SM Forming

Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
Process Characteristics
Roll forming Long parts with constant complex cross-sections; good surface finish; high
production rates; high tooling costs.
Stretch form- Large parts with shallow contours; suitable for low-quantity production; high
ing labor costs; tooling and equipment costs depend on part size.
Drawing Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes; high production rates;
high tooling and equipment costs.
Stamping Includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blanking, embossing,
bending, flanging, and coining; simple or complex shapes formed at high
production rates; tooling and equipment costs can be high, but labor costs
are low.
Rubber-pad Drawing and embossing of simple or complex shapes; sheet surface protected
forming by rubber membranes; flexibility of operation; low tooling costs.
Spinning Small or large axisymmetric parts; good surface finish; low tooling costs, but
labor costs can be high unless operations are automated.
Superplastic Complex shapes, fine detail, and close tolerances; forming times are long,
forming and hence production rates are low; parts not suitable for high-temperature
use.
Peen forming Shallow contours on large sheets; flexibility of operation; equipment costs
can be high; process is also used for straightening parts.
Explosive Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisym-
forming metric; low tooling costs, but high labor costs; suitable for low-quantity
production; long cycle times.
Magnetic-pulse Shallow forming, bulging, and embossing operations on relatively low-
forming strength sheets; most suitable for tubular shapes; high production rates;
requires special tooling.
TABLE 7.1 General characteristics of sheet-metal forming processes.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
© 2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Localized Necking
G/2
E1
E2 F
E2 = E3 E1
2F~110°
Diffuse neck Localized neck
(a) (b) (c)
(d)
FIGURE 7.1 (a) Localized necking in a sheet-metal specimen under tension. (b) Determination of the
angle of neck from the Mohr's circle for strain. (c) Schematic illustrations for diffuse and localized
necking, respectively. (d) Localized necking in an aluminum strip in tension; note the double neck.
Source: S. Kalpakjian.
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Lueders Bands
Yield-point
Yupper elongation
Ylower
Yielded metal
Stress
Lueder!s band
Unyielded metal
0 Strain
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7.2 (a) Yield-point elongation and Lueders bands in tensile testing. (b) Lueder's bands in annealed
low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for common household products.
Source: (b) Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Stress-Corrosion Cracking
FIGURE 7.3 Stress-corrosion cracking in a deep-drawn brass part for a

light fixture. The cracks have developed over a period of time. Brass and
300-series austenitic stainless steels are particularly susceptible to stress-
corrosion cracking.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Shearing Process
F
Fracture
surface
Punch Punch
Penetration
A C
Sheet
Sheet T Slug
Die B D Die
c
Clearance
FIGURE 7.4 Schematic illustration of the shearing process with a punch and die, indicating important process variables.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Hole & Slug
Penetration depth Burnish
dimension
Rollover depth
Burnish depth
Sheet
Fracture
thickness
depth
Fracture
angle
Breakout
Burr height dimension
(a)
Flattened portion
Burr under the punch
A
FIGURE 7.5 Characteristic features of (a)
Dishing C
Burr height Rough surface a punched hole and (b) the punched slug.
Note that the slug has a different scale
Smooth surface
B D (burnished) than the hole.
Ideal slug
(b)

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Shearing Mechanics
140
140 (HV)
180
200
160
120
200 180
220
160
Punch
120
Force
120
Die
120
200
180
160
140
140
Clearance, c 0
160
180
200
1. 2. 3. Penetration
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.7 Typical punch force vs.
FIGURE 7.6 a) Effect of clearance, c, on the deformation zone in shearing. Note
penetration curve in shearing. The
that, as clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die, rather
area under the curve is the work
than being sheared. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in.)
done in shearing. The shape of the
thick AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H.P. Weaver
curve depends on processing
and K.J. Weinmann.
parameters and material properties.
Maximum punch force:
Fmax = 0.7(UTS)tL

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Shearing Operations
Discarded Parting
Perforating
Slitting
Notching
Punching Blanking
Lancing
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.8 (a) Punching and blanking. (b) Examples of shearing operations on sheet metal.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Fine Blanking
(a)
Blanking punch
Upper
Upper pressure pad pressure
pad
Stinger (impingement ring) Punch
Sheet metal Sheet

Fracture
Slug surface
Blanking die
Lower pressure cushion Die Lower
Support pressure
cushion
Clearance
(b)
FIGURE 7.9 (a) Comparison of sheared edges by conventional (left) and fine-blanking
(right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of a setup for fine blanking. Source: Feintool
International Holding.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Rotary Shearing
Driven
cutter
Workpiece
Ilding
cutter Clearance
FIGURE 7.10 Slitting with rotary blades, a process similar to opening cans.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Shaving & Beveled Tooling
FIGURE 7.11 Schematic illustration of shaving on a sheared edge.

(a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b) Shearing and shaving combined in
Sheet Sheared Sheet one punch stroke.
edge
Clearance
Die Die
(a) (b)
Punch
Punch
Blank Die
Shear angle
thickness
Die
Bevel shear Double-bevel shear Convex shear
(a) (b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 7.12 Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.
Compare these designs with that for a common paper punch.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Progressive Die
Ram
Blanking Piercing
punch punch
Pilot Stripper
Scrap
Strip
Die
Stop Slug
Part
Strip
Finished Scrap First

washer operation
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.13 (a) Schematic illustration of producing a washer in a progressive die. (b) Forming of the top
piece of a common aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the strip until
the last operation is completed.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Blanking; Laser welding Stamping
Tailor-Welded
laser cutting
1 mm m 20/20
Blanks
1 mm 1 mm 0.8 mm
g 45/45 g 45/45 g 45/45
1 mm g 60/60
Legend
g 60/60 (45/45) Hot-galvanized alloy steel sheet. Zinc amount: 60/60 (45/45) g/m2.
m 20/20 Double-layered iron-zinc alloy electroplated steel sheet. Zinc amount 20/20 g/m2.
(a)
1.5 mm
0.8 mm
2.0 mm
0.7 mm
2.0 mm 1.5 mm 0.7 mm
Motor-compartment Shock-absorber Quarter inner with integrated

side rail support shock-absorber support
0.7 mm 1.5 mm 0.7 mm 1.5 mm

2.5 mm 1.5 mm
FIGURE 7.14 Examples of laser-welded and
1.25 mm
0.7 mm 0.7 mm stamped automotive body components.
Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.
Girder Fender with Floor plate
integrated reinforcement
(b)

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Bending & Minim Bend Radius
FIGURE 7.5 (a) Bending terminology.
Bend Length of 20 Note that the bend radius is measured to
allowance, Lb bend, L the inner surface of the bend, and that the
length of the bend is the width of the
Bend radius (R )
15
Thickness (t )
Setback
R = (60/r ) - 1 sheet. (b) Relationship between the ratio
T 10 t
of bend-radius to sheet-thickness and
5
tensile reduction of area for a variety of
Bend A Bend radius, R materials. Note that sheet metal with a
angle, A 0 reduction of area of about 50% can be
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Bevel angle Tensile reduction of area (%)
bent and flattened over itself without
cracking, similar to folding paper. Source:
(a) (b)
After J. Datsko and C.T.Yang.
Material Condition
Material Soft Hard
Aluminum alloys 0 6t
Beryllium copper 0 4t
Brass, low leaded 0 2t
Magnesium 5t 13t
Steels
austenitic stainless 0.5t 6t
low carbon, low alloy, and HSLA 0.5t 4t
Titanium 0.7t 3t TABLE 7.2 Minimum bend radii for
Titanium alloys 2.6t 4t various materials at room temperature.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Bending Mechanics
Plane Plane
stress strain
Rolling
4 direction
Cracks No cracks
Rough
3 edge
Bend radius
Thickness
2
Smooth Rolling
edge Elongated
direction inclusions
1 (stringers)
(a) (b) (c)
0
1 2 4 8 16
Length of bend
Thickness
FIGURE 7.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions (stringers) on
FIGURE 7.16 The effect of length of bend cracking in sheets as a function of the direction of bending with respect to
and edge condition on the ratio of bend the original rolling direction. This example shows the importance of
radius to thickness for 7075-T aluminum orienting parts cut from sheet to maximize bendability. (c) Cracks on the
sheet. Source: After G. Sachs and G. Espey. outer radius of an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90°; compare this
part with that shown in (a).

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Springback
T FIGURE 7.18 Terminology for springback

in bending. Note that the bend angle has
After Ri become smaller. There are situations
A
whereby the angle becomes larger, called
Af Rf Af negative springback (see Fig. 7.20).
Ai
Before
1.0 No springback
a Springback factor:
0.9 b
Springback factor (Ks )
c Increasing springback αf (2Ri/t) + 1

Ks = =
0.8
αi (2R f /t) + 1
d FIGURE 7.19 Springback factor, Ks, for
0.7 e various materials: (a) 2024-0 and 7075-0
aluminum; (b) austenitic stainless steels; Springback estimation:
0.6 (c) 2024-T aluminum; (d) 1/4-hard
austenitic stainless steels; and (e) 1/2- ! "3 ! "
0.5 hard to full-hard austenitic stainless Ri RiY RiY
1 5 10 20
steels. A factor of Ks =1 indicates that =4 −3 +1
R/T
there is no springback. Source: After G.
Rf Et Et
Sachs.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Negative Springback
Punch
Wire specimen
Die
(a) (b) (c) (d)
FIGURE 7.20 Schematic illustration of the stages in bending round wire in a V-

die. This type of bending can lead to negative springback, which does not
occur in air bending (shown in Fig. 7.24a). Source: After K.S. Turke and S.
Kalpakjian.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Springback Compensation
, 90° , 90° 90° 90°
Wb
Pcounter
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Sheet
Die
Rocker
1. 2. 3.
(e)
FIGURE 7.21 Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending operations.

Source: After V. Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H. Tyamoto.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Die-Bending Operations
Punch
Die
W
W
(a) V die (b) Wiping die
FIGURE 7.22 Common die-bending operations, showing the die-opening dimension W, used in
calculating bending forces, as shown in Eq. (7.11).
Bending force:
(UTS)Lt 2
Fmax = k
W

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Press Brake Operations
Channel Joggle Hemming Main Flywheel

forming (flattening) gear
(a) (b) (c) Crown

Motor
Main gear
Clutch and
Connections
brake unit
Ram
Die holder Side

housing
Bed
Floor line
Two-stage lock seam Offset forming

(d) (e) (f)
FIGURE 7.23 (a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations in a press
brake. (f) Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Courtesy of Verson Allsteel Company.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Bending Operations
Punch
FIGURE 7.24 Examples of various bending operations.
Die
Air bending Bending in a 4-slide machine

(a) (b)
Sheet
Adjustable
roll
Driven Polyurethane
rolls roll
Roll bending
(c) (d)
Die
Formed bead
1. 2.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. FIGURE 7.25 (a) Bead forming with
Kalpakjian • Schmid a single die. (b)-(d) Bead forming
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7 with two dies in a press brake.
Flanging Operations
Piercing punch
Spring-loaded stripper
Straight flange
Sheet
Joggled flange Die block or die button
Spring-loaded
Stretch flange pressure bushing
Reverse flange
Shrink flange Slug

(a) (b) FIGURE 7.26 Illustrations of various
flanging operations. (a) Flanges formed on
Piercing punch
flat sheet. (b) Dimpling. (c) Piercing sheet
(retracted) metal with a punch to form a circular
Stripper Before flange. In this operation, a hole does not
plate After have to be prepunched; note, however, the
Sheet Flange rough edges along the circumference of the
Tube flange. (d) Flanging of a tube; note the
Die thinning of the periphery of the flange, due
to its diametral expansion.
(c) (d)

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Roll-Forming
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.27 (a) The roll-forming operation, showing the stages in roll forming of a structural shape.
(b) Examples of roll-formed cross-sections. Source: Courtesy of Sharon Custom Metal Forming, Inc.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Bending and Forming Tubes
Stretch Draw Compression Mandrels for
bending bending bending tube bending
Form block Wiper Plug

Chuck Form block
(fixed) shoe
(rotating) Clamp
FIGURE 7.28 Methods of bending tubes.
Form
block
Balls Using internal mandrels, or filling tubes
(fixed) with particulate materials such as sand,
Laminated prevents the tubes from collapsing during
bending. Solid rods and structural shapes
Workpiece Chuck Pressure bar Clamp
Cable are also bent by these techniques.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Die Punch
Tube
Rubber or fluid
Stops FIGURE 7.29 A method of forming a tube with sharp angles, using an
axial compressive force. Compressive stresses are beneficial in forming
operations because they delay fracture. Note that the tube is supported
Die internally with rubber or fluid to avoid collapsing during forming. Source:
Punch
After J.L. Remmerswaal and A.Verkaik.
1. 2.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Stretch-Forming
Workpiece Tool Stretch gripper
Hydraulic
stretching
unit
Turntable
Table-mounted Adjustable
gripper slide
(a)
Crosshead
Ram
Stretching Upper tool

Clamping fixture
Workpiece
Lower tool
Bed
1. 2. 3.
(b)
FIGURE 7.30 (a) Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming operation. Aluminum skins for aircraft
can be made by this process. Source: Cyril Bath Co. (b) Stretch forming in a hydraulic press.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Bulging
Before After
Die
Fluid Fluid
Workpiece
(b)
Ring
Punch
Knockout
rod
Rubber plug
Die insert
Two-piece die Bulged tube Compressed tube
(hinged)
(c)
(a)
FIGURE 7.32 (a) Bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be made by this method. (b)
Production of fittings for plumbing by expanding tubular blanks with internal pressure; the bottom of the piece is
then punched out to produce a “T” section. Source: After J.A. Schey. (c) Sequence involved in manufacturing of a metal
bellows.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Forming with a Rubber Pad
Metal punch
Blank
Polyurethane pad
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7.33 Examples of bending and embossing sheet metal with a metal punch and a
flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Polyurethane Products Corporation.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Sheet Hydroforming
Pressure-control valve
Forming cavity (oil filled)
Blank
Rubber diaphragam
Draw ring
Punch
1.
Part
2. 3. 4.
FIGURE 7.34 The principle of the hydroform process, also called fluid forming.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Tube Hydroforming
Slide plate Centering
Die holder
plate
Top die Horizontal
Seal cylinder
punch Cylinder
Bottom holder
die bracket
Die holder
plate
Bed plate Hydroformed part
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.35 (a) Schematic illustration of the tube hydroforming process. (b) Example of tube hydroformed parts.
Automotive exhaust and structural components, bicycle frames, and hydraulic and pneumatic fittings can be
produced through tube hydroforming. Source: Schuler GmBH.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Spinning
Blank to
Blank
t A
Mandrel
Mandrel
f
Tool Roller
Cone
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.37 Typical shapes produced by the

FIGURE 7.36 Schematic illustration of spinning processes: (a)
conventional spinning process. Circular marks on
conventional spinning, and (b) shear spinning. Note that in shear
the external surfaces of components usually
spinning, the diameter of the spun part, unlike in conventional
indicate that the parts have been made by
spinning, is the same as that of the blank. The quantity f is the feed
spinning, such as aluminum kitchen utensils and
(in mm/rev or in./rev).
light reflectors.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Shear Spinning
Tensile reduction of area (%)
to to
t 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
100
Blank
reduction per pass (%)

Mandrel
Maximum spinning
! tf 80
60
40 Tube spinning
Shear spinning
Spun 20
piece
Flange 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Roller True strain at fracture in tension (Pf )
FIGURE 7.38 Schematic illustration of a

FIGURE 7.39 Experimental data showing the
shear spinnability test. Note that as the
relationship between maximum spinning reduction
roller advances, the spun part thickness is
per pass and the tensile reduction of area of the
reduced. The reduction in thickness at
original material. See also Fig. 7.15. Source: S.
fracture is called the maximum spinning
Kalpakjian.
reduction per pass. Source: After R.L. Kegg.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Tube Spinning
Forward Backward
f f
Roller
to t Ft
External
Mandrel
Workpiece
(a)
Die
f f
Internal
(b)
FIGURE 7.40 Examples of (a) external and (b) internal tube spinning, and the process variables involved.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Incremental Sheet-Metal Forming
Clamp
Blank
Rotating
tool
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.41 (a) Illustration of an incremental forming operation. Note that no mandrel is used, and
that the final part shape depends on the path of the rotating tool. (b) An automotive headlight
reflector produced through CNC incremental forming. Note that the part does not have to be
axisymmetric. Source: After J. Jesweit.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Explosive Forming
Explosive Water level
Ground level
Workpiece
Standoff Hold-down
ring
Die
Vacuum line
Tank
Pressure generated:
FIGURE 7.42 Schematic illustration of the explosive forming !√ "a
process. Although explosives are typically used for destructive 3
W
purposes, their energy can be controlled and employed in p=K
forming large parts that would otherwise be difficult or R
expensive to produce by other methods.
m
0 0.5 1 1.5
60
Peak pressure (psi s 103)
400
50
40 300
MPa
30 200
Water
20 FIGURE 7.43 Effect of the standoff distance and type of energy-transmitting
100 medium on the peak pressure obtained using 1.8 kg (4 lb) of TNT. The pressure-
10 Air transmitting medium should have a high density and low compressibility. In
0 0 practice, water is a commonly used medium.
0 1 2 3 4 5
Standoff (ft)

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Electrohydraulic and Magnetic-Pulse
Forming
Switch Switch
Charger Electrodes FIGURE 7.44 Schematic illustration of the
Water electrohydraulic forming process.
Clamp
Capacitor bank Sheet
Die
Before
After forming
FIGURE 7.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic- Coil
pulse forming process. The part is formed without
physical contact with any object, and (b) aluminum tube Mandrel Coil current
collapsed over a hexagonal plug by the magnetic-pulse
Eddy current
forming process.
Tube
C
L
(a) (b)
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Superplastic Forming
Stop-off Clamp
Before
Mold
After Mold
Product
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.46 Two types of structures made by combining diffusion bonding and
superplastic forming of sheet metal. Such structures have a high stiffness-to-weight ratio.
Source: Rockwell Automation, Inc.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Peen-Forming
Traversing gantry machine
Stationary workpiece
Track
Track
FIGURE 7.47 Schematic illustration of a peen forming machine to shape a large sheet-metal part, such as
an aircraft-skin panel. Note that the sheet is stationary and the peening head travels along its length.
Source: Metal Improvement Company.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Honeycomb Structures
Adhesive Corrugated
Slice block
Corrugated
Sheet sheet
Block Roll Corrugating
rolls
Roll
Corrugated
panel
Expanded
panel
(a) (b)
Face sheet
Adhesive Expanded
impregnated honeycomb
scrim cloth core
(optional)
Face sheet
(c)
FIGURE 7.48 Methods of making honeycomb structures: (a) expansion process, and (b) corrugation
process; (c) assembling a honeycomb structure into a laminate.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Deep-Drawing
Before After
Punch
Pressure
plate F
Punch Do
Blank holder
Blank Die Blankholder Dp
force
Spring Rp
stripper ring Blankholder c
T
Blank Rd
Die
(draw ring)
Blank Drawn cup

(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.49 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep drawing process on a circular sheet-metal blank. The
stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Variables in deep drawing of a
cylindrical cup. Note that only the punch force in this illustration is a dependent variable; all others are
independent variables, including the blankholder force.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Deformation in Flange and Wall
B
A
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.50 Deformation of elements in (a) the flange and (b) the cup wall in deep drawing of a cylindrical cup.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Pure Drawing vs. Pure Stretching
Blankholder
Punch
Unsupported
Bead wall Blankholder
Die force
A Punch
Die Die
A!
Failure
Deforming Failure Deforming

area area
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7.51 Examples of (a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching; the bead prevents the sheet
metal from flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Unsupported wall and possibility of wrinkling of
a sheet in drawing. Source: After W.F. Hosford and R.M. Caddell.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Draw Beads & Metal Flow
Bead Blank
edge after
drawing
Bend-and-
straighten Deep
Original draw
Punch blank
Blankholder edge
Draw bead Bead

C
L
Die
Zero minor
Bead
strain
C
L
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7.52 (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during drawing of a
box-shaped part, using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation of
circular grids in drawing. (See Section 7.7.)

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Ironing
Punch
Die
Cup
FIGURE 7.53 Schematic illustration of the ironing process. Note that the cup wall is thinner
than its bottom. All beverage cans without seams (known as two-piece cans) are ironed,
generally in three steps, after being deep drawn into a cup. Cans with separate tops and bottoms
are known as three-piece cans.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Ew
R= E
t Ew
Et
Anisotropy
El
Normal anisotropy:
! "
wo
FIGURE 7.54 Definition of the normal ln
anisotropy, R, in terms of width and thickness εw wf
R= = ! "
strains in a tensile-test specimen cut from a εt to
rolled sheet. Note that the specimen can be ln
cut in different directions with respect to the tf
length, or rolling direction, of the sheet.
Material R̄
Average anisotropy:
Zinc alloys 0.4-0.6
Hot-rolled steel 0.8-1.0 R0 + 2R45 + R90
Cold-rolled rimmed steel 1.0-1.4 R̄ =
Cold-rolled aluminum-killed steel 1.4-1.8 4
Aluminum alloys 0.6-0.8
Copper and brass 0.6-0.9
Titanium alloys (α) 3.0-5.0 Planar anisotropy:
Stainless steels 0.9-1.2
High-strength low-alloy steels 0.9-1.2 R0 − 2R45 + R90
ΔR =
TABLE 7.3 Typical range of the average normal 2
anisotropy ratio, R, for various sheet metals.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Anisotropy and Effects
3.0
4.0
Average normal anisotropy (R )
Limited drawing ratio (LDR)

Int
2.6
ers
Titanium
Copper,
titia
3.0 brass,
2.2 Steel
l-fr
aluminum
ee
Al
um
1.8
inu
2.0
Ri
m-
m
Zinc
kil
m
ed
led
1.4
1.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2.0 4.0 6.0
1.0 Average strain ratio (Ravg)
4 6 8 10 12
ASTM grain number
FIGURE 7.55 Effect of grain FIGURE 7.56 Effect of average normal FIGURE 7.57 Typical earing in a
size on the average normal anisotropy, R on limiting drawing ratio drawn steel cup, caused by the
anisotropy for various low- (LDR) for a variety of sheet metals. planar anisotropy of the sheet
carbon steels. Source: After Source: After M. Atkinson. metal.
D.J. Blickwede.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Punch Force
Ironing
Maximum punch force:
! "
Do
Fmax = πD pto(UTS) − 0.7
Punch force (F )
Dp
Increasing
clearance
Stroke
FIGURE 7.58 Schematic illustration of the

variation of punch force with stroke in deep Die corner
drawing. Arrows indicate the initiation of radius
ironing. Note that ironing does not begin until Punch
after the punch has traveled a certain distance corner radius
and the cup is partially formed. (a) (b)
FIGURE 7.59 Effect of die and punch corner radii on fracture

in deep drawing of a cylindrical cup. (a) Die corner radius too
small; typically, it should be 5 to 10 times the sheet thickness.
(b) Punch corner radius too small. Because friction between
the cup and the punch aids in the drawing operation,
Kalpakjian • Schmid excessive lubrication of the punch is detrimental to
© 2008, Pearson Education drawability.
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Redrawing & Tractrix Die
Punch
Blankholder Punch
Drawn cup Blankholder
Drawn cup Punch

Die
Sheet
Die
Die
Cup partially
redrawn Cup partially
redrawn Cup
1. 2. 3.
FIGURE 7.61 Stages in deep drawing without a

blankholder, using a tractrix die profile. The tractrix is
(a) Conventional redrawing (b) Reverse redrawing
a special curve, the construction for which can be
found in texts on analytical geometry or in
FIGURE 7.60 Reducing the diameter of drawn cups handbooks.
by redrawing operations: (a) conventional redrawing,
and (b) reverse redrawing. Small-diameter deep
containers may undergo several redrawing
operations.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Punch-Stretch Test
Sheet width
Bead
Sheet
Bead
Punch
(a) Side view (b) Top view
FIGURE 7.62 Schematic illustration of the punch-stretch test on sheet specimens with different
widths, clamped along the narrower edges. Note that the narrower the specimen, the more
uniaxial is the stretching. (See also Fig. 7.65.)

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Forming Limit Diagram
140
Plane strain
120
Equal (balanced)
100 biaxial Major strain Major strain,
Major strain (%)
After positive
80 Low-carbon stretching
Failure steel
Before
60 Pure zone Brass stretching
shear Minor Minor Minor
High-strength strain, strain strain,
40
steel negative positive
Aluminum alloy
20 Simple
tension Safe zone
(for R = 1)
0
260 240 220 0 20 40 60 80
Minor strain (%)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.63 (a) Forming-limit diagram (FLD) for various sheet metals. Note that the major strain is always positive. The region
above the curves is the failure zone; hence, the state of strain in forming must be such that it falls below the curve for a
particular material; R is the normal anisotropy. (b) Illustrations of the definition of positive and negative minor strains. If the area
of the deformed circle is larger than the area of the original circle, the sheet is thinner than the original thickness because the
volume remains constant during plastic deformation. Source: After S.S. Hecker and A.K. Ghosh.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Formability Testing
FIGURE 7.64 An example of the use of grid

FIGURE 7.65 Bulge test results on steel sheets of various widths.
marks (circular and square) to determine the
The first specimen (farthest left) stretched farther before cracking
magnitude and direction of surface strains in
than the last specimen. From left to right, the state of stress
sheet-metal forming. Note that the crack
changes from almost uniaxial to biaxial stretching. Source:
(tear) is generally perpendicular to the major
Courtesy of Ispat Inland, Inc.
(positive) strain. Source: After S.P. Keeler.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Strains in an Automobile
10 10 10
Trunk lid Roof Front door
8 8 8
Major strain (%)
Major strain (%)
Major strain (%)

6 1 6 6
53
7
4 4 4
1 1
59 3
2 2 2
75
0 0 0
24 22 0 2 4 24 22 0 2 4 24 22 0 2 4
Minor strain (%) Minor strain (%) Minor strain (%)
10
Front fender
8
Major strain (%)

6
1
4
3
2
0
24 22 0 2 4
Minor strain (%)
FIGURE 7.66 Major and minor strains in various regions of an automobile body.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Design Considerations
Poor Better
Poor Better Best
43.2 mm 39.6 mm
Closed 3 x sheet Relief

13.2 mm 11.4 mm
corner thickness notch
(a)
Closed corner 3 x sheet Relief notch

thickness
(b)
FIGURE 7.67 Efficient nesting of parts for

FIGURE 7.68 Control of tearing and buckling of a flange in a
optimum material utilization in blanking.
right-angle bend. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Design Considerations (cont.)
Poor Good
Poor Good Poor
Tearing Notch
Poor Good
Notch
Bend line Bend line

(a)
x x
Better
Poor Good R R
(b) (c)
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.69 Application of notches to avoid

FIGURE 7.70 Stress concentrations near bends. (a) Use of a
tearing and wrinkling in right-angle bending
crescent or ear for a hole near a bend. (b) Reduction of the severity
operations. Source: Society of Manufacturing
of a tab in a flange. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.
Engineers.
Before
FIGURE 7.71 Application of (a) scoring, or (b) embossing to obtain a
sharp inner radius in bending. However, unless properly designed, these
Sharp Sharp
radius radius After features can lead to fracture. Source: Society of Manufacturing
Engineers.
(a) (b)

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Economics of Sheet-Metal Forming
8
7
Cost per part (relative)

6 0.19 m
5
4 0.3 m
3 diameter
Spinning
2 Drawing
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of parts (x 103)
FIGURE 7.72 Cost comparison for manufacturing a cylindrical sheet-metal container by

conventional spinning and deep drawing. Note that for small quantities, spinning is more
economical.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cast Study: Drum Cymbals
FIGURE 7.73 (a) A selection of common

cymbals; (b) detailed view of different
surface texture and finish of cymbals. Source:
Courtesy W. Blanchard, Sabian Ltd.
(a) (b)
1. As-cast
2. After rolling; multiple

rolling/annealing 5. Stretch formed
cycles necessary
3. Stretch formed
FIGURE 7.74 (a) Manufacturing and trimmed
6. Hammered
sequence for production of cymbals.

Source: Courtesy W. Blanchard,
Sabian Ltd. 4. Hang hole punched
7. Lathe-turned
and polished

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Cymbal Hammering
(a) (b)
FIGURE 7.75 Hammering of cymbals. (a) Automated hammering on a peening

machine; (b) hand hammering of cymbals. Source: Courtesy W. Blanchard, Sabian Ltd.

ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

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Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

TABLE 7.1 General characteristics of sheet-metal forming processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Diffuse neck Localized neck

(a) (b) (c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 7.3 Stress-corrosion cracking in a deep-drawn brass part for a

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Maximum punch force:

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Sheet metal Sheet

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 7.11 Schematic illustration of shaving on a sheared edge.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Finished Scrap First

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Motor-compartment Shock-absorber Quarter inner with integrated

0.7 mm 1.5 mm 0.7 mm 1.5 mm

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

T FIGURE 7.18 Terminology for springback

c Increasing springback αf (2Ri/t) + 1

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 7.20 Schematic illustration of the stages in bending round wire in a V-

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

, 90° , 90° 90° 90°

FIGURE 7.21 Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending operations.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Channel Joggle Hemming Main Flywheel

(a) (b) (c) Crown

Die holder Side

Two-stage lock seam Offset forming

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Air bending Bending in a 4-slide machine

Shrink flange Slug

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Form block Wiper Plug

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Stretching Upper tool

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

(a) (b) (c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

FIGURE 7.37 Typical shapes produced by the

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

reduction per pass (%)

FIGURE 7.38 Schematic illustration of a

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Traversing gantry machine