). It is
especially susceptible to cold temperatures occurring in the early winter (Carey
1995). Cultivars can seemingly have additional cold tolerance. Anderson et al (1993
in Carey 1995) studied the freeze tolerance of six cultivars held overnight at freezing
temperatures. 50% mortality occurred at temperatures ranging from 15-18ºF (6.9-
7.7ºC) for all six cultivars. Carey (1995) also mentions a winter hardy cultivar which
survived three winters in Morgantown, West Virginia at temperatures as low as -8ºF
(-22ºC) (Mathias et al. 1973).
Even though variants have persisted in areas with sub-zero winter temperatures on
occasion, Cynodon dactylon has become important only in areas with relatively mild
winters (USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program 2000).
germination:
Seed viability of six variants of Cynodon dactylon tested from southern Africa ranged
from 0-3.5% (Fuls and Bosch 1990 in Carey 1995).
11
Anderson (1999) reports Cynodon dactylon seeds germinate when daily temperatures
are above 65°F (18°C). In California, Cynodon dactylon emerged when soil
temperatures reached 63ºF (17ºC) at a depth of 2 in. (5 cm) (Keeley and Thullen 1989
in Carey 1995).
Scarification seemingly promotes the germination of viable seeds; seeds treated with
sulfuric acid for 10 minutes had 68% germination after 4 days, untreated seeds had
4.5% germination (Bryan 1918 in Carey 1995). Seeds passing through the digestive
tract of cattle and sheep, retain viability, and possibly show improved germinability
(Anderson 1999, Holm et al. 1991). Heady (1954 in Carey 1995) reports Cynodon
dactylon seeds observed in domestic sheep dung germinated in "large numbers".
Laboratory germination trials testing acid conditions on Cynodon dactylon seed
showed that germination could occur under pH 4.0, 5.0, 7.0 but not at 3.0 and below
(Ryan et al. 1975).
Holm et al. (1991) note that some tests have shown that Cynodon dactylon seeds can
survive at least 50 days of submergence in water.
soil preferences:
Cynodon dactylon is adapted to a wide range of soils (Holm et al. 1977), from fertile,
sandy to silty soils or alluvium (Holm et al. 1991, Thornburg 1982 in Carey 1995,
Vogel 1981 in Carey 1995) to heavy clay, acid to alkaline, both arable and nonarable,
growing best on a medium to heavy soil that is moist and well-drained (Anderson
1999, Holm et al. 1991). In arid areas, its growth is greater on heavy clay soils,
probably due to the soil's greater water holding capacity (Burton and Hanna 1985 in
Newman 1992). It tolerates acidic, alkaline, or saline conditions, or limited flooding
(California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002); tolerating
saline soils with up to 18 millimhos of electrical conductivity in the soil solution
(USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program 2000). It withstands pH ranges from about
5.0-8.5 and is boron tolerant (USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program 2000), although
pH levels lower have been recorded in trials (Carey 1995). Despite its wide tolerance
range, alkaline soils are tolerated better than acidic ones (Newman 1992). It also is
able to withstand sodic soils, with no yield reduction up to an approximate ESP
(Exchangeable Sodium Percentage) of 50, and a 40% yield reduction with an ESP of
about 80 (Kumar and Abrol 1982).
Soil compaction influences the depth of penetration of the plant's rhizomes; rhizomes
were identified to occur from 16-20 in. (40-50 cm) in clay soil, to 28-32 in. (70-80 cm)
in sand (Horowitz 1972f in Horowitz 1996).
competitive abilities:
Cynodon dactylon is an effective colonizer, due to its ability to compete for water,
nutrients, and space, and also the soil oxygen needed for native plants to establish
(Chambers and Hawkins 2002, Horowitz 1973 in Newman 1992); its ability to
accomplish this is a result of its spreading ability of the rhizomes and stolons
(Horowitz 1973 in Newman 1992).
The competitive effects observed between Cynodon dactylon and crops are caused by
Cynodon dactylon's ability to deplete nutrients and also by its allelopathic properties
(Horowitz 1996). Cynodon dactylon is suspected of having allelopathic qualities
(McDonald 1986 in Carey 1995, Weller et al. 1985 in Carey 1995), shown to inhibit
the growth of newly planted peach trees (Prunus persica) (Weller et al. 1985 in Carey
1995). Its allelopathic qualities may be from biologically active substances produced
by living, and dead, subterranean tissue (Horowitz and Friedman 1971 in Horowitz
1996). Trials with barley and mustard seedlings showed inhibition of radicle
12
elongation when extracts of decaying Cynodon dactylon were mixed in the seedling's
soils (Friedman and Horowitz 1970 in Newman 1992).
why it does well as an exotic:
As mentioned above, Cynodon dactylon is adapted to a wide range of climates, from
rainy tropics to arid land in irrigated areas (Holm et al. 1977 in Horowitz 1996). It
tolerates acidic, alkaline, or saline conditions, or limited flooding (California
Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002). Cynodon dactylon can
endure indefinite periods of drought (Parker 1972) becoming dormant during
drought until moisture returns (Chambers and Hawkins 2002). This may be due in
part to Cynodon dactylon having deep roots and its ability to extend its roots during
drought stress (Carey 1995). Ten cultivars were tested and extended roots 47-59 in.
(120-150 cm) deep during a drought stress laboratory test (Hays et al. 1991 in Carey
1995). Also, its alkali tolerance, high temperature and sunlight requirements add to
its success in the southwest United States (Gould 1951 in Newman 1992).
Cynodon dactylon can reproduce sexually and asexually. Cynodon dactylon partitions
much energy on vigorous vegetative reproduction (Holzner and Numata 1982). Each
axillary bud on an internode of the stolons and rhizomes is capable of generating
both new roots and aerial stems (Ott 1983) when the plant is sectioned. Rhizomes of
Cynodon dactylon can be superficial (a few centimeters) or deep (a meter or more) in
the soil, possibly contributing to its abilities as an excellent pioneer weed, weed of
waste places or arable lands, able to inhabit several soil types, and surviving climate
extremes (Holm et al. 1991).
The rhizomes beneath the soil surface survive even when temperatures below 28°F (-
2°C) kill the aerial tissue of Cynodon dactylon (Ott 1983). With its perennating buds
located below the soil surface, and with carbohydrate reserves stored within the
rhizomes, the plant can recover when temperatures rise, allowing biological activity
to resume (Ott 1983).
effect on natural processes/description of the threat
Marshal et al. (2000) reports that Cynodon dactylon competes with and displaces native
plants, alters the soil ecology by de-oxygenating, alters geomorphological processes and
hydrology, alters species composition and richness, and alters alpha and beta diversity.
Chambers and Hawkins (2002) note Cynodon dactylon is a 'notorious colonizer'. As stated
above, it is beginning to occur as a dominant plant in areas described as a vegetation-type
association in some environments; examples are the mixed honey mesquite (Prosopis
glandulosa var. glandulosa)- saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima)- Cynodon dactylon
association that has replaced some native associations in the Rio Grande floodplain in Big
Bend national Park, Texas (Boeer and Schmidly 1977 in Carey 1995), and the Cynodon
dactylon Herbaceous Alliance in Tuzigoot National Monument in Arizona, an association
occupying abandoned agricultural areas (USGS - NPS Vegetation Mapping Program 2001).
Cynodon dactylon is an early successional species (Carey 1995), inhabiting open, unshaded
sites with frequently occurring disturbance, such as flooding, fire, and grazing (Dong and de
Kroon 1994 in Carey 1995). Carey (1995) gives an example of the Rio Grande Valley
National Wildlife Refuge in southern Texas, where Rooseveltweed (Baccharis neglecta),
buffel grass (Pennisetum ciliare), and Cynodon dactylon were the dominant species after 5
years of old-field succession. The establishment of other species may have been inhibited by
13
the two grasses by successfully competing for moisture and light (Vora and Messerly 1990 in
Carey 1995).
known general distribution
United States:
Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida,
Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana,
Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska,
Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia,
Washington, West Virginia (USDA,NRCS, The PLANTS database 2001: Map
available at Website: http://plants.usda.gov/plants/ ; then enter the common or
scientific name).
Arizona, by county:
Mohave to Apache counties, Yavapai County (McDougall 1973), and throughout the
state (Gould 1951, Kearney and Peebles 1960, Parker 1972), mostly below 6000 ft
(Gould 1951, McDougall 1973, Parker 1972).
To view recently developed (and developing) maps of distribution on this continent, check
Website: http://www.herbarium.usu.edu/webmanual/default.htm and make selections for
14
the map of the desired species; the 'Manual of Grasses for North America' Project,
Barkworth et al. (2003).
National Park Service, southern Arizona group:
Casa Grande Ruins National Monument

source listing species’ presence in park:
Reichhardt, K. 1992. Natural vegetation of Casa Grande Ruins National Monument,

Arizona. Technical Report NPS/WRUA/NRTR-92/45, National Park Service,
Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, School of Renewable Natural
Resources, 125 Biological Science East, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
85721. 40 pp.
Chiricahua National Monument

Bennett, P.S., R.R. Johnson, and M.R. Kunzmann. 1996. An annotated list of vascular
plants of the Chiricahua Mountains: Including Pedregosa Mountains, Swisshelm
Mountains, Chiricahua National Monument, and Fort Bowie National Historic Site.
Special Report No. 12. United States Geological Survey, Biological Resources
Division, Cooperative Park Studies Unit, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
228 pp.
National Park Service. 1993. Checklist of vascular plants of Chiricahua National

Monument, Cochise County, Arizona. U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park
Service, Chiricahua National Monument, Dos Cabezas Route, Box 6500, Willcox,
Arizona 85643. 48 pp.
Coronado National Memorial

Parfitt, B.D. and C.M. Christy. 1992. Coronado National Memorial plant checklist – a
synonymized list of the vascular plants. Department of Botany, Arizona State
University, Tempe Arizona 85287-1601. 24 pp.
Ruffner, G.A. and R.A. Johnson. 1991. Plant ecology and vegetation mapping at
Coronado National Memorial, Cochise County, Arizona. Technical Report No. 41.
Cooperative National Park Resource Studies Unit, The University of Arizona, Tucson,
Arizona 85721. 75 pp.
Fort Bowie National Historic Site

Bennett, P.S., R.R. Johnson, and M.R. Kunzmann. 1996. An annotated list of vascular
plants of the Chiricahua Mountains: Including Pedregosa Mountains, Swisshelm
Mountains, Chiricahua National Monument, and Fort Bowie National Historic Site.
Special Report No. 12. United States Geological Survey, Biological Resources
Division, Cooperative Park Studies Unit, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona.
228 pp.
15
Warren, P., M.S. Hoy, and W.E. Hoy. 1992. Vegetation and flora of Fort Bowie National
Historic Site, Arizona. Technical Report NPS/WRUA/NRTR-92/43. United States
Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Western Region, Cooperative
National Park Resources Studies Unit, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
85721. 78 pp.
Montezuma Castle National Monument and Montezuma Well unit

Brian, N.J. and P.G. Rowlands. 1994. An annotated vascular plant species list for
Montezuma Castle and Montezuma Well National Monuments, Arizona. Technical
Report, Colorado Plateau Research Station, National Biological Survey, P.O. Box
5614, Flagstaff, AZ 86011-5614. 77 pp.
Herkenham, N.B., with family Graminae by A.R. Purchase. 1992. Checklist of vascular
plants: Montezuma Well Section, Montezuma Castle National Monument. Appendix
II, In: USDA/Soil Conservation Service. 1993. Montezuma Castle National
Monument, Montezuma Well Unit: Existing resources and recommendations for
landscape renewal plan development; Yavapai County, Arizona. Prepared for the
United Stated Department of Interior, National Park Service. United States
Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 45 pp.
Rowlands, P.G. 1999. Vegetation survey of Montezuma Castle National Monument.

Division of Resources Management, Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Route 1,
Box 100, Ajo, Arizona 85321. 107 pp.
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument

Felger, R.S. 1990. Non-native plants of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument,
Arizona. Technical Report No. 31. U.S. Geological Survey, Cooperative Park Studies
Unit, The University of Arizona and National Park Service, Organ Pipe Cactus
National Monument. 93 pp.
Felger, R.S. and S. Rutman. 2000; draft. The flora of Organ Pipe Cactus National
Monument. 18 pp.
Felger, R.S., P.L. Warren, L.S. Anderson, and G.P. Nabhan. 1992. Vascular plants of a
desert oasis: flora and ethnobotany of Quitobaquito, Organ Pipe Cactus National
Monument, Arizona. Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History 8:1-39.
McDougall, W.B. year unknown. Check list of the known plants of Organ Pipe Cactus
National Monument. Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument. 15 pp.
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument. year unknown. Status of non-native plant
species at Quitobaquito. Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Internal report. 7
pp.
Saguaro National Park

16
Bertelsen, C.D. 1998. Vegetation survey of selected expansion lands in the Tucson
Mountain District of Saguaro National Park. Submitted to Saguaro National Park.
33 pp.
Bowers, J.A. 1984. Woodland and forest flora and vegetation of Saguaro National
Monument. Submitted to Saguaro National Park. 148 pp.
Bowers, J.A. and S.P. McLaughlin. 1987. Flora and vegetation of The Rincon
Mountains, Pima County, Arizona. Desert Plants 8(2):51-94.
Fishbein, M. 1995. Flora of Madrona Canyon. Saguaro National Park, Internal report.
9 pp.
Fishbein, M., S. McMahon, G. Ferguson, V. Steinmann, and A. Johnson. 1994. Flora of

Chimenea Canyon, Saguaro N. M., East Unit. Saguaro National Park, Internal
report. 11 pp.
Fishbein, M., V. Steinmann, and A. Johnson. 1994. Floristic survey of the proposed Box
Canyon Protected Natural Area: Final Report. National Park Service funded.
Cooperative Park Studies Unit, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona. 18 pp.
Guertin, P. 1998. A vegetation and plant survey of the newly added lands of Saguaro
National Park – Rincon Mountain District. Submitted to Saguaro National Park. 143
pp., with 102 slides, and map.
Johnson, A. 1994. Exotic plant species inventory report: Saguaro National Monument
West. Cooperative National Park Studies Unit, The University of Arizona, Tucson,
Arizona. 16 pp.
Rondeau, R., and R. Van Devender. 1992. Floristic survey of the proposed Wildhorse
Canyon Protected Natural Area: Final Report. National Park Service, Funding #1443
PX8670-92-043.
Rondeau, R., T.R. Van Devender, C.D. Bertelsen, P. Jenkins, R.K. Wilson, M.A.
Dimmitt. 1996. Annotated flora and vegetation of the Tucson Mountains, Pima
County, Arizona. Desert Plants 12(2):3-46.
Van Devender, R. 1992. Floristic survey of a proposed protected natural area within
Saguaro National Monument, Tucson Mountains Unit: Final Report. National Park
Service, Funding #1443 PX8670-92-042.
Tonto National Monument

no sources found
Tumacacori National Historical Park

Mouat, D.A., S.J. Walker, and B.D. Treadwell. 1977. The Tumacacori Mission National
Monument floral inventory and vegetation map project. Office of Arid Land Studies,
Applied Remote Sensing Program, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, 85719.
11 pp.
17
Tuzigoot National Monument
no sources found
Weeds in the West Project

While completing distribution mapping between Spring 1999 through Spring 2001 for the
USGS Weeds in the West project in the southern Arizona National Park Service
management units, Cynodon dactylon (Cynodon dactylon) was found in the following parks
(Guertin 2001):
Casa Grande Ruins National Monument
Chiricahua National Monument
Coronado National Memorial
Fort Bowie National Historic Site
Montezuma Castle National Monument and Montezuma Well unit
Saguaro National Park
Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument
Tonto National Monument
Tumacacori National Historical Park
Tuzigoot National Monument
control methods and management strategies
Competition:
Shading can inhibit flowering, tillering and runner formation (Nir 1978). Plants
growing in shade from trees and tall shrubs will be fine and spindly, making them
easier to remove; although, shade from short shrubs will not be sufficient and the
plants are likely to grow up through them reaching for light (Elmore and Cudney
1998). Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve (2000) reports that
Cynodon dactylon most likely will be controlled if the area is sprayed with herbicides
or the plant is removed, and then the site revegetated with tall stature native plants.
Mulches of black plastic or geotextile fabric can be effective over broad areas if light
is excluded (Elmore and Cudney 1998). Spot treating, shade mats, or organic mulch
placed over the Cynodon dactylon may be necessary to encourage the native plants
until their establishment (Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve
2000). Should seedlings germinate, a thin layer of mulch will provide control
(Elmore and Cudney 1998).
Hand labor:
In small areas, a persistent program of removal of rhizomes and stolons can
eliminate Cynodon dactylon (California Department of Food and Agriculture,
EncycloWeedia 2002, Elmore and Cudney 1998); in larger areas using cultivation
methods and withholding water during summer months to desiccate the stolons and
rhizomes will help eliminate it (Elmore and Cudney 1998).
Hoeing is only practical when the Cynodon dactylon infestations are small and
concentrations are low (Newman 1992).
Mechanical:
When using mechanical methods of control for Cynodon dactylon in which plant
parts are fragmented and can easily be disseminated and promote formation of new
18
patches, one has to be aware of the plant's potential to reproduce vegetatively
(Horowitz 1996). Bud activity on the nodes of the stolons and rhizomes is regulated
by apical dominance, which is altered once the tissue is sectioned; dormant buds
become activated and are able to sprout and rapidly form new plants (Horowitz
1996).
With deep plowing, rhizomes can be brought up to the soil surface and if they remain
exposed during the summer, will subsequently desiccate. Trials indicated that
rhizome fragments which had lost more than 45-50% of their initial weight,
occurring approximately after 7 days of exposure to open air in summer, failed to
sprout (Horowitz 1972d). Although, long rhizome fragments and dormant stolons
require greater exposure to drying conditions in order to destroy the axillary buds
(Webb 1959 in Newman 1992, Horowitz 1972d in Newman 1992). When the rhizomes
are exposed through repeated (as needed) tilling or disking, with subsequent
exposure to sun drying or freezing temperatures, an infestation can be controlled
(California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002, Elmore and
Cudney 1998). Prior to doing any cultivation, water should be withheld from the area
to dry the plant's stolons and rhizomes; if rain occurs Cynodon dactylon will
regenerate (Elmore and Cudney 1998). Cultivation to 6 inches deep may be
adequate, although rhizomes left in the soil will take some time (possibly months) to
desiccate; also, seeds will still be viable on that site (Elmore and Cudney 1998).
Horowitz (1972d) shows that when sections of Cynodon dactylon rhizome remained
in an irrigation system with agitated or still water for up to one month, they were
able to retain their sprouting capacity. They were able to grow when placed back in
the soil.
Mowing/Clipping:
Mowing Cynodon dactylon three times a week has little effect on reducing
carbohydrate reserves of the plant, but clipping with scissors can reduce reserves
(Weinmann 1961 in Newman 1992). Repeated clipping of Cynodon dactylon shoots,
done at intervals that prevent regrowth will cause a gradual reduction of the plant’s
growth potential (Horowitz 1996). The potential for greater control is a result of
removal of all tillers and shoots (White 1973 in Newman 1992). The interval required
to diminish the plant's growth capacity would be dependent on the plant's reserves
(Horowitz 1996). Clipping should continue throughout the entire period of growth of
the plant (Horowitz 1972c in Newman 1992). In Israel experiments on established
Cynodon dactylon demonstrated that using a 2-week cutting interval, it took eight
cuttings to decrease the dry weight of rhizomes to 1% of the control, although
complete cessation of regrowth occurred after 15 cuttings. Because carbohydrate
reserves are partially restored between clipping when longer intervals are used, this
method wasn't effective at longer intervals (Horowitz 1996). Because clipping is a
labor intensive method, it is only practical for small infestations.
Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve (2000) reports that Cynodon
dactylon is difficult to control with clipping.
Another consideration to be addressed when using mowing/clipping as a control
method should be the cleaning of machinery after use in infested areas; following
through by cleaning machinery after use can prevent further dispersal of Cynodon
dactylon rhizomes and stolons (California Department of Food and Agriculture,
EncycloWeedia 2002).
Grazing:
Intensive grazing can result in rapid regrowth and establishment (Newman 1992).
Cynodon dactylon will respond to intensive grazing by increasing carbohydrate
accumulation in its roots and rhizomes (Weinmann 1961 in Newman 1992).
19
Fire:
Because of Cynodon dactylon's ability to reproduce from its underground rhizomes, it
can probably survive most fires with only aerial tissues being damaged (Van
Rensburg 1972 in Carey 1995). Trials suggest that seeds may be destroyed by fire
(Glendington and Pase 1964 in Carey 1995). Newman (1992) reports that results
have been inconsistent when fire has been used as a control method on Cynodon
dactylon.
Carey (1995) reports that Cynodon dactylon productivity after spring fires has been
both increased and decreased; these responses depend on a site's postfire moisture
and nutrient levels. In the southeast United States, burning is a method used to
increase yield for forage, control insects and disease, and manage fertility, among
other goals, on a site (Carey 1995). Also, Carey (1996) reports on trials in Georgia, in
which seed production was increased after spring fires (Burton 1944). Generally the
fires occurred during the plant's winter dormancy.
Herbicides:
Cynodon dactylon is difficult to eradicate without herbicides (Carey 1995), and
herbicides can be effective when applied during the plant's active growth phase
(Chambers and Hawkins 2002). Following are options for herbicide use, depending
on the Cynodon dactylon's growth phase.
Pre-emergent herbicides to prevent seedling growth can be used on Cynodon
dactylon: trifluralin, pendimethalin, or oryzalin can be used. Professional applicators
can use prodiamine (Factor, Barricade) or dithiopyr (Dimension) (Elmore and
Cudney 1998). Yet, Newman (1992) and Chamber and Hawkins (2002) cautions that
pre-emergent herbicides reduce the competition that annual grasses and pioneering
natives would provide, which in turn would allow Cynodon dactylon stolons and
rhizomes to thrive (Holm et al. 1977 in Newman 1992).
Selective herbicides should be applied to bermudagrass in the early spring when the
plants are less than 6 in. tall, with reapplication again when the plants reach 6 in.
tall, reapplication may be needed as new growth occurs: the recommended herbicides
are sethoxydim, fluazifop, clethodim, and fenoxaprop. Control is increased if the
plants have plenty of leaf area. Stressed plants, dusty plants, and insect damaged
plants will not be controlled (Elmore and Cudney 1998).
Non-selective herbicides are generally applied later in the spring or summer when
bermudagrass is growing rapidly; and care must be taken of herbicide contact with
other plants; herbicides recommended are pelargonic acid, glufosinate, and a product
called 'Grass and Weed Killer' containing fluazifop and diquat. Glyphosate can be
used to vigorously growing bermudagrass that is not stressed; grass should not be
mowed for 2-3 weeks, with water withheld 2-3 days after application. Another
potential option is after spraying, leave the site for 7 days and then cultivate the
area to cut surface stolons and bring rhizomes to the surface to desiccate. Without
the cultivation, another herbicide application may be needed (Elmore and Cudney
1998).
Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve (2000) suggests applying
glyphosate to Cynodon dactylon prior to summer dormancy; they report that
glyphosate doesn't work well when used during the plant's flowering phase. After an
area is removed of Cynodon dactylon and subsequent herbicides are used, repeated
applications may be required to remove the maximum number of rhizomes and
stolons. Many years of spot control may be required until all of the plants are
removed or the site is revegetated using native vegetation (Newman 1992 in Elkhorn
Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve 2000).
20
Systemic herbicides applied to non-water stressed plants after flowering in summer
to mid-fall before plants go dormant can be effective (California Department of Food
and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia 2002). After reproduction and seed production,
Cynodon dactylon is actively accumulating carbohydrates; this is the greatest period
of basipetal translocation, therefore the optimum time to apply systemic herbicides
(Newman 1992, Ott 1983). Many factors can alter this pattern: defoliation, chopping
up, nitrogen fertilization, abundant water and high temperatures (increase and
prolong aerial plant development versus underground plant development). In these
situations, wait until the plant begins to slow growth, and again translocating
towards underground plant tissues (Ott 1983).
Rice (1992) lists EPTC, metham, cacodyllic acid, sodium metaborate, sodium
chlorate, amitrole, bromacil, dichloropropene, diquat, fenoxaprop-ethyl, fluazifop-
butyl, glyphosate, norflurazon, sethoxydim, tebuthiuron for Cynodon dactylon.
Parker (1997) lists glyphosate, fluazifop-butyl for Cynodon dactylon.
Horowitz (1996) reports on the history of herbicide use in Israel to control Cynodon
dactylon, following are the more recent years:
The 1950's: in systematic trials, TCA and 2,4,5-T could kill the weed in one or two
applications (Hurwitz 1959 in Horowitz 1996). After their registration in the USA,
Monuron, dalapon, and amitrole were tested in Israel and achieved good control of
Cynodon dactylon after a single application (Lifshitz 1958). Introduction of residual
herbicides from the group of triazines (atrazine, simazine) and substituted ureas
(diuron) were active against many annual weeds and selective to important crops
(Horowitz 1996).
The 1960's: mixtures of the above herbicides with amitrole had enhanced effects
upon Cynodon dactylon. Bromacil, developed in the USA in 1962, was specifically for
bermudagrass control in citrus (Horowitz 1996).
Following the 60’s: many additional compounds have been developed to provide
control of perennials, selective and non-selective. Glyphosate (1971) and the grass-
killers selective to broadleaved crops, such as cycloxydim, fluazifop, etc., were
developed in the 1980's (Horowitz 1996). Presently there are approximately 20
herbicides (in 1995) and mixtures registered in Israel that are effective against
Cynodon dactylon. These are: amitrole, amitrole + ammonium thiocyanate, amitrole
+ 2,4-D + atrazine, bromacil, clethodim, cycloxydim. dalapon, EPTC, ethidimuron,
fluazifop, glufosinate, glyphosate, glyphosate + simazine, haloxyfop, imazapyr,
norflurazon, quizalofop, sethoxydim, sulfosate (glyphosate-trimesium), thaizafluron,
vernolate.
Everest et al. (year unknown) list clethodim, fenoxaprop, fluazifop, glyphosate,
sethoxydim for control of bermudagrass in residential landscape plantings.
Cautions and considerations: Herbicides, as with all management / control methods,

take careful planning and attention to detail for a particular site (climate/weather,
soils, topography, vegetation or lack thereof, sensitive areas, land use, target plant
and infestation characteristics) and the goals to be accomplished on the site.
A major consideration when using herbicides is the sensitivity and hazard to other
non-target species and organisms in the area (Callihan et al. 1995, Horowitz 1996).
Many of the herbicides are 'non-selective' and useful for agricultural operations, but
not necessarily intended for natural environments. Even the 'selective' chemicals can
21
harm other plants when not applied properly or when used in places where other
native plants are vulnerable to their mode of action (Horowitz 1996). Improper
application and /or application rates can harm many other species, along with
affecting water quality; the eventual accumulation of these compounds in
underground and aboveground water bodies (Callihan et al. 1995, Horowitz 1996).
Also, to be considered is the potential resistance a biotype may develop to some of
these compounds over time (Horowitz 1996).
The information provided here is meant to give a glimpse of what has been learned,
and found effective. It might not necessarily be the best approach in the Sonoran
Desert; generally the environments reported on are not desert lands as little
research has been done in natural environments of the Sonoran Desert to date. Nor
do the same application or herbicide use laws apply across state borders in all cases.
Contacts / specialists' names or offices are provided in the following section for follow
up and gathering of more information pertinent to a specific environment or site.
Table 1 offers information on the herbicides in this section.
Biological controls:
Organisms: Isolated phytotoxins of several fungi which utilize Cynodon dactylon are
being investigated for possible use as control agents (Strobel 1991).
Control strategies:
Newman (1992) suggests the best strategy is to initially remove all plant parts, and
follow up with spot herbicides or manual tilling. In more heavily infested sites,
assessment of site characteristics and a detailed control plan integrating many
methods would be needed to be successful at control. A site plan should take
advantage of Cynodon dactylon's natural weaknesses: 1. the rootstock's inability to
withstand exposure to severe drying or intense cold, and 2. the plant's inability to
endure prolonged shading (Hansen 1924). Collecting information on the size of the
infestation along with and understanding of the depth of underground plant system
will help with planning detailed control (Newman 1992). Installation of native
vegetation or shade mats that provide sufficient shade will help prevent the
remaining rhizomes of Cynodon dactylon from sprouting and reestablishing
(Newman 1992).
Best management practices include limiting soil disturbances and maintaining a
native vegetative cover which shades the soil surface; Cynodon dactylon comes in
where disturbance occurs, especially on unshaded sites (Chambers and Hawkins
2002, Newman 1992 in Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve 2000).
Horowitz (1996) reports that in Israel repeated shallow cultivation coordinated with
the cutting of aerial parts is a practical method of control.
contacts or technical specialists
Dr. Francis E. Northam (Ed Northam)

Noxious Weed Coordinator, Plant Services Division
Arizona Department of Agriculture
1688 West Adams Street
Phoenix, Arizona 85007
Phone: (602) 542-3309: FAX: (602) 542-1004 e-mail: ed.northam@agric.state.az.us
Ed works state-wide primarily with noxious agricultural weeds, yet has also done some
work to get non-native invasive plants listed that impact Arizona’s natural
environments
22
He indicated he would provide, as requested, information regarding:
weed biology
control/management of weeds
Dr. John H. Brock

Professor of Applied Biological Science
Coordinator of Sustainable Technologies, Agribusiness and Resources (STAR) Research
Center
Arizona State University East
7001 E. Williams Field Rd.
Mesa, Arizona 85212
Phone: (480) 727-1240; FAX (480) 727-1961 e-mail: john.brock@asu.edu
Dr. Brock has done:
invasive plant work (including control treatments) in essentially all the major
vegetation types in Arizona, except the highest elevation types like mixed
conifer.
April Fletcher, Arizona Interagency Weed Action Group

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
P. O. Box 1306
500 Gold Ave.
Albuquerque, New Mexico 87103
e-mail: April_Fletcher@fws.gov
April works region-wide with on-the-ground folks. Arizona Interagency Weed Action
Group (IWAG) is an ad-hoc group; working on specific projects identified as species of
concern by the group. IWAG consists of invasive weed folks from state and Federal
resource management agencies.
April is:
acquainted with control methods for numerous species
she knows many professionals who are doing control work, so, when she can’t
supply an answer, she can usually provide contacts who can.
Jim Horsley, Southwest Vegetation Management Association

Arizona Department of Transportation
2104 S. 22nd Avenue
Phoenix, Arizona 85009
Phone: (602) 712-6135 email: jhorsley@dot.state.az.us
Jim indicated at ADOT they manage and control a number of native and non-native
invasive species. Their experience includes
Centaurea solstitialis (Yellow) and Centaurea melitensis (Malta) star thistle,
Onopordum acanthium (Scotch), Carduus nutans (Musk), and Cirsium vulgare
(Bull) thistle, Acroptilon repens (Russian), Centaurea biebersteinii / Centaurea
maculosa (spotted), and Centaurea diffusa (diffuse) knapweed, Alhagi maurorum
(Camelthorn), Halogeton glomeratus (Halogeton), Salsola sp. (Russian thistle,
tumbleweed), Linaria damatica (Dalmation toadflax), Cardaria draba (Hoary
cress), Tribulus terrestris (Puncture vine), Cenchrus sp. (sandbur), Convolvulus
arvensis (Field bindweed), Sorghum halepense (Johnsongrass), Pennisetum
ciliare (Buffelgrass), Pennisetum setaceum (Fountain grass), several mustards,
Verbascum sp. (mullein), Heterotheca subaxillaris (Camphorweed) and several
others.
Jim has
personal experience statewide
23
and, has access to other experts from several states in the southwest.
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USDA NRCS Plant Materials Program. 2000. Plant Fact Sheet: Bermudagrass. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, National Resources Conservation Service. Website:
http://plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/ and then click on 'Plant Fact Sheets', then
desired species
United States Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1994. Plants of the
U.S. -- alphabetical listing. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation
Service , Washington, D.C. 954 pp.
University of California. 1998. The Grower's Weed Identification Handbook. Cooperative

Extension University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, Publication 4030. 311 pp.
USGS - NPS Vegetation Mapping Program. 2001. Tuzigoot National Monument. The
USGS-NPS Vegmapping Program, USGS Center for Biological Informatics, P.O.
Box 25046, Denver, Colorado 80225. Website:
http://biology.usgs.gov/npsveg/tuzi/cyndact.html
Usher, G. 1974. A dictionary of plants used by man. Constable and Company, Ltd., 10
Orange St., London WC2H 7EG. 619 pp.
Van Bavel, C.H.M., and J.M. Baker. 1985. Water transfer by plant roots from wet to dry
soil. Naturwissenschaften 72:606-607.
Van Rensberg, H.J. 1972. Fire: its effects on grasslands, including swamps -- southern,
central and eastern Africa. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology
conference, April 22-23, 1971, Tallahassee FL. No. 11. Tall Timbers Research
Station, Tallahassee, FL. pp. 175-199.
Veenendaal, E.M., and W.H. Ernst. 1991. Dormancy patterns in accessions of caryopses
from savanna grass species in south eastern Botswana. 1991. Acta Botanica
Neerlandica 40(4):297-309.
Vogel, W.G. 1981. A guide for revegetating coal minesoils in the eastern United States.
Gen. Technical Report NE-68. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Broomal, PA. 190 pp.
33
Vogl, R.J. 1974. Effects of fire on grasslands. In: Kozlowski, T.T., and C.E. Ahlgren, eds.
Fire and ecosystems. Academic Press, New York. pp. 139-194.
Vora, R.S., and J.F. Messerly. 1990. Changes in native vegetation following different
disturbances in the lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas. Texas Journal of Science.
42(2): 151-158.
Webb, B. 1959. Comparison of water loss and survival of coastal Bermudagrass stolons
harvested at two stages of growth. Agronomy Journal 51:367-368.
Weinmann, H. 1961. Total available carbohydrates in grasses and legumes. Herbage

Abstracts 31:255-260.
Weller, S.C., W.A. Skroch, and T.J. Monaco. 1985. Common bermudagrass (Cynodon
dactylon) interference in newly planted peach (Prunus persica) trees. Weed
Science 33:50-56.
Welsh, S.L., N.D. Atwood, S. Goodrich, and L.C. Higgins, eds. 1987. A Utah flora. Great
Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Brigham Young University, Provo, UT. 894 pp.
White, L.M. 1973. Carbohydrate reserves of grasses: a review. Journal of Range

Management 26(1):13-18.
Whitson, T.D., Editor; L.C. Burrill, S.A. Dewey, D.W. Cudney, B.E. Nelson, R.D. Lee, R.
Parker. 1992. Weeds of the West. The Western Society of Weed Science in
cooperation with the Western United States Land Grant Universities
Cooperative Extension Services and the University of Wyoming. 630 pp.
Willoughby, J.W., and W. Davilla. 1984. Plant species composition and life form spectra of
tidal streambanks and adjacent riparian woodlands along the lower Sacramento
River. In: Warner, R.E., and K.M. Hendrix, eds. California riparian systems:
Ecology, conservation, and productive management: Proceedings of the
conference., September 17-19, 1981, Davis, CA. University of California Press,
Berkeley, CA. pp. 642-651.
Youngner, V.B. 1959. Growth of U3 Bermuda grass under various day and night
temperatures and light intensities. Agronomy Journal 51:557-559.
Zohary, M. 1941. [The weeds of Palestine and their control.] Ed. Hassadeh, Tel Aviv.
Zohary M. 1955. [Geobotany.] Ed. Hakibbutz Ha'arzi, Merhavya, Israel.
additional sources and websites
Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service

Website: http://www.reeusda.gov/1700/statepartners/usa.htm
This website brings you to an interface to connect with Cooperative Extension programs
throughout the United States; select the desired state, enter a link, often there is a search
option in which information on a plant can be searched for.
34
USDA, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, September 2002 has published
'Linking Wilderness Research and Management. Volume 4 - Understanding and Managing
Invasive Plants in Wilderness and Other Natural Areas. An Annotated Reading List.
General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-79-volume 4 This volume is available on the Web;
Website: http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr079_4.pdf (Website:
http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr079_4.html provides some information if problems
occur in viewing this file)
websites with great plant photos:
http://courses.smsu.edu/pab532f/IDList2_485.htm scroll down to plant and click on

image to enlarge
http://forages.orst.edu/ then click on 'species', then click on 'image gallery' under
'related sections of our web site', then choose species name or common name
var. aridus and var. dactylon, seeds: http://www.oardc.ohio-state.edu/seedid/ then select
species
websites with simple plant descriptions:
http://www.agr.okstate.edu/alfalfa/weeds/weeds_of_oklahoma.htm and then click on

appropriate name
http://spuds.agron.ksu.edu/ksgrasskey/images/Cynodondactylon.html
http://www.ppws.vt.edu/scott/weed_id/cynda.htm
35
Table 1. Herbicide information for bermudagrass.
TRADE CHEMICAL
HERBICIDE USE MODE OF ACTION IN SOILS NOTES
NAMES GROUP
2,4-D many: some phenoxy Foliar spray or Mimic plant's hormones. Absorbed Salt formulations are subject to Selective. Many annual and perennial
manufacturers are: soil by foliage and translocated leaching in sandy soils; ester broadleaf species are sensitive. Drift
Benide, Ortho, application symplastically, and accumulates in formulations are less water soluble to nontarget sensitive species can be
Rhone Poulenc, areas of high metabolic activity so are less likely to leach. a problem; use a formulation that is
PBI/Gordon, (new growth). Primary mode of Persistence in warm, moist soils less volatile to aid in prevention.
Wilber-Ellis, action not known, but it affects average 1 - 4 weeks. (Labeled sites: lawns, golf courses,
Agrolinz, Cornbelt, processes such as cell division and parks, etc., non-crop land)
Setre, Lily Miller, elongation.
Uniroyal, Riverdale,
DowElanco,
Greenlight
2,4,5-T Esteron, Esterone, phenoxy Post-emergentMimics plant's hormones; affects Can biodegrade. Mobility expected Selective control of broadleaf weeds
(2,4,5-T is often Dinoxol, Dacamine, cellular division. to vary: in sandy soils, highly in cereals and lawns, woody weeds in
used Ded-Weed, mobile; in muck, slightly mobile forests, especially conifers. In 1985,
synonymously with Forron, Reddon, due to adsorption to humic acids the U.S. banned use of 2,4,5-T.
2,4,5-TP; the Spontox, T-Nox, and organic matter. Presence in
literature was often Trinoxol, soils 14-300 days.
confusing) Tansamine,
Tormona, Line
Rider, Farmco
Fence Rider, Super
D Weedone,
Weedone 2,4,5-T
36
2,4,5-TP Silvex, Kuran, phenoxy Post-emergentMimics plant's hormones. Strongly binds to soils; degraded Limited to brush control on rangeland
(2,4,5-T is often Kuron, Weedkiller, by microbes. Low leachability. and rights-of-way away from water
used Broadside, Average half-life in soils 12-17 and public sites. Contains dioxin as an
synonymously with Fenoprop, days. impurity. Continued availability
2,4,5-TP; the Fenormone, questionable, it is reportedly no longer
literature was often Fruitone T, Garlon, manufactured. The U.S. Department
confusing) Propon, Silvi-Rhap, of the Interior has prohibited its use on
Weed-B-Gon, Interior lands. (Labeled sites: no
Weedone, information).
Weedone T6,
Weedone Special
amino triazole Amitrole-T, Amizol triazole Foliar spray Inhibits chlorophyll formation, and Limited activity in soils; persists 2- Nonselective; annual and perennial
(amitrole) regrowth from buds. Slowly 4 weeks. Broken down by species. Avoid drift, as most desirable
absorbed by foliage; some root microorganisms. Little plants are sensitive. Apply to actively
absorption in sandy soils. photodecomposition. growing young weeds for best control;
Translocated throughout plant in do not apply to drought-stressed
the symplast and apoplast. Plants weeds. (Labeled sites: field nurseries,
turn white or pink after treatment. ornamental plantings, aquatic weeds,
forest plantations, non-crop land)
atrazine Aatrex, Atrazine, triazine Soil Inhibits photosynthesis. Absorbed Moderate to strong adsorption to Selective. Selectivity based on
Atra-Pril, Cheat application or primarily through roots with some soil particles and organic matter. resistant plants metabolizing the
Stop foliar spray foliar absorption; apoplastic Leaching generally is limited; but compound to non-toxic materials; also
translocation; readily translocated. may leach in sandy soils, thus can be caused by position in soil.
Accumulates areas of high groundwater contamination may Many annual grasses and most
metabolic activity (shoot occur. Seldom found more than 12 broadleaf species sensitive. Most
meristems). in. deep. May persist for more than products containing atrazine are
one season in cold or drought-type restricted-use herbicides. (Labeled
soils. sites: conifer nurseries, non-crop land,
turf, grass seed production)
37
bromacil Hyvar X, Hyvar X-L, substituted uracil Pre-emergent Inhibits photosynthesis. Residual in soils. Relatively mobile Nonselective; general vegetation
Krovar or spot in soils. control. Pre-emergent for weeds or
treatment during early seedling stage of weed
growth. (Labeled sites: no information)
cacodylic acid Liquid Edger, organic arsenical Foliar spray Unknown. Suspected to replace Almost completely inactivated in Nonselective: control annual and
Cacodylate 3.25, phosphorus and interferes with soils by surface adsorption and ion perennial grasses and some annual
Montar, Weed biochemical processes; such as exchange. No phytotoxicity when broadleafs. If formulation doesn't
Ender, Rad-E-Cate, production of ATP. May also applied to soil. contain a surfactant, one must be
Phytar 560, Bolls- interfere with enzyme activity and added. Bright sunlight and high
Eye disrupt membranes. Absorbed temperatures accelerate activity.
through foliage, and translocated (Labeled sites: non-crop land, turf
symplastically. renovation, nurseries, home gardens,
parks, etc.)
clethodim Prism, Select cyclohexenone Post-emergentInhibits meristematic regions. Lipid Low persistence in most soils; Selective post-emergent grass control
inhibitor. half-life of 3 days. Breakdown from herbicide. Controls most annual and
aerobic processes, and minor perennial species, except fine
photolysis is possible. fescues. Activity is enhanced when
using a crop oil concentrate.
cycloxydim no information no information no information no information no information no information
dalapon Dowpon M, chlorinated Pre-emergent, Inhibits shoot and root Leaches readily in soils. Used for control of annual and
2,2-DPA aliphatic or post- development. Absorbed through Biodegrades rapidly by soil perennial grasses. (Labeled sites: no
emergent foliage and roots; translocated microbes. Average persistence is information)
contact symplastically, accumulates in new 1-5 weeks in agricultural soils.
growth.
dichlorprop & 2,4- Chipco Weedone phenoxy Post-emergentAbsorbed by foliage; translocated Salts may leach. Average life in Effective against certain broadleaf
D DCP Ester, Chipco throughout plant. Interferes with cell soil approximately 4 weeks. weeds and brush species.
Weedone Amine differentiation. Mimics natural plant
hormones.
38
diquat Diquat, Reward bipyridylium salt Foliar spray Disrupts membranes. High energy Very strong adsorption onto clays Nonselective. Use of a surfactant
free radicals formed by diquat in and organic matter. Little to no enhances activity. (Labeled sites: non-
plant responsible for herbicidal leaching. Very persistent but crop land, directed sprays in and
activity. Rapidly absorbed by foliage biologically unavailable. around ornamental plantings,
and sometimes may be Completely inactivated in soils. greenhouses, golf course ponds)
translocated in xylem.
dithiopyr Dimension pyridine Pre-emergent Absorbed by roots and shoots; Adsorbed by soil colloids. Does Selective. Control of many annual
or post- translocated throughout plant. not leach. Active in the soil up to 3 grasses and certain annual broadleaf
emergent Inhibits mitosis. months. weeds in established cool- and warm-
season turf grasses. (Labeled sites:
professionally maintained turf)
diuron Karmex, Direx substituted urea Pre-emergent Inhibits photosynthesis by inhibiting Adsorbed to soil on organic matter Used selectively or as complete
or directed the Hill reaction. Absorbed mainly and clays. Leaching is minimal in vegetation killer. When used at low
foliar spray by roots, some foliar absorption, clay, increases in sandy soils. rates, it can be selective; higher rates
and translocated apoplastically Persists several months in soil. for general vegetation control.
through plant. Requires a surfactant for foliar
application (plants must be under 2 in.
tall). (Labeled sites: field nurseries,
non-crop land)
EPTC Eptam, Eradicane thiocarbamate Incorporated Inhibits shoot growth; mechanism Adsorbed in soil; can be removed A selective herbicide; most seedling
into soil; not known although low by leaching. Decomposed by grasses and some annual broadleafs
preplant concentrations inhibit cell division in microorganisms. Volatile in moist are sensitive to it. It is applied preplant
the meristems of grasses. soils if not incorporated and incorporated immediately into the
Absorbed by the roots and shoots immediately. Half-life in moist soil. Has no post-emergence activity.
of emerging weed seedlings. loam soil when warm = 1 week. (Labeled sites: flowers and
ornamentals in home and commercial
landscape, field nurseries)
ethidimuron thiadiazolylurea Ustilan no information no information no information no information. (Labeled sites: no

information)
39
fenoxaprop-ethyl Acclaim, Horizon, phenoxy Foliar spray Inhibits sites of high metabolic No soil activity. Selective; for some grasses. Under
Whip propanoate activity, and yellows within 4-10 drought stress, apply next higher
days. Primarily foliar contact application rate. (Labeled sites: turf,
activity; some limited translocation. grass grown for seed, nurseries,
landscapes)
fluazifop - Fusilade DX, pyridyloxphenoxy- Foliar spray Inhibits sites of high metabolic Some adsorption onto clays and Selective. Targets most annual and
(fluazifop-butyl) Ornamec, Grass-B- carboxylic activity in grasses. Causes almost organic matter. Does exhibit pre- perennial grasses. Apply to actively
Gon immediate cessation of growth, emergence activity, therefore growing bermudagrass with 4-8 inch
then yellowing and death. Rapidly regrowth of annual grasses from runners. Do not apply to stressed
absorbed by foliage and seed will be reduced for several grasses. Use a nonionic surfactant or
translocated to growing points. weeks. crop oil to enhance activity, except in
ornamentals. (Labeled sites: no
information)
gluphosinate Finale amino acid Post-emergent Disrupts photosynthesis; causes No soil activity. Nonselective. More active on
(gluphosinate derivative contact ammonium ions to accumulate. broadleaf weeds than grasses. Faster
ammonium), Ignite, Some systemic activity. acting than glyphosate, but slower
Rely, Liberty than paraquat.
glyphosate Roundup, Rodeo, glycine derivative Foliar spray Absorbed by foliage and Strongly adsorbed to soil and Nonselective. Low volume
Kleenup, Accord, translocated symplasticly to sites of inactivated. Little leaching, no soil applications most effective. Rhizome
Honcho, Expedite high metabolic activity in roots and activity. Broken down by kill often best when applied to mature
Grass and Weed, shoots. May be washed off if rain microorganisms. weeds at time of flowering. Rodeo and
E-Z-Ject, Jury, occurs within 6 hours. Accord require additional nonionic
Mirage, surfactant. Grass control enhanced
Pondmaster, with addition of ammonium sulfate to
Protocol, Rattler, spray solution. Retreatment may be
Ruler, Silhouette necessary. (Labeled sites: turf
renovation, nurseries, parks, home
garden, industrial landscapes)
40
haloxyfop Verdict, Gallant, aryloxyphenoxy- Pre-emergent Absorbed into plant to inhibit Half-life approximately 55-100 Selective. Control of annual and
Zelleck, Dowco452 propionate and post- growth; inhibit biosynthesis of lipids days, depending on soil texture. perennial grasses in some crops.
ME (haloxyfop- emergent in grasses. Leaching is moderate.
methyl), Dowco
453 EE (haloxyfop-
ethoxyethyl)
imazapyr Arsenal, Chopper, imidazolinone Pre-emergent Inhibits enzymes used for synthesis Highly leachable in soils. Nonselective. For long-term
Contain or post- of some amino acids. Readily vegetation control. (Labeled sites:
emergent absorbed through foliage and roots. only for use on noncropland)
metham Vapam, Soil-Prep, carbamate Aqueous Contact; kills living tissues. Adsorbed, leaches readily, Temporary soil fumigant (preplant).
Soil Clean-up solution tilled decomposes to methyl Controls weeds and most seeds,
into soil or isothiocyanante (active nematodes, and certain
used as soil compound) within 6 hours, which microorganisms. Decomposition must
drench. is volatile. Thus, must be soil- occur in moist soil for herbicide
incorporated and covered with tarp activity. (Labeled sites: home garden,
to seal, or watered. Tarping nurseries, few restrictions)
increases effectiveness.
monuron TCA Urox substituted urea Soil applied, Inhibits photosynthesis, disrupts Readily leached in soils. Average Controls most annual and perennial
or post- membranes. When soil applied, persistence in soils is 6-18 months weeds. Used for total vegetation
emergent absorbed readily by roots; or longer, depending on soil type, control in non-crop areas.
translocated to shoots through rate, moisture.
apoplast.
norflurazon Solicam, Evital, miscellaneous Pre-emergent. Inhibits synthesis of carotenoid Adsorbed by organic matter. Does Selective. Incorporate within 4 weeks
Zorial, Predict Aqueous pigments. In absence of these not leach appreciably. Broken of application. (Labeled sites:
solution used pigments, chlorophyll is down by microorganisms and by orchards, non-crop land)
as soil drench. decomposed. Absorbed by roots photodegradation and
and translocated to sites of high volatilization on soil surface.
metabolic activity. Chlorosis occurs.
41
oryzalin Surflan, Weed dinitroaniline Soil Inhibits seed germination and root Adsorbed in soil. Leaching can Used selectively. Most seedling
Stopper, Weed & application development; mitosis. Little occur. Decomposed by microbes grasses and some annual broadleaf
Grass Preventer absorption. Severely inhibits root and some photodecomposition. species sensitive. Kills germinating
development. Little to no foliar Slightly volatile. seedlings, not established plants.
activity; and is not translocated (Labeled sites: no information)
through plant.
pelargonic acid Scythe no information Foliar spray no information No soil residual. Non-selective. A contact foliar-applied
herbicide, broad spectrum. Non-
systemic.
pendimethalin Pentagon, Prowl, dinitroaniline Pre-emergent Foliar absorption in young plants; Strongly adsorbed. No leaching. Depending on crop, this herbicide a
Stomp, Southern or early post- particularly dicots. Followed by Decomposed by soil biota. Does selective pre-plant, preemergent, and
Weedgrass emergent inhibition in roots and shoots of not persist more than one season early postemergent. Used to control
Control, mitosis and elongation. in soil. annual broadleaf and grass weeds.
Ornamental (Labeled sites: field and container
Herbicide II nurseries, non-bearing orchards, turf)
prodiamine Barricade, dinitroaniline Pre-emergent Mitotic inhibitor; inhibits root and No leaching. Active for season- (Labeled sites: established turf,
Endurance, Factor or pre-plant, shoot development. long control. nurseries, landscapes)
depending on
site
quizalofop-ethyl Assure, DPX- aryloxyphenoxy- no information no information no information no information. (Labeled sites: no
Y6202 propionate information)
quizalofop-p-ethyl Assure II aryloxyphenoxy- Post-emergentInhibits an enzyme (ACCase) that no information Selective. Grass herbicide, for most
propionate catalyzes the first step in fatty acid annuals and perennials. A nonionic
synthesis; results in blocking surfactant or crop oil concentrate is
production of membranes for cell required for maximum effectiveness.
growth. Quizalofop-p-ethyl and quizalofop-p
should not be confused with
quizalofop or quizalofop-ethyl.
(Labeled sites: no information)
42
sethoxydim Poast, Vantage, cyclohexane Foliar spray Inhibits sites of high metabolic Soil persistence is minimal (4-11 Selective. Targets most grasses
Ultima 160 activity. Absorbed by foliage and days). Grass seed germination will except Poa spp. Apply when grasses
translocated to growing points in be impeded while herbicide are actively growing. Control is fastest
roots and shoots. present in the soil. during warm weather and when
weeds are small. Use of crop oil
enhances activity. (Labeled sites: field
and container nurseries, landscapes,
non-crop land)
simazine Princep, Aquazine, triazine Soil Inhibits photosynthesis. Readily Moderate to strong adsorption to Used selectively or as complete
Caliber 90, application absorbed by roots (little foliar soil particles and organic matter. vegetation killer. When used
Gesatop, Simazine activity), and translocated Leaching generally is limited; but selectively, primarily annual grasses
apoplastically through plant to roots may leach in sandy soils. Little and broadleaf species sensitive.
and shoots. lateral movement. Decomposition Activation requires considerable soil
by soil microbes. May persist for moisture. Long residual action.
considerable periods of time Carryover to susceptible species can
depending on soil conditions and occur. Resistance has been reported.
application rates. (Labeled sites: no information)
sodium chlorate Chlorea Granular, Inorganic salt No information Unknown. Readily absorbed by Easily leached from soil. Nonselective: used both for annual
Sodium Chlorate, roots and shoots and presumably Persistence in soil varies, from 6 and perennial species. Flammability a
several moves through the apoplast, since months to 5 years, depending on problem; can be avoided by using
phloem cells are rapidly killed. soil type, temperature, and rainfall. mixtures with borate or applying dry
Destroys germinating seeds and Special precautions needed to crystals to vegetation. (Labeled sites:
inhibits plant growth. Rapid burning avoid contamination of ground no information)
and desiccation of plant tissue. water and other vegetation.
sodium metaborate no information no information no information no information no information no information
sulfosate Touchdown no information Foliar spray Inhibits 3 amino acids, and protein No apparent soil activity. Non-selective. A translocated
synthesis. herbicide. Similar in activity to
glyphosate. A surfactant is required
for application.
43
TCA, Sodium TCA chlorinated Post- Inhibits root and shoot Readily leached. Average At low rates, effective for control of
trichloroacetic acid aliphatic emergent development. Absorbed by foliage persistence in soils 3-10 weeks. annual grasses; at higher rates, used
contact and roots; translocated for perennial grasses.
symplastically and accumulates in
new growth.
tebuthiuron Spike, Sprakil substituted urea pre- or post- Inhibits photosynthesis. Absorbed In dry soils (those receiving less General vegetation control: including
emergent primarily through roots with some than 40-60 inches per year) most woody plants. Caution should be
foliar absorption; readily persistence is considerable; half- taken due to long residual life and
translocated. life in wetter soils 12-15 months. strong herbicidal properties. (Labeled
No significant lateral movement, sites: non-crop land)
nor more than 12 inches deep with
surface application.
thaizafluron no information no information no information no information no information no information
trifluralin Treflan, Trifluralin, dinitroaniline Soil Inhibits mitosis. Little absorption. Strongly adsorbed in soil. Used selectively. Most seedling
Ornamental application Severely inhibits root development. Leaching is minimal. Decomposed grasses and some annual broadleaf
Weeder, Trilin 5 Little to no foliar activity; and is not by microbes or species sensitive. Kills germinating
translocated through plant. photodecomposition. Slightly seedlings, not established plants.
volatile. Half life is about 2 Requires soil incorporation after
months. application. Residual activity and
carryover to sensitive species
possible when used at higher than
normal rates. Toxic to fish. (Labeled
sites: no information)
vernolate Vernam thiocarbamate Pre-emergent, Inhibits shoot development. Estimated half-life 1.5 weeks. Selective. Toxic to germinating grass
soil Adsorbed to dry soil, but can be and broadleaf weeds.
application or removed by leaching. Microbial
incorpora-tion breakdown is primary mechanism
of loss from soils.
This information compiled from ExToxNet (2002), Oregon State University, Weed Science Program (1998), Parker (1997), Rice (1992), Ross and
Lembi (1985), Spectrum Laboratories (2003).
44

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USGS Weeds in the West project:

Status of Introduced Plants in Southern Arizona Parks

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

William L. Halvorson, Principal Investigator

U.S. Geological Survey / Southwest Biological Science Center

Prepared by Patty Guertin

Funded by: U.S. Geological Survey

bermudagrass, devilgrass, Bahama grass, dogtoothgrass, couch

Included taxa and synonymous names:

two varieties occur in Arizona:

Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.

var. dactylon (L.) Pers.

- in this paper, variety not named

taxonomic glossary (Harris and Harris 1997):

acuminate: tapering to a sharp point

photo by Patty Guertin

illustration from Hitchcock (1951)

photo by Patty Guertin

similar native or non-native species that could confuse identification

growth and reproductive strategy:

origin and history of introduction:

effect on natural processes/description of the threat

known general distribution

National Park Service, southern Arizona group:

Casa Grande Ruins National Monument

Reichhardt, K. 1992. Natural vegetation of Casa Grande Ruins National Monument,

Chiricahua National Monument

National Park Service. 1993. Checklist of vascular plants of Chiricahua National

Coronado National Memorial

Fort Bowie National Historic Site

Montezuma Castle National Monument and Montezuma Well unit

Rowlands, P.G. 1999. Vegetation survey of Montezuma Castle National Monument.

Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument

Saguaro National Park

Fishbein, M., S. McMahon, G. Ferguson, V. Steinmann, and A. Johnson. 1994. Flora of

Tonto National Monument

Tumacacori National Historical Park

Weeds in the West Project

control methods and management strategies

Cautions and considerations: Herbicides, as with all management / control methods,

contacts or technical specialists

Dr. Francis E. Northam (Ed Northam)

Dr. John H. Brock

April Fletcher, Arizona Interagency Weed Action Group

Jim Horsley, Southwest Vegetation Management Association

Anderson, W.P. 1999. Perennial weeds: characteristics and identification of selected

Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Bedmar, F. 1992. Evaluation of postemergence grass herbicides against Cynodon dactylon

California Department of Food and Agriculture, EncycloWeedia. 2002. Bermudagrass

Callihan, B., L. Smith, J. McCaffrey, and E. Michalson. 1995. Yellow Starthistle

Downton, W.J. 1975. The occurrence of C4 photosynthesis among plants. Photosynthetica

ExToxNet. 2002. USDA/Extension Service/National Agricultural Pesticide Impact

Hansen, A.A. 1924. Eradication of Bermuda grass. United States Department of

Horowitz, M. 1972d. Effects of desiccation and submergence on the viability of rhizome

Horowitz, M. 1973. Spatial growth of Sorghum halepense. Weed Research 13:200-208.

Horowitz, M. and T. Friedman. 1971. Biological activity of subterranean residues of

Johnson, B.J. 1983. Effects of edging herbicide treatments on bermudagrass (Cynodon

Lifshitz, M. 1958. [Chemical control of bermudagrass in citrus groves.] Hassadeh 38:788-

Marshall, R.M., S. Anderson, M. Batcher, P. Comer, S. Cornelius, R. Cox, A. Gondor, D. Gori,

Mitich, L.W. year unknown. Intriguing world of weeds. Bermudagrass. Website:

Morris, H.D. 1968. Effect of burning on forage production of 'coastal' bermudagrass at

Nir, I. 1978. Physiological and developmental aspects of propagation and spreading of