A Survey on Different Video Watermarking
Techniques and Comparative Analysis with
Reference to H.264/AVC
Sourav Bhattacharya, T. Chattopadhyay and Arpan Pal
Abstract — Last few years have witnessed rapid growth in
video coding technology. Among various standards,
H.264/Advanced Video Codec (AVC) is found to be of
significant importance regarding reduced bandwidth, better
image quality and network friendliness. One of the current
fields of interest is to develop a system with authentication and
copyright protection methodology embedded within an
efficient video codec. In this paper we first perform a survey
on available video watermarking techniques, feasibility study
on watermarking techniques meeting application specific
criteria for H.264/AVC and then we perform a comparative
analysis based on robustness and computational complexity of
different watermarking algorithms. 1
Index Terms — Video Watermarking, H.264/AVC.
I. INTRODUCTION
High speed computer networks, the Internet and the World
Wide Web have revolutionized the way in which digital data
is distributed. The widespread and easy accesses to
multimedia contents and possibility to make unlimited copy
without loss of considerable fidelity have motivated the need
for digital rights management. Digital watermarking is a
technology that can serve this purpose. A large number of
watermarking schemes have been proposed to hide copyright
marks and other information in digital images, video, audio
and other multimedia objects [1, and references there in].
A watermark is a digital data embedded in multimedia
objects such that the watermark can be detected or extracted at
later times in order to make an assertion about the object. The
main purpose of digital watermarking is to embed information
imperceptibly and robustly in the host data. Typically the
watermark contains information about the origin, ownership,
destination, copy control, transaction etc. Potential
applications of digital watermarking include transaction
tracking, copy control, authentication, legacy system
1 information or watermark can be a serial number or random
Sourav Bhattacharya, T. Chattopadhyay and Arpan Pal are with
Convergence Solutions Practice, Tata Consultancy Services Limited, Kolkata,
India.
E-mail: {sourav.bhattacharya, tanushyam.chattopadhyay, arpan.pal}
@tcs.com
1-4244-0216-6/06/$20.00 ©2006 IEEE
enhancement and database linking etc. [2].
Growing popularity of video based applications such as
Internet multimedia, wireless video, personal video recorders,
video-on-demand, set-top box, videophone and
videoconferencing have a demand for much higher
compression to meet bandwidth criteria and best video quality
as possible. Different video Encoder Decoders (CODECs)
have evolved to meet the current requirements of video
application based products. Among various available
standards H.264 / Advanced Video Codec (AVC) is becoming
an important alternative regarding reduced band width, better
image quality in terms of peak-signal-to-noise-ratio (PSNR)
and network friendliness [26], but it requires higher
computational complexity.
Different watermarking techniques have been proposed for
different video CODECs, but only a few works on
H.264/AVC can be found in the literature. H.264/AVC uses
different transformation and block sizes than MPEG series, so
development of new algorithms is required to integrate robust
watermarking techniques for different profiles of H.264/AVC.
In section II we review the basics of digital watermarking,
video watermarking terminologies and techniques. In Section
III we briefly discuss common video watermarking
techniques. Comparative analyses between different
watermarking techniques are described in section IV. Finally
basics of H.264/AVC encoder are explained and applicability
of different watermarking techniques in H.264/AVC is drawn
in section V.
II. VIDEO WATERMARKING
A. Digital watermarking:
Digital watermarking also known as watermark insertion or
watermark embedding, represents the method of inserting
information into multimedia data also called original media or
cover media e.g. text, audio, image, video. The embedded
number sequence, ownership identifiers, copyright messages,
control signals, transaction dates, information about the
creators of the work, bi-level or gray level images, text or
other digital data formats. In the literature large number of text
[3]-[5], image [6]-[9], audio [10] and video [11]-[15]
watermarking algorithms can be found. These algorithms
modify the original media to generate the watermarked media.
There may be no or little perceptible differences between the
original media and the watermarked media.
Fig.1 gives an overview of different types of watermarking
methodologies depending on their working domains, cover
media, perceptibility and application areas.
After embedding watermark, the watermarked media are
sent over Internet or some other transmission channels.
Whenever the copyright of the digital media is under question,
the embedded information is decoded to identify copyright
owner. The decoding process can extract the watermark from
the watermarked media (watermark extraction) or can detect
the existence of watermark in it (watermark detection).
Watermarking
Domain Document Perception Application
Spatial Frequency
Source
Based
Text Image Audio Video
Invisible
Visible
Robust
Fragile
Private
Public
Non-invertible Nonquasi-invertible
Quasi-invertible
Invertible
Fig.1 Different types of watermarking methodologies.
The embedding or encoding process can be viewed as a
function or mapping that maps the input X (original media),
W (watermark) and/or K (key) to output X ′ (watermarked
media). Mathematically it can be expressed as
X ′ = E ( X , W , [ K ])
(1)
where E (⋅) denotes the embedding process and [⋅]
represents optional argument. Similarly the decoding or
extraction process D (⋅) can be expressed formally as
W ′ = D ( X ′′, [ X ], [ K ])
and the detection process d (⋅) can be expressed as
{Yes or No} = d ( X ′′, [ X ],W , [ K ]) (3)
B Video watermarking terminologies:
Video watermarking describes the process of embedding
information in video data. Different data hiding terminologies
are given in [16]. The important terminologies pertaining to
digital video watermarking are:
Digital Video: Video sequence is a collection of
consecutive and equally time spaced still images.
Payload: It is the amount of information that can be stored
in a watermark. An important concept regarding the video-
watermarking payload is watermark granularity. Watermark
granularity can be defined as how much data is required for
embedding one unit of watermark information.
Perceptibility: video watermarking methodology is called
imperceptible if humans cannot distinguish between the
original video from the video with inserted watermark.
Robustness: a fragile watermark should not be robust
against intentional modification techniques, as failure to detect
the watermark signifies that the received data is no longer
authentic. In case of application such as copyright protection,
Destination
Based it is desirable that watermark always remains in the video data,
even if the video data is subjected to intentional and
unintentional signal processing attacks. Hence, depending on
the requirements of the application the watermark is
embedded in a robust, semi-fragile or fragile manner.
Security: the security of the watermarking algorithm is
ensured in the same way as in encryption methodology.
According to the Kerckhoff’s assumption, the algorithm for
watermark embedding can be considered to be public, where
as the security depend solely on the choice of a key from a
large key space.
C Video watermarking techniques:
Apparently any image watermarking technique can be
extended to watermark videos, but in reality video
watermarking techniques need to meet other challenges than
that in image watermarking schemes such as large volume of
inherently redundant data between frames, the unbalance
between the motion and motionless regions, real-time
requirements in the video broadcasting etc. Watermarked
video sequences are very much susceptible to pirate attacks
such as frame averaging, frame swapping, statistical analysis,
digital-analog (AD/DA) conversion, and lossy compressions.
Video watermarking applications can be grouped as security
related like Copy control [18], fingerprinting, ownership
identification, authentication, taper resistance etc. or value
added applications like legacy system enhancement, database
(2) linking [1], video tagging, digital video broadcast monitoring
[19], Media Bridge [20] etc.
Apart from robustness, reliability, imperceptibility,
practicality, video watermarking algorithms should also
address issues such as localized detection, real time
algorithm complexity, synchronization recovery, effects of
floating point representation, power dissipation etc [17].
According to the working domain, video watermarking
techniques are classified in pixel domain and transform
domain techniques. In pixel domain the watermark is
embedded in the source video by simple addition or bit
replacement of selected pixel positions. The main
advantages of using pixel domain techniques are that they
are conceptually simple to understand and the time
complexity of these techniques are low which favours real
time implementations. But these techniques generally lacks
in providing adequate robustness and imperceptibility
requirements.
In transform domain methods, the host signal is
transformed into a different domain and watermark is
embedded in selective coefficients. Commonly used
transform methodologies are discrete cosine transformation
(DCT) and discrete wavelet transformation (DWT).
Detection is generally performed by transforming the
received signal into appropriate domain and searching for
the watermarking patterns or attributes. The main advantage
of the transformed domain watermarking is the easy
applicability of special transformed domain properties. For
example, working in the frequency domain enables us to
apply more advanced properties of the human visual system
(HVS) to ensure better robustness and imperceptibility
criteria.
III. SURVEY ON VIDEO WATERMARKING
Watermark can be either directly inserted in the raw
video data or integrated during encoding process or
implemented after compressing the video data. Now we
shall briefly discuss some common video watermarking
techniques.
Spread spectrum (SS) based watermarking technique was
proposed in [11]. In the basic algorithm each bit of
watermark a j , a j ∈ {−1,1} is spread over a large number
of chips (cr ) and modulated by a binary pseudo-noise
sequence pi , pi ∈ {−1,1} . The video and watermark are
represented as vectors and scaled addition is carried out for
watermark insertion. The retrieval of the watermark is
carried out by high-pass filtering followed by correlation-
based method. The robustness of the algorithm can be
increased by increasing cr , σ 2p (variance of pseudo
random sequence), or µα (mean of locally adjustable
amplitude factor). But increases in cr reduces the data rate
of the scheme, where as increases in σ 2p or µ α results in
perceptibility of the watermark.
As DCT is a linear transformation and watermark is
independent of the picture, the watermark can be added in
the DCT domain. The 1D watermark vector is rearranged
into frame structure and by transforming it to 8 × 8 DCT
domain; the watermark can be added directly to a partially
decoded video stream. Since the size and transfer rate of
watermarked video should be identical to the original video,
DCT coefficients of watermark and video frame are
combined only if the resulting VLC code is of same length
of the original one. Again drift compensation is required to
cancel out watermark components from P and B frames, as
motion compensated prediction or interpolation from other
frames are added by the decoder to construct the P and B
frames.
A 2D spread spectrum method for video watermarking
(just another watermarking system, JAWS) was proposed in
[19], which is used for monitoring video data transmitted
over different broadcast links. This pixel domain
watermarking scheme is distinctive for its enhanced
payload capabilities and shift invariance.
A novel collusion resistant (CR) video watermarking
approach is proposed in [21]. This is a practical frame by
frame video watermarking technique. Here a basic
s × s watermark pattern is first created and this pattern is
repeatedly embedded so that it is centred around a fixed
number of selected points known as anchors in every video
frame. The part of the video frame where the basic
watermark is embedded is called the footprint. Anchor
points are calculated using feature extraction algorithm. As
the content of the video frames changes, so do the selected
feature points. As a result of that watermark footprints
evolves with the video. After generating these watermark
frames with in a given host frame, spatial masking is
applied on it to ensue robustness and imperceptibility
criteria. Then the scaled watermark is embedded in the host
data using addition.
Watermarking using CDMA modulation was proposed
in [22]. In this proposed methodology one of the four least
significant bitplanes are replaced by watermark planes. The
bitplanes to be replaced are selected according to a random
periodic quaternary sequence. The watermark plane is
generated using 1D spread spectrum methodology. For
detection of the watermark, the author proposed a two-level
hierarchical correlation methodology.
One of the prime motivations for integrating
watermarking into video coding structures such as MPEG-
2, H.264 etc is to reduce the overall real-time video
processing complexity. The reader is referred to [26] for an
exposition on H.264/AVC.
In [23] a watermarking method using variable length
code (VLC) swapping was proposed. This methodology
was based on the observation that in the MPEG-2, H.26l
VLC tables there are pairs of code words ( r , l ) 6 c0 and
(r , l ± 1) 6 c1 such that length(c 0 ) = length(c1 ) ,
proposed.
Watermarking algorithm based on group of frames
(GOF) has few important benefits as they utilize temporal
properties of the video. This consideration helps to maintain
temporal imperceptibility.
IV. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT VIDEO
WATERMARKING TECHNIQUES

lsb(c0 ) ≠ lsb(c1 ) . Such level-adjacent pairs are called In this section we shall discuss the comparative analysis
of different video watermarking techniques in Table 1. We
label-carrying VLC (lc-VLC). A covert data bit U i is shall use the following terminology in the table:
embedded into a frame by extracting eligible lc-VLC, R: Robustness; Rl: Reliability; I: Imperceptibility; P:
ci ∈ {c 0 } ∪ {c1} , and swapping a codeword, if necessary practicality; T: Time complexity; S: synchronization
recovery. We shall denote the measure of goodness using
such that to ensure lsb( ci ) = U i . This process does not the quantifiers Good (G), Acceptable (A), and Poor (P).
use any random key based component as a result of that this
TABLE 1
method is not robust against attacks.
In [24], Darmstaedter et al. proposed a data hiding Technique R Rl I P T
method (region based energy modification, RBEM), where SS A A G G G
data were embedded by manipulating the average energy or JAWS A A G G G
luminance intensities in sub-regions of each frame. This CR G G G P P
method achieves a high data capacity by embedding one bit CDMA A A G A A
into every 8 × 8 block, and error control coding is used to VLC P P G G G
ensure robustness. Here the data sequence U is directly RBEM A A G A A
embedded in the cover data. The concept of block TDC G G G A A
classification was introduced here. With the classification PW A A G A G
of blocks, this scheme can take the advantage of local 3D DFT G G G A A
spatial characteristics and adjust its embedding strategy to GOF G A G A G
improve imperceptibility and robustness criteria.
One of the first transformed domain video watermarking V. WATERMARKING TECHNIQUES APPLICABLE TO H.264
methods (TDC) was proposed by Cox et al. in [25]. The / AVC
authors proposed and stressed on the importance of H.264/AVC is becoming a popular video codec for its
embedding the watermark into perceptually significant better compression, picture quality and applicability to
components to increase robustness against signal processing portable electronic devices. So a H.264 video CODEC with
and lossy compression techniques. The watermark of length a suitable watermarking embedded in it is a good consumer
n was populated from a standard normal distribution apart electronics product in current scenario. We have already
from a binary PN sequence in order to enhance robustness. discussed about different watermarking techniques and
This method uses a non-blind approach for watermark compared their performances. Now we shall discuss about
detention. Detection is performed by transforming the an overview of H.264/AVC and then we shall discuss about
original and test frame in the DCT domain and correlating the applicability of different watermarking technology in
the difference vector with the expected watermark pattern. H.264/AVC.
A perceptual watermarking (PW) method explicitly We shall discuss the overview of H.264 CODEC with
model masking properties of the HVS and utilizes these help of a block diagram shown in Fig. 2 [27].
models to analyse video sequence or frames to embed The H.264 video encoder works as follows:
watermark in the optimal way. The five main properties of • Input image is captured.
the HSV namely, frequency sensitivity, luminance • Prediction cost is computed by exploiting temporal (P)
sensitivity, contrast masking, edge masking and temporal redundancy and spatial (I) redundancy.
masking can be exploited by video watermarking • Best prediction mode (temporal (P) or spatial (I)) is
techniques [29], [30]. selected by defining a minimizing function on the costs.
In [31] a 3D DFT based robust watermarking scheme • Residue is computed for the best prediction mode.
 + Entropy
Input video T Q Reorder
(YUV 4:2:0 Encoder
format) Best
Predictio +
n Mode
and Inter (P) NAL
block
size
F/ n-1 selection
(Reference)
Intra (I)

+
/
F n
(Reconstruct
De-blocking T-1 Q-1
Filter +
ed)

Fig 2 Block diagram of H.264/AVC Encoder

• Residue is gone through a Integer transformation on SS Pixel/Transf Algebraic/ Y

4x4 sub-blocks followed by quantization. ormed DCT
• Using inverse quantization and inverse transformation
residue part is reconstructed. JAWS Pixel Algebraic Y
• Reconstructed image is filtered with de-blocking filter CR Pixel Algebraic Y
to remove blocking artefacts.
• Quantized coefficients are reordered and entropy CDMA Pixel Algebraic N
coded.
• Reconstructed and deblocked image is used as the VLC During Algebraic Y
reference for next frame prediction. Compression
Watermarking can be implemented in motion vectors or in RBEM Pixel Algebraic Y
integer transformation [28]. But H.264 differs from other
video CODECs like MPEG in the following basic units: TDC Transformed DCT N
• All transformations are performed on 4x4 block instead
of 8x8 or 16x16 block. PW Pixel/Transf Algebraic/ Y
• Integer transformation is used which differs from the ormed DFT
DCT used in other CODECs. /DCT
But most of the reliable and robust watermarking 3D DFT Transformed DFT N
techniques are applied in transformed domain only, so some
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Sourav Bhattacharya was born in Kolkata, India, in
1982. He received the B.Tech. in Computer Science
and Engineering from Institute of Engineering and
Management under West Bengal University of
Technology in 2005. Currently he is associated with
Research and Development Section of Embedded
Systems group of Tata Consultancy Services Limited,
Kolkata, India. His research interests include digital image processing,
video compression, digital watermarking.
Tanushyam Chattopadhyay was born in Suri,
India, in 1976. He received the BSc in Physics from
Visva Bharati and completed his MCA from Bengal
Engineering College, Shibpur, India, in 1998 and
2002, respectively. He was awarded with the
University Gold medal in MCA. He started his career
as research personnel in Indian Statistical Institute,
Kolkata, and later on, joined the software
professional in Research and development section of Embedded Systems
group of Tata Consultancy Services Limited, as an Assistant system
Engineer. He is one of the key programmers involved in the development
of a H.264 based video conferencing and video telephony system. His
areas of interest include video compression, digital watermarking and
encryption, video segmentation and summarization.
Arpan Pal received both B.Tech. in Electronics and
Electrical Communication Engineering and M.Tech
degree in Telecommunication Systems Engineering
from Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur,
India in 1990 and 1993 respectively. From 1993 to
1997, he was a scientist with Research Center Imarat
(RCI), a Defence Research and Development
Organization laboratory at Hyderabad, India, From 1997 to 2002, he was
with Macmet Interactive Technologies Pvt. Ltd., Kolkata, Since 2002, he
is with Tata Consultancy Services, Kolkata, where he is leading the
Convergence Solutions Practice. His areas of interests include Digital
Signal Processing, Kalman Filters, Wireless Networks, Wireless Radio
Transceivers, Audio/Video Compression and Wireless/Multimedia
Security. He has filed for some patents in the area of Wireless Security and
Wireless Baseband Communication and is also involved in next generation
Wireless Standardization efforts like European Union MAGNET.