Deconstructing

American English:
The whys & wherefores of
basic syntax, grammar & writing

by Lynda Case Lambert

© 2005, 2010

This text is offered under Common License. Anyone is free to download

and use the text without payment and quote the text freely in other works
as long as attribution is given. The work, however, may not be adapted,
save as acceptable under Fair Use.
A note from the author...

Grammar and writing texts tend to offer absolutes: "A noun is a person, place or thing";
"Grow is a linking verb", "commas indicate a pause". The fact is that none of this is entirely
accurate.

Dealing in absolutes takes away the fact that it is the word’s function or punctuation’s
purpose in a sentence that determines "what" and "how" it’s used. If you do not understand
function and purpose, you understand little about how to write correctly or well.

Deconstructing American English is not meant to cover every problem, issue or question you
may have about grammar, syntax and writing. It is designed to tell you what, how and why,
because if you know what something is, how it functions and why it’s used in a certain way,
you’re more than likely to be able to solve a syntax problem the next time you encounter it.

The biggest syntax problem, however, is that, over the last thirty or so years, we have gotten
sloppy. Part of this is because public schools went through a period in which they believed it
was unnecessary to learn the rules. They also rid their students of the burden of phonics,
Latin, writing-intensive courses, and other subjects that allowed students to learn and apply
the syntax. Part of this sloppiness is also because of the proliferation of unique writing
formats in business, education and industry. What is right in one format is wrong in another,
and this makes for constant confusion about standard American English rules.

The language is dynamic and continues to evolve; however, the rules must remain constant
and consistent. If the rules change, then we create a completely new language. So, to those
of you who never learned the rules, who never understood them, or who are in the process of
trying to understand how this American English language works, I offer this resource.

In a time when at least 50% of our conversation and communication is done through the
printed word, it’s important to make sure we’re all on the same page when it comes to the
basics. My goal is to make us better writers and speakers; and, thus, better communicators.

Good writing!
Lynda Case Lambert
Part A: About sentences and the words that are in them.
The Sentence

The sentence is the means by which we communicate a single thought. Each sentence
is made up of single words and groups of words (phrases and clauses). In every
language, there is some sort of construction that creates this single thought, but each
language has its own word order and is unique in the way the words are related to
each other.

American English word order: First the subject noun or pronoun and its modifiers; then the verb
and its modifiers which is known as the predicate.

Sentence in correct word order: You may ride home with us this afternoon.

This order separates the sentence into distinct halves: the “subject” half and the “predicate” half.

In the sample sentence above, the single word "you" is all there is to the subject half
of the sentence. On the predicate half, we have the verb “may ride”, verb objects and
verb modifiers that tell us more; specifically, when and with whom. (Note: These
days, we normally just refer to the predicate half as the “verb” half; a convention that
I will follow from now on.)

Each sentence is said to hold not just a "single thought", as noted above, but a
"complete thought". This means that the sentence, itself, in order to communicate a
single thought, must be complete. So, first, let’s consider what that really means.

#1 A "Complete" Sentence

To be complete, a sentence must contain (a) a noun or pronoun which performs some action,
is acted upon, or exists (which is known as the simple subject); and (b) a verb through which
the simple subject acts, is acted upon, or which indicates its existence. Acting together, these
words must represent a single and complete thought.

Examples of a sentence: I went.

George was hit.
Mildred is.

In the first example, I is the subject and went is the verb. Even though there are only two
words in the sentence, the words qualify as a sentence because they fulfill the criteria. I is
the pronoun which has done an action; the action is went. It represents a single thought and
is complete as it has both a noun actor and a verb action. In the second sentence, George is
the subject and he is acted upon (was hit). The third example simply clarifies Mildred’s
existence.

Most sentences, of course, are more complicated than these. However, when all modifying
words and phrases in any sentence have been removed, the simple subject and simple verb
are left. In the more complicated sentence below, the simple subject and verb are
highlighted.
 When I first decided to write this text, I began four unique versions before I settled on
this one.
You may notice that there are other subject/verb pairs in the above sentence. For instance,
"I" and "decided" and "I" and "settled". Both of these subject/verb combinations could be
main subject/verbs in other sentences, but, in this one, they represent the subject/verb of two
separate clauses which modify. In other words, they are not the main subject/verb pair.

It is important to be able to identify the main subject/verb pair, as other modifications depend
on one’s ability to do so. In the next sections, we’ll take a look at how to easily identify the
sentence’s main subject and verb.

#2 Identifying the Main Subject.

In #1, we determined that for a group of words to be qualified as a sentence, the sentence
must include a subject. Some people become confused with this concept of "subject"; they
think that the subject of a sentence is what it is about. Therefore, in the sentence "He
gathered the peas he had dropped," those people would believe that the subject of the
sentence is picking up dropped peas. But, although that is, obviously, what the sentence is
about, when we are looking for the subject of the sentence, we mean that one, single thing or
person which is acting, being acted upon or being shown to exist.

As noted in section #1, the simple subject is the label we give to the DO-ER (main focus) of
the action. It is often just one noun (ex. woman) or a pronoun which stands for a noun (She).
However, the simple subject is not always one word, necessarily; nor does it have to be a
person.
— the simple subject may be one word OR
— the simple subject may consist of many words

— the simple subject may be “animate”, i.e., it may live and breath
— the simple subject may be “inanimate”, e.g., it may be an idea.

A simple noun that is animate, as subject of the sentence: Mom washed the clothes.
“Mom” is the subject.

In the sentence above, it is true that the simple subject is just one noun: Mom. But this is not
always the case. From a very young age, students hear that a "noun is a person, place, or
thing." It certainly can be, but the noun is what is functioning as a person, place or thing.

The noun subject may be a noun phrase; words acting together to function as a single noun
and act as the subject. In other words, the form may be a noun or it may be a verb and or
other words performing the noun function. This is an extremely important point. The
example below shows such a case.

A possessive pronoun, a verb participle, and an adverb, which are inanimate, functioning
together and forming a phrase which acts as the subject: My being here troubled him.
“My being here” is the subject.
This not the same as "Everyone who came to the party went home early." In this example,
the complete subject (simple subject w/modifiers) is "Everyone who came to the party...", but
the simple subject is "Everyone". In the example above, "My being here" is the simple
subject.
The test to determine whether a series of words is a simple subject with modifiers or is a
series of words acting together as the simple subject is this: If none of the words in the
phrase can be removed and still allow the meaning to remain, then they are part of the
simple subject.

Some people try to identify the simple subject by placement, since the subject is
usually it is to the left of the verb; however, it isn’t always. With an action verb it is
always to the left; with a state-of-being or linking verb, it may be to the right.

The subject is to the left: Bob went to the store. (Bob is the entire subject.)
The subject is to the right: There were stools to sit on. (Stools is the subject.) A
hint to knowing this is that the verb "were" agrees with
"stools", e.g., it’s plural. "There" does not tell number.

Some have learned that the subject is the closest word to the verb, but sometimes it is not,
because, sometimes, the subject has modifiers.

Here, it is not: Millions of people went to the fair.

Although "Millions of people" is the complete subject of the sentence, the simple subject is
Millions; of people, a modifying phrase. You can see this by simply eliminating the modifier:
Millions went to the fair still makes sense. Of people went to the fair doesn’t.

#3 Identifying the main verb.

Verbs are the words that show action or existence (state-of-being/linking). When used as
main verbs, they carry the meaning of the sentences they are in.

Action Verbs:
— may show things that are happening now, that did happen, that may happen.
— may show something being acted upon rather than acting.

Example of a verb that shows action in the present: He throws the ball well.
Throws is the verb in present tense.

Example of a verb that shows existence in the past: He threw the ball well.
Threw is the verb in past tense.

Example of a verb that shows action in the future: He will throw the ball well.
Will throw is the verb in future tense.

Example of a verb showing something acted upon: The ball was thrown well.
“The ball”
is being thrown, not doing the throwing.
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

There are two types of action verbs: those that can take direct objects, as does "throw" above;
those that can not take a direct object, such as "thinks". Thinking is still an action, but it’s
not an action that can take a direct object.
Verbs that take direct objects are called transitive, because the action "transits" (moves) from
the do-er to the object. Verbs that do not take direct objects, do not transit action, so they are
called intransitive.

Note: In contemporary American English, some intransitive verbs are used as transitive to
make a point. For instance, you may be able to "think him into oblivion"; but, in fact,
that is a metaphorical construction. In other words, it abandons correct usage to make
a point. In that metaphorical construction, however, "him" would be the direct object
of "think".

Direct Objects

Direct objects (DO’s) are words functioning as nouns that receive the action of
transitive verbs. When we use an example such as the one above, "throw the ball", the
relationship between the verb and its object is fairly clear; however, it becomes less clear in
sentences such as those below.

Sam took the program from the hostess. (DO is "the program".)
Sam saw me. (DO is "me".)

Now, consider this:

Sam walked with me to the theatre.

In the first examples, "saw" and "take" are transitive; they are allowed to take direct objects.
There are no additional words between the verb and its DO; this is because they are acted
upon directly by the verb.

Sam can hit me, hug me, take me, but he must speak to me, walk with me, or look away
from me. Hit, hug and take all may have direct objects; speak, walk and look do not.

Think about it for a minute. No one can "walk" someone else. You might be saying, "Well, I
could say ‘Sam walked me to the theatre.’" And that’s true. However, you would simply be
leaving the word "with" to be understood in the sentence; it would not change "walked" into
a transitive verb, or "me" into a direct object. (And, yes... one of the biggest problems with
current sloppy syntax is that there are too many "understood" words, which we will talk
about as we go along and get to a fuller discussion of, a bit later on.)

State of Being, or Linking ,Verbs:

— show existence
— link two concepts, most often a noun with a modifier.
The linking verb is one that simply links two ideas that are equal. The most used linking
verb is "is" (the verb "to be"). Other common ones are "seem" and "feel". We use these
verbs to link nouns to modifiers (adjectives) or other nouns (predicate nominatives).

Examples of a word linking a noun with its modifier: Molly is pretty.

The team feels terrific.
My jacket seems too
tight.

Examples of a word linking a noun with another noun: Molly is a model.

John is a doctor.
My jacket is an Armani.

Note: A particular adjective is constantly misused. It is manifest. Rather than being used as
an adjective, it is used as a verb. People will say that something was "manifested" or
that it "manifested itself". Although I admit that through this constant error, the word
has now been accepted as a verb, the correct use is as an adjective, as in, "Cancer is
manifest in a tumor." It is important to know this, because, if one were to use it as a
verb, other words would need to change, as in, "Cancer is manifested as a tumor."

Some verbs that are both action and linking: Often, grammar texts will offer a list of
words that are linking verbs, and, too often, students will assume that they are always linking
verbs. However, the truth is that they function only as linking verbs in certain situations.
For instance:

Grow as a linking verb: He grows taller every time I see him.

- In this sentence, grows
links the pronoun "he" with a modifier: "taller".

Forty years ago, grow would not have been considered a linking verb in any sentence,
including the example given above. The actual sentence is "He grows [so that he is] taller
every time I see him." However, these understood words have been totally dispensed with in
modern American English, leaving grow to be considered a linking verb.

Grow as an action verb: He grows beans in his garden.

-In this sentence, "beans"
is not a modifier, but the direct object of the action verb
"grow". It is what is grown.

Therefore, though "grow" can be considered a linking verb, it can also be used in its original
form as an action verb. And, once again, we see that the designation we assign to a word is
based solely on its function in the sentence.

As noted above, the most common linking verb is is, but is can also have another purpose,
which we will look at next.

Participles:
 Each verb has two participles: one past and one present. Participles are verb forms
that end in "ing" or "ed", or may have a unique form. The verbs with standard participle
endings ("ing" and "ed"), we call regular; the ones with unique forms we call irregular. For
instance, in the verb to swim. The present participle is swimming, the past participle is swum.
Because the past participle is not "swimmed", which would follow regular form, to swim is
considered an irregular verb. There are hundreds of irregular verbs in American English.

Participles are used to clarify meaning, often having to do with time. Participles can not be
used alone. In order to use a participle, the writer must add a helping verb in front of it..

The most common helping verbs are forms of the verb to be ( is, was, were). In particular, is
is used for the present participle of a verb. The present participle is used when one wants to
say that something is happening in the immediate or current present.

For instance: John is playing with the band.

In this example, we know that John "is playing" with the band right now, but we don’t know
if he did play yesterday or whether he will play tomorrow.

Now, I know what some of you are thinking. You’re thinking that we could write "John is
playing with the band tomorrow." And you would be right. However, that would mean that
in tomorrow’s present, John is playing. It does not indicate if he is playing with them today
or if he will play with them the day after tomorrow.

So, when we use the helping verb is with a verb’s present participle, we are telling our reader
that this is a one-time event. We don’t know its past; we don’t know its future.

On the other hand, the regular present tense of a verb, not the participle, is used to tell us that
something is happening in the present, but it is also a continuing present.

For example: John plays with the band.

This means that he always plays with the band– he did yesterday, he does today, and we
expect that he will tomorrow.

Oddly, we can also show such continuation using is as a helping verb with the past
participle– not the present one. When we do this, we mean "always". However, a big issue
here is that this configuration, i.e., the present helping verb "is" and the past participle, can
only be used when the subject of the sentence is being "acted upon", not "acting".

For instance, we could not write "John is played with the band." We could write, "The music
is played whenever we enter the elevator." Notice how the music is being acted upon; it’s
not doing the playing, but being played. And, there is a modifier which qualifies the
"always" factor, i.e., "whenever we enter the elevator".

Other helping verbs include have, has, had, do and did. If we use any of these, we change the
meaning again. For instance:
 John has played with the band. This shows that he’s played with them in the past,
but we don’t know if he is now playing with them.
Probably not.

John had played with the band. The use of "had" really requires additional
information. For instance, when had John played
with the band? However, it does tell us that this
action is over; he no longer plays with the band.

John did play with the band.
Notice that we are no longer using either the
standard present participle (playing) or the
standard past participle (played); instead, did is
used with the present tense of a verb to show
affirmation. The same applies to "John does play
with the band."

When we
say John "did play", we mean that he doesn’t any
longer; when we say John "does play", we may
require a qualifier, such as "on Saturdays".

Hint: Verbs can be confusing. To make them less so, you must commit to memory–
eventually– all the participle forms and tenses. There is a hint on how to do this in
part #4. Until you have them in memory, however, keep a reference nearby. For
instance, you might want to print out the list of irregular verb forms at the end of this
text.

#4 Subject/verb agreement

For any sentence you write, if you want it to make sense, the subject and the verb
must "agree". For them to agree, they must be the same person and number. This means that
if the subject is 3rd person plural, then the verb must also be in 3rd person plural form; and,
reasonably, a 3rd person singular subject would require a verb in 3rd person singular form.
This is the main reason why you MUST be able to identify the subject of every sentence you
write.

Example of a subject and verb that are 3rd person singular. He goes on Fridays.
Example of a subject and verb that are 3rd person plural. They go on Fridays.
Example of a s/v pair that is COMPLETELY INCORRECT. He go on Fridays.

In order for you to know that the subject and verb agree, you must know what the singular
and plural verb forms are, and what "person" is being used in the subject.

Suggestion: An easy way to study verb forms and learn to recognize person is to
create and memorize conjugations. To conjugate a verb, use the form below.

Singular forms: Plural forms:

 1st Person I __________ we __________
2nd Person you ________ you _________
3rd Person he/she/it ____ they _________

EXAMPLE: Begin with the infinitive. The infinitive form of the verb is its basic form. It is
written beginning with the pronoun “to”, as in the verb “to be”. (See appendix B for
irregular verb forms, including infinitives.) In our sample conjugations below, just four
tenses are shown; there are more. (See appendix A.)

Sample Conjugations: Infinitive: to be

Present tense: I am we are

you are you are
he/she/it is they are

Past Progressive: I was being we were being

you were being you were being
he/she/it was being they were being

Infinitive: to go
Notice that this one is pretty easy. All you have to know the past participle of the word in question. In this case, it is
“gone”.

Past Perfect tense: I had gone we had gone

you had gone you had gone
he had gone they had gone

Past tense: I went we went

This one is even easier. You only need one form: went.
you wentyou went
he/she/it went they went

Some issues with infinitives:

Even though the infinitive form of the verb is the basic form of the verb, it is rarely used as a
verb in a sentence– which may account for some people’s confusion with it. The infinitive
usually functions as a noun or a modifier. (Example: I want to go. To go answers the
question "what"; it is functioning as the noun object of the verb want. Replace it with
another noun and you’ll see. Example: I want a cookie.)

Splitting infinitives: A split infinitive is one that has an adverb in the middle. (Ex: He
wanted to always go to the store.) In the past, splitting infinitives had been totally forbidden;
however, as language has progressed, we’ve seen that sometimes splitting the infinitive can
clarify meaning. For instance, without the split infinitive, the example sentence has a slightly
different meaning. "He wanted always to go to the store ."
When "always" splits the infinitive, the meaning seems to be, when I go to the store,
he always wants to go. In the second, which is actually what we would have previously
called correct placement, the sentence seems to mean that he wants to do nothing else but go
to the store. The second sentence also lacks the tempo of the prior sentence; sounds more
formal. So, splitting is ok, BUT understand that meaning may change if you do it.

One Problem: Nouns inculcated into American English are often not “anglicized”, meaning
that they retain the endings from their original language. This becomes particularly
confusing when the same ending does not indicate the same person. For instances: data is a
Latin plural; alumna is Latin singular feminine. When you see a non-standard ending on a
word, in order to make sure you’re using the correct verb form, you must know what person
these endings indicate. Solution: Look them up in the good ol’ dictionary.

#5 The Subjective and Objective Cases

In the first four sections, we have discussed the subject and the verb. In this section,
we want to make the distinction between all those things (modifiers) that belong with the
subject or act in a phrase or clause , which are considered "subjective", and all those things
that belong with the verb or are acted upon, which are considered "objective".

Subjective & Objective Pronouns

The pronouns we want to talk about first are those that directly STAND FOR/TAKE
THE PLACE OF a noun in a sentence.

We focus on these, initially, because the confusion over how to use subjective and objective
pronouns is what I consider to be the most prolific error in American English. I have heard
even actors, announcers and journalists makes these mistakes– people who make their
livings, supposedly, by being able to speak well. I once heard Academy Award winning
actor, Lawrence Fishburne (Rachel Ray Show, 11/25/09), say, in speaking about possibly
performing for the President of the United States that he wanted to perform "... for he and his
wife." What he meant was "for him and his wife." He, of course, is not alone. This error is
made hundreds of times a day– and that’s just by people on radio and TV!

You may ask, "Why does this matter?" Well... I am kind of a stickler on this particular issue.
It matters because when it comes to the use of objective and subjective pronouns, there is
RIGHT and there is WRONG. There is no quarter given here; there is no opinion that can be
offered that can support saying it wrong. There are no shades of gray.

So... how do you get it right?

Subjective pronouns are those which take the place of a noun in the subject of the
sentence or clause; they do the action or are acted upon.

Subjective pronouns: I, we, he, she, it, they, you. You will notice right away that these are
the pronouns we used in our verb conjugations.

Objective pronouns are those which receive action; are the object of a verb or a
preposition.
Objective pronouns: me, us, him, her, it, them, you. All objective pronouns receive action or
follow a preposition.

I hit him with the ball. You and I should go with her to the station.
Don't run to them with that idea. That was supposed to be between me and
him.

Hint: For compounds subjects, always say yourself second, as in: "She and I went." In
compound objects or following a preposition, always say yourself first, as
in "to me and him." As a test, just take yourself out of the pair and see how it
sounds. "Her went" or "to he" sounds ridiculous to everyone.

In addition to being subjects of sentences and clauses, the subjective pronoun is used on
either side of a linking/state-of-being verb.

Linking subjectives: I am she.

This is because "she" and "I" are the same thing and exactly equal; therefore, they are
interchangeable, and; therefore, the same case is used.

The subjective case is also used in phases and clauses.

Example: She was afraid that he would hurt her.

We do not say "that him would hurt her", because in that clause he is the do-er of the action.
The pronoun retains its subjective case as long as it is used in front of a verb, even when it is
not the main verb of the sentence. The main verb in the example sentence is "was".

Another example is when we use the comparison words "like" or "as".

Example: She worked as hard as I.

You may be saying, "Whoa! I know that’s not right. Where is the verb after I? And it’s in
the verb half of the sentence." Actually... there is a verb after it. The verb is "worked". It is
assumed that you will understand its being there and, therefore, we do not have to repeat it.
The complete sentence is:

She worked as hard as I worked.

You can see, therefore, that "me" is totally wrong. "She worked as hard as me worked"
sounds idiotic.

After like, however, the objective case is used, as in: She worked like me.

This simply means that she worked in a similar way. Like and as are problems, these days,
because too many confuse what they mean. But there are ways to know when to use which
word.
Hint: One way to tell when to use like or as for comparison, as you may have figured out by
the previous examples, is that when it is preceded by an adjective, such as "hard", use "as".
When not using a adjective qualifier, use "like".

Years ago, when cigarettes were advertised on television– and everyone had been well-
schooled in correct grammar– there was a big national flap about an ad slogan. It read
"Winston tastes good, like a cigarette should." Because of the adjective "good", it should
have read, "Winston tastes good, as a cigarette should." And, as noted above, the noun that
follows as is also followed by a verb, i.e., "Winston tastes good, as a cigarette should taste".

Like, on the other hand, is always followed by a noun with no verb afterward. "Cigarettes
taste like a cat box." Though never used as a slogan– nor would it ever be– this example
shows the correct use of like.

WHO AND WHOM: More often than not, these days, these two words get confused. They
shouldn’t be confused, because "who" is subjective and "whom" is objective, as defined by
our previous discussion. The reason they do get confused, however, because whom is
commonly separated from its accompanying preposition or verb. We used to have a solid
rule: never end a sentence with a preposition. It would be nice if that were still a solid rule,
but it isn’t. Even so, the correct subjective/objective form must still be used. Below are
some examples concerning the object of a preposition.

Correct: (sounds odd) You want me to give that to whom?

Correct (though stilted): To whom do you want me to give that?
Incorrect (common): Who do you want me to give that to?
BEST CHOICE: Whom do you want me to give that to?

Hint: If you have problems remembering that the first word you’re saying technically is the
object of the preposition at the end of the sentence, follow the old rule about never
ending a sentence with a preposition. For instance, if I say "Who do you want to
speak to?", the sentence sounds right, even though it is wrong. It should be "Whom
do you want to speak to?" Instead, say, "To whom do you want to speak?" or, if that
sounds too stilted, change the preposition and say, "With whom do you want to
speak?"

Being in the objective case, whom also is used as a direct object of a verb. Consider the
question, "Whom did you see?" Currently, it would, most likely, be written, "Who did you
see?" But that would be wrong.

In a statement, "I saw her," it would be obvious that the objective case should be used.
However, in the question form, the objective must also be used. "You saw whom?" This
last, of course, sounds extremely awkward, as we rarely use such a construction, anymore;
however, it makes the point. Whom must be used when it is the direct object of a verb.

#6 Other Pronouns

We’ve spoken about subjective and objective pronouns, but pronouns, which
are the next most used words after nouns, have other uses as well.
Possessive Pronouns

Pronouns are sometimes used to show possession (ownership). These possessive

pronouns are: my, our, your, their, his, her and its. We use these to substitute for nouns, so
that we don't have to keep repeating the noun. Without the use of the possessive pronoun,
things can get confusing.

Awkward and confusing: John looked up and saw John's book was lying on
John's bed.

Simple and not confusing: John looked up and saw his book was lying on his bed.

HOWEVER... never use the pronoun when the noun it represents does not come before it.
The reader of your writing must always be able to understand just what the pronoun is
connected to.

Not connected: He looked up and saw his book was lying on his bed. Then, John
picked it up.

If these were the only two sentences the reader had to go by, he would assume that
"he" is someone other than John. Or, we might think John picked up the bed, as
“bed” is the noun that precedes "it". Either way, the meaning is not clear.

The noun that is closest to the pronoun and matches it in person is the one it is taken to
represent.

Incorrect: John pulled the blankets askew looking for his book. After he found
it, he left it that way. (This second it represents the book, but it is not
meant to. It is meant to represent "the blankets", but, because
blankets is plural and the singular "it" is used, it does not.)

Correct: John pulled the blankets askew looking for his book. After he found
it, he left them that way.

Choosing the correct pronoun is very important, because when it is not used correctly, the
message is confused. Just as subjects and verbs must agree, so must all pronouns agree with
the nouns they represent (their antecedents) in person, gender and number.

#7 Pronoun Agreement

Whether possessive, objective or subjective, the pronoun must always be the same person,
number and gender as its antecedent. When they are as they should be, they are said to be in
agreement.

Incorrect: Everyone should know their neighbors.

Correct: Everyone should know his neighbors.
In the case of an abstract such as everyone, since the 1980's– when some nimnitz decided that
it offended feminism to use the universal "he/his"– their has become the possessive of
choice. However, it is a plural, and therefore can not– should not, must not!– be used with
the singular subject everyone. Therefore, please stop using it. His is correct. (I, a tie-dyed,
life-long feminist, am much more offended by a lack of accuracy than I am by a male
standard.)

For Compound Subjects, the antecedent of the pronoun is the noun that is closest to it, so if
you have a subject that includes two or more nouns then you may have to adjust the sentence,
sometimes even making it into two sentences, to achieve the correct meaning.

Incorrect: The boy and his friend ran into his house. (Whose house?)
Correct: The boy ran into his house. His friend went in with him.

When another noun comes between the antecedent and the pronoun that stands for it, it can
even be more confusing than the incorrect sentence just above.

Incorrect: John worked the night shift for Mr. Jones on Saturday, but he
was still able to make it to church on Sunday.

Who made it to church? As far as this sentence tells us, it was Mr. Jones, but that doesn’t
make sense. What was keeping Mr. Jones from church? Was he working, too?

Correct: John was still able to make it to church on Sunday, even

though he worked the night shift for Mr. Jones on Saturday.

THAT AND WHICH: These two words are multi-taskers. Each of them can function as a
pronoun, modifier, or connector. We’ll look at some of the common usages, particularly for
"that".

When that and which are used as connectors, usually the entire phrase they begin is
modifying the noun they are attached to. That is used when you want to signify a specific
thing; which is used when meaning is more on-going, yet the which phrase is not needed to
specifically understand the sentence.

That: The eggs that I had for breakfast were good.

Which: The eggs, which I don’t usually enjoy, were good.

THAT AND WHO: Use who for people and that for things when it is a modifying phrase that
is restrictive. There are exceptions, but it’s simply easier to remember this way. (For
clarification as to why there are not commas in both this example and “that and which”
above, see Commas, rule #6, restrictive and unrestrictive modifiers.)

That: The eggs that I had for breakfast were good.

Who: The girl who came for breakfast was nice.

THAT, THIS, THESE AND THOSE: These words are often considered pronouns in the sense
of the stand-in type of pronoun we first discussed, but another school of thought labels them
adjectives or a special kind of identifier known as an article. (Note: adjectives are words that
modify nouns, i.e., change their meaning.)

I am of the second school, which sees them as adjectives. The reason is because, even when
these words are used as pronouns, the words they modify are implied.

Consider the sentence, “I'll take these.” If I'm buying socks, then socks is implied, as in “I'll
take these [socks].” The word these specifically modifies the meaning of socks; it does not
actually take its place. “I'll take socks.” means any socks at all; whereas “these socks”
isolates specific socks. And so it is with all the others: "This [explanation] is a simple
one." "Those [people] were here first." "That [table] is the one I want."

In every case, a noun is implied; therefore, when used in this way, that, this, these and those
are adjectives/articles.

#8 Adjectives, Adverbs & Articles

Adjectives are words that modify– change/restrict/mutate– the meaning of a noun. Adverbs
are words that modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. There are thousands and
thousands of them, because they are not just single words. We can construct phrases and
clauses that function as adjectives and adverbs.

Examples: She wore a blue dress.

She wore a long, blue dress.
She wore a long, blue, slinky dress with fringe around the bottom.
She wore a long, blue, slinky dress with
fringe around the bottom and a ruffle around the neck.
You get the idea.

In the sentences above, long is an adjective, blue is an adjective; both modify dress (the
noun). With fringe... and a ruffle is a prepositional phrase functioning as an adjective
(adjective phrase), also modifying dress.

Around the bottom and around the neck are prepositional phrases functioning as adverbs,
modifying the adjective phrase. We know this because they answer the question "where".
This is one way to distinguish an adverb from other parts of speech. An adverb answers the
questions where, when, how. (Adjectives tell what.)

Adverbs: He went to the party. (to the party tells us where)

He came at four o’clock. (at four o’clock tells us when)
She laughed so that everyone could hear her. ( how)

Notice that in my examples above, the adverbial phrases are all modifying verbs. More often
than not, an adverb or adverbial phrase does modify a verb; however, single-word adverbs
are more easily identified than adverbial phrases, because they usually end in "ly". In the
sentence, "She laughed loudly", the word loudly is the adverb telling us how she laughed.
Or consider: "He came quickly." or "He went slowly."
A word about "there"

There is sometimes considered a pronoun; sometimes an adverb. In the sentence "There is a

sandwich for each of you." it might be considered a pronoun. However, I would suggest that
you think of there, always, as an adverb. If I correct the word order in my sample sentence, it
becomes, "A sandwich is there for each of you." Now, you can more easily see why it is an
adverb (it tells where), and, also, why "a sandwich" is the subject of the sentence. (Note:
There is, and will be, disagreement with my interpretation, which may be seen as overly simplistic.
However, I believe that, particularly for those who have difficulty with these concepts, this is the easy
way to view "there". Yes, there are other views; yes, there has other uses. If you’re interested, look
into those later.)

Articles are the simplest modifiers of nouns. There are only three: a, an and the. The English
language requires at least one article to identify a noun if there is no other modifier.

A is used in front of singular nouns. For plurals, adjectives often take the place of the article.

Using an article: “I need a drink.”

Using an adjective: “I need three drinks before my thirst will be quenched.”

An is used exactly the same way, but it is used in front of singular nouns that begin with
vowels or silent consonants. "I need an extension." "He brought me an historical novel."

Note: History, historical and most words beginning with "H" are often written in printed text
using "a" instead of the "an". The reason is, according to a mentor of mine, that typesetting
guilds were tired of being admonished for doing it incorrectly, so it decided to just use "a" all
the time for "h" words in printed text. However...

In strict English syntax, whether writing or speaking, we should differentiate, using "an" not
just for all words that begin with vowels, but for soft consonants, such as the "h" in historical
(pronounced "istorical"). The kicker is that you must know how to pronounce the word in
order to choose whether you will use "a" or "an. For, although historical takes the "an"
because of its soft "h", history has a hard h, so it takes an "a".

The is used to mean a particular one or a particular set of more than one; it is the most
specific of the articles. Often, it is followed by a qualifier (phrase acting as an adjective)...

Examples: The book that I bought yesterday has a page missing.

The students who are registering must go downstairs.
... but not always.
I bought the book on line.
Jim was introduced to the girls on Tuesday.

Still, in these last two examples, a specific book and a specific group of girls are
implied.

#9 THE PREPOSITION
 We’ve talked a lot in the prior sections about prepositional phrases. And, in fact,
prepositions never stand alone; they always begin phrases. They also offer us lots of
information. The preposition you choose will convey true meaning. Consider the difference
in meaning of the sentences below.

I took it from him. I looked for it with him.

I took it to him. I looked into it for him.

The main words in all the above sentences are the same. In the first pair: "I... took... it...
him"; and in the second pair: "I... looked... it... him." The only things that change are the
prepositions and you can see how clearly different the meanings of these sentences are.

The most common prepositions are: in from for between

on to of into
at by with about

Prepositions begin most of our modifying phrases. Whether acting as adjectives or adverbs,
the prepositional phrase is probably the most used phrase in English. It is, what I would call,
the essential building block of description.

Look how we build a sentence: He went.

He went to the store.
He went to the store at the mall.
He went to the store at the mall about an hour ago.
...and so on.

We could keep building, adding prepositional phrase after prepositional phrase. Notice how
each phrase we add gives us more information, modifying the original information to be a
more specific description of what happened.

#10 Common Errors to Avoid

Fewer and Less

I have a simple rule for this. "If it has an ‘s’, don’t use less." What I mean is that less is a
measure of volume; fewer is a measure of numbers of things. Only words that illustrate
numbers of things will have ‘s’s" on them; therefore, if it has an ‘s’, don’t use less.

You may say, "What about examples I see every day, like ‘less calories’?"
My answer is, "They are wrong." It should be "fewer calories".

This is such a common error, it almost seems as if I shouldn’t bother with it, but it irks me. It
is a simple thing to correct, yet so few correct it. The Giant grocery store chain did, however.
Their original signs said "10 items or less". It has been corrected to read, "10 items or
fewer." (Thank you, Giant!!!)

Until and till

The word "till" means to dig in the earth before planting. It is not an abbreviation for until,
although it is often used as such. The abbreviation for until is ‘til. To avoid the confusion,
however, just make it rule to never abbreviate: use until.

Affect and effect

Effect is the noun; affect is the verb. It’s that simple. “I was affected by the effects of the
sound.”

Got and gotten

There are plenty of verbs in which the past participle is not known and, therefore, not
properly used, but “gotten” is one that I hear often enough that I thought I would mention it.
“Got” is the past tense of “get”. “I got a great present for my birthday.”

“Gotten” is the past participle. “I had gotten a great present for my birthday, but my
Christmas present was even better!” NOT “I had got a great present...”
Part B: Sentence Punctuation
Commas

The comma is the most used punctuation mark in the English language. Interestingly, it
came into being with the advent of printing. (So, printers have always had an influence on
the language, not just in modern times.) The mark is attributed to William Tyndale (1535),
and may the gods bless him for it. It is one of the best punctuation marks there is; it helps us
keep things straight.

The problem with commas and their placement is that too many people remember
incorrectly the "rule" they learned in grammar school. What they remember is, "wherever
there’s a pause, there’s a comma." So, when they pause intellectually, they put a comma
there.

The rule actually is that "a comma indicates a pause". This means that if I have placed a
comma for any one of many reasons– which we will get to in a minute– then, when I am
reading the writing, I should intellectually, or actually (if speaking), pause. In other words,
pauses don’t cause commas; commas cause pauses.

Commas have specific reasons for their placement. Commas should only be placed
according to these reasons and NOT because someone pauses at a certain spot in the text. If
incorrectly placed, commas, or the lack of one, can create a difference in meaning. Look at
the following examples.
At the same time these theories were being put into effect.

The above sentence appears to be incomplete, just a fragment of a sentence. Yet, put in the
comma after the introductory phrase, and voila! a whole sentence appears; its meaning clear.

At the same time, these theories were being put into effect.

Or how about this one, which was sent to me in a humorous email: "Let’s eat grandma."
This sentence, without the proper comma, appears to be suggesting that grandma should be
sliced and diced and served for dinner!
Properly punctuated: "Let’s eat, Grandma," it’s meaning is clear.

A very popular example, which has even served as the title of a text on punctuation (Truss, L,
"Eats, Shoots & Leaves", Gotham Books, London, 2003) is, if written correctly, "A panda
eats shoots and leaves." With incorrect punctuation, "A panda eats, shoots, and leaves," one
wonders where a panda learned to shoot a gun and whom did he shoot before he left?

Below are the rules concerning commas. Follow them and your meanings will be clear.

Comma Rule #1: Commas are placed after introductory phrases.

The introductory phrase may be short: At last, we've arrived.

Finally, I'm finished.

Or it may be long: Glancing at her watch to see if the train was

on time, she stepped onto the platform.
Note: Some teachers and grammar books will tell you to only place a comma after an
introductory phrase of five words or more, but this is, in fact, a style convention from the
Associated Press (AP) style book. The AP style book is specifically designed for journalists
who want to save all the space they can for words, so punctuation is kept to a minimum.

The reason that commas are placed after ALL introductory phrases is to show the reader that
a word or series of words have been moved from normal placement.

Let’s use as example the original example of a sentence in correct word order that I offered
you in part #1: "You may ride home with us this afternoon." I can change this word order.

Changed sentence: This afternoon, you may ride home with us.

The adverbial phrase “this afternoon” has been taken from its standard placement and
converted into an introductory phrase. Hence, the need for the comma.

When the words are re-placed in the center of the sentence, they are surrounded by commas.

Changed sentence: You may ride home, this afternoon, with us.

#2 Commas are inserted to show that words are missing.

Missing words: Sometimes, we don't wish to repeat words that we have just used and so we
use a comma to show that they are missing. In the second independent clause in the sentence
below, for instance, a comma has been used to replace the words “was as”. This construction
is also much more dramatic when commas are used than when the words are repeated.

All words in place: The structure was as part of the land; the land was as part of the lake.

With missing words: The structure was as part of the land; the land, part of the lake.

Commas should also be placed when we decide just to omit words, but they usually aren’t.
This causes particular problems for non-English language speakers, but even native speakers
don’t always realize the words are missing. These missing words are among the "understood
words" I’ve mentioned as we’ve gone along. We must understand that the words are there
but simply unstated, or it skews the way we understand a sentence.

All words in place: Sue told Jim that she was going to the party.

With missing word: Sue told Jim she was going to the party.

These are the same sentence. The "that" is still, technically, there in sentence #2, and it must
be accepted as being there. Forty years ago, the second sentence would have been written,
"Sue told Jim, she was going to the party." However, rarely is the comma now used to show
the missing "that". We leave it out when other words are left out, as well.

A common example...
All words in place: The girl whom I spoke of yesterday is coming.

With missing whom: The girl I spoke of yesterday is coming.

Whom IS STILL THERE! If you can not recognize the existence of the missing word, then
you will not be able to recognize the modifying phrase "whom I spoke of yesterday".

Admittedly, I could admonish us again and say that these missing words are missing simply
because Americans have gotten sloppy in their speaking, and this sloppy speaking has
translated into sloppy writing. Yet, there is really more to it. The second sentence is simply
easier to say; the language is being streamlined, as it were. But, be that as it may, we must
know what is intended in order to understand the meaning and to make everything agree.

#3: Commas separate words that are not integral to the sentence’s meaning.

Commas separate any words that begin or are injected into a sentence to help its
understanding but are not essential to meaning. They are called transitional expressions.

He was, nevertheless, late for school.

(Nevertheless, he was late for school./ He was late for school, nevertheless.)

Bob was satisfied, after all, with the verdict.

(After all, Bob was satisfied with the
verdict./ Bob was satisfied with the verdict, after all.)

Notice that, no matter where these expressions are placed, they are either followed by,
introduced by or surrounded by commas.

#4: Commas surround appositives

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that is interjected to clarify meaning. It is the

same as the noun it clarifies and, just as is the transitional expression when it appears in the
middle of a sentence, the appositive is surrounded by commas.

Example: My father, the General, will be home soon.

My sister, Susan, is coming with us.
Barrack Obama, the President of the United States, will speak to us.

You can see that the appositive can be one or more words; it is not limited as to size.
However, a sentence can get very cumbersome if you try to put too many words into an
appositive. If you do, your reader– or listener, if you are speaking– begins to lose the thread
of what you are saying. For instance:

My friend, who is the girl whom you met yesterday when we were on that school
field trip, is coming.
An appositive this long should actually be considered a separate thought and, therefore, a
separate sentence, as in:

My friend is coming. She is the girl whom you met yesterday when we were on that
school field trip.

Another way is to change the subject.

The girl whom you met yesterday, who is my friend, is coming. OR, simply,
The girl who is coming is the girl whom you met yesterday.

#5: A comma should separate dependent and independent clauses.

FIRST: A clause is simply a complete thought within a sentence. It’s easier to understand if
we just create some from some sentences.

Sentence 1: I am going to the store.

Sentence 2: I was wondering if you would like to come.
Sentence 1 & 2 being turned into clauses:
I am going to the store, and I was wondering if you would like to come.
The word “and” in this usage is a coordinating conjunction. All this means is that it joins
two formerly independent and complete thoughts, which, because they are now joined, have
become known as clauses.
(A word about “and”. And is a coordinating conjunction in this instance, but may
also act as a simple conjunction (joining word) for a compound subject or verb. For
instance: John and Bill were students. Do NOT write: John, and Bill were students,
because John and Bill is a compound subject. Now, back to the coordinating
conjunctive use...)

The coordinating conjunction can not stand alone. It can not just sit between the two clauses
separate from them; it must be part of one clause or the other. When the conjunction
becomes part of a clause, that clause is then said to be dependent because it can no longer
stand alone. For instance, if we wanted to separate the two sentences above again, we could
remove the first complete thought (I am going to the store.) and it could stand alone as a
complete sentence. However, "and I was wondering if you would like to come" is not a stand
alone thought anymore.

Other coordinating conjunctions that can be used with a comma are: but, or, nor, for, so,
and yet. (Note: for more information about other conjunctions, see "conjunctive adverbs".)

You will read, occasionally, that a comma and “and” separate two independent clauses, but I
believe that by labeling a clause that begins with a conjunction as “independent”, the issue of
what can stand alone as a sentence becomes confused. The only time a clause beginning
with a coordinating conjunction can stand by itself is when the beginning of the sentence, the
independent clause to which it is attached, is not stated but understood.

For instance: I didn't look, because it was too gruesome. And John didn't either.
In the second sentence, a repetition of the words “I didn't look” are understood. If we
included everything, it would read: I didn't look, because it was too gruesome. I didn't look,
and John didn't either.

Repeating the first clause in this way sounds awkward, because it is unnecessary.
Consequently, we simply don't repeat it, and allow the dependent clause to stand, essentially,
alone. This does not, however, suddenly make "And John didn’t either" an independent
clause.

#6 Commas indicate whether a modifier is restrictive or non-restrictive.

This is probably one of the more important rules for comma use. I feel confident saying this
because, when I was once serving as an editor, I saved a company $100,000 simply by
placing a comma before what was meant to be a non-restrictive modifier.

When commas are used to surround an adjective or adverb modifier, it is indicating that that
modifier is not essential to the meaning of the sentence and it is called “non-restrictive”. For
instance, in the example below, the meaning we take from the sentence is that there is only
one sister and she just happens to live on Elm Street.

Example of a non-restrictive clause: The victim's sister, who lives on Elm Street,
was home that night.

When no commas are used, the modifier becomes “restrictive”, meaning that it always
applies and must be part of the sentence. The restrictive modifier identifies specifically. In
the restrictive use, with no commas, the sentence implies that the suspect has more than one
sister, and the one we're talking about is the one who lives on Elm Street.

Example of a restrictive clause: The victim's sister who lives on Elm Street
was home that night.

Hint: When these sentences are spoken, it is easy to tell them apart. When we say the first,
we drop our voice down to a deeper tone and pause at the first comma. When we say
the second, there is no pause and we maintain the same tone of voice as we did when
saying “The victim's sister....” So, if you’re having trouble determining whether you
should have commas or not, say the sentence out loud. You will, no doubt, say it
correctly and the tone of your voice will tell you which one you want.

#7: Commas separate words in a series.

This is the most well-known comma rule. Oddly, it is also one of the least followed,
anymore. It is followed when we have a sentence such as, "I bought apples, peaches and
pears." It is often not followed when we are writing description, as in, "A widespread viral
attack has occurred." If we were being strict, it would read, "A widespread, viral attack...".
We aren’t.
Sometimes, and particularly in the case of multiple adjectives, it’s been found that commas
can confuse. So, in this case, I would suggest that you use your own judgment. If using
commas for things in a series makes the thought more clear, use them; if it doesn’t, don’t.

#8: Commas always surround the names of states when they are used in
conjunction with cities, and separate the day and year when the month,
day and year are written. Commas also separate abbreviated titles.

Too often we see something such as “John Jones, Esq. was at the trial.” The
abbreviated title, “Esquire”, even though the abbreviation is followed by a period, should
also have a comma after it. Such things are treated as are appositives. States and company
endings such as incorporated should be shown the same way. The following sentences are
correct.

John Jones, Esq., was at the trial on April 3, 1999.

Washington, D.C., is where he has his office.
Ben & Jerry, Inc., was just sold to a large food chain.

Notice that in the first of our examples, we have the prepositional phrase “on April 3, 1999.”
This phrase shows the comma between the day and the year. Many people in government or
military structure write dates differently. They may write “3 April 1999”, but in a report or
letter or any other kind of standard writing, this would be incorrect. Unless one is writing for
the government (or in Europe), the date should always be shown month, then day, then a
comma, then year.

Important Note: Commas never separate a subject from its verb.

Lots of the examples that you've read— such as the ones just above— appear to separate the
subjects from their verbs, but that is not so and it is not allowed. For instance, we would
write John Jones was at the trial. Not: John Jones, was at the trial. The commas are
included above, not to separate the subject from its verb, but to isolate the words or letters in
question.
The semi-colon and the colon

Just as are any other marks of punctuation, the semi-colon and the colon are used in specific
instances. But the first thing the writer needs to understand is that punctuation is a hierarchy.
In other words, the comma is the lowliest form of punctuation, and, therefore, the most used.
It indicates a pause, as we’ve noted, but only a brief one.

Next up the scale is the semi-colon; then the colon. Finally, there is the period, the question
mark and the exclamation point. Each of these indicates a progressively longer pause or an
ending.

Think of it this way...

The Punctuation Hierarchy
 !
???
......
::::::::
;;;;;;;;;;
,,,,,,,,,,,,,
Of course, my hierarchy does not contain all punctuation used in American English. In
addition, we use the hyphen, dash, ellipsis, parentheses, brackets, quotation marks, and
apostrophe; however, the hierarchy contains all basic sentence punctuation. (For discussion
of some of those not noted in the hierarchy, see the next few sections.)
Looking at the punctuation as a hierarchy, you can almost see how it evolved. The semi-
colon is created by using the comma and half of a colon; it, also, falls between them. The
colon is half of the top half of a semi-colon with a period underneath. The period stands
alone just as the thought that it signifies the end of; and both the question mark and the
exclamation point have periods as part of their constructions, indicating that they, too, end a
complete thought.

If we can keep this in mind, it becomes easier to use the hierarchy to remember under what
circumstances we use these marks.

Example: No punctuation, except a period.
A comma is used.
Comma & semi-colon used.
Colon & semi-colon used.
The officer left the station at three o'clock.
At three o'clock, the officer left the station.
At three o'clock, the officer left the station;
he was ill.
The officer left the station for two reasons:
he was ill; his shift was over at three o'clock.

The semi-colon connects (or separates– however you want to look at it) two complete
thoughts, each of which could, if we chose, stand alone as a complete sentence. We choose
to keep them together with the semi-colon when we feel that they are so closely related in
thought as to need to be together; however, at the same time, we do not wish to subjugate one
to the other by using a conjunction. (It's a judgment call; there's no right or wrong.)

Specific instances in which a semi-colon should be used.

1. To separate two complete thoughts with no conjunction. (as noted above)

2. Before conjunctive adverbs/adverb phrases*, such as however. (Note: these
conjunctive adverbs are always followed by a comma, as in, “He went in for trial;
however, it was postponed.”) A word about conjunctive adverbs— they are first
adverbs. When used strictly as adverbs, they do not require the semi-colon,
comma combination.
 Used as conjunctive: He arrived with me; accordingly, he was not there to hear
the speaker.

Used as an adverb: He was late, and was chastised accordingly.

Conjunctive adverbs/adverbial phrases are as follow; however, the three that are most used
are however, nevertheless, and therefore.

accordingly for example in other words otherwise

after all for instance instead similarly
also further likewise still
anyway furthermore meanwhile subsequently
as a result hence moreover then
besides however nevertheless thereafter
certainly in addition next therefore
consequently incidentally nonetheless thus
even so indeed of course
finally in fact on the other hand

Specific instances in which a colon should be used.

The colon is often used currently as a substitute for a period, as in “He walked me to
the elevator: He was a gentleman.” You see this a lot in upscale publications, where the
writers are trying to be unique and avant garde.

Do not use the colon in this way. It is not specifically wrong, but it is not what we would
consider standard use; and it is, quite frankly, unnecessary. In the above example, a semi-
colon (without the second capitalized “he”), or a period and two complete sentences, would
have been clear enough.

The colon should be used to separate the main thought in a sentence from other thoughts that
further explain it. Example #1 below shows this. Example #2 shows the colon used the
same way as in #1, but the second part of the sentence is broken out in a list. Example #3,
however, shows a complete thought introducing a separate list. Notice that the colon is NOT
used.

1) Use the colon when you have a list that follows which expands something in the
sentence, as in, “We found three items in the apartment: a gun, a rope, and a list of
names.”
2) Use the colon before a list that remains part of a sentence.

Example*: We found three items in the apartment:

a gun,
a rope, and
a list of names.

3) Do NOT use the colon, necessarily, after the words “as follow/as follows”. A period
is your best choice.

Example*: The items we found in the apartment are as follow.

-A gun
-A rope
-A list of names

Note: Do NOT use a colon to introduce a quotation or after "for example".

Parentheses & Brackets & the Ellipsis

In the previous section, I mentioned parenthetical expressions. These are clarifying

comments which are not a direct part of what one is talking about. They are, if you will, the
voice of the omnipotent narrator or writer. (See “dashes”, below.)
Parentheses, however, also have a function in format. Often, the parentheses will
enclose a date, name, or title of a work or page number in a line of text to help cite it. This is
true in both the MLA and APA formats, which will be discussed in Part III.

Examples: MLA (Jones, 4) Indicates the last name of the author & pg.
APA (Jones, 2008, p. 4) Also tells us the year of writing.

Brackets may serve a similar function. They can insert parenthetical material;
however, brackets may be used to insert parenthetical material in quotations. Such use is
rare, however. Their standard use in quotations is to show that the writer who is quoting has
inserted something into the line to clarify. For instance, if an original was in past tense, then
I might change it to present, so that it would read well. Brackets alert my reader to such
changes.

Original: "The guidance worked when they were all gathered together."
Change: "The guidance work[s] when they [are] all gathered together."

The Ellipsis is also most often used in quotations. An ellipsis is those three little dots
that show that the sentence did not begin or end with the words the writer is quoting.

Beginning: "... when we are all gathered together."

Ending: "the guidance worked...". or "The guidance worked...."

Notice that when the ellipsis is used at the beginning, there is a space before the word that
comes next. This implies that it is attached to the words that came before it which we do not
see. When the ellipsis appears at the end, we do see the word to which they are attached.
The three dots begin right after the word before– there is no space.

Period: inside or outside? In the ending use of the ellipsis, I have offered two alternatives.
The question is, why are there two choices? The first, where the period is outside the
quotation, the period is indicating the ending of an entire sentence which contains the quote,
but not the quote itself.

Example: His paper proved conclusively that "the guidance worked...".

In the second example, we are allowing the quotation to stand alone. Notice the capitalized
"t". We are saying to the reader, "There was more to this sentence, but then it ended."

Example: There was simply no equivocation. "The guidance worked...."

So, just as words change their function and meaning, so punctuation tells the reader things
about what they are reading. In one case, "here is the end of my sentence"; in the other, "here
is the end of his."

The ellipsis is also often used in dialogue to show hesitation.

Example: "I... I... I just couldn’t."

It may also show a complete pause.

Example: "I... Oh, I don’t want to answer you now!"

Note: In everyday writing, we often use the ellipsis to just show that we want the reader to
continue the thought in his own head or to introduce a new topic. Personally, if
someone has asked me questions in an email, I might write, "As to your first
question... " and then begin my answer. This, however, is a frivolous use of the
ellipsis and should not be used in formal writing.

Quotation Marks

There are only two instances in which one uses quotation marks: to surround a direct
quotation; to set off a word as unique.

1. As do parentheses and brackets, quotation marks contain something that is not

part of the sentence, itself.
2. Like parentheses and brackets, there is no such thing as one quotation mark;
they only work in pairs.
3. Like parentheses and brackets, and unlike all internal sentence punctuation, a
space does not always follow. Instead, a space precedes the first mark and follows
the second.
4. And, like parentheses and brackets, the marks face each other, rather than
pointing in one direction, i.e., parentheses ( ), quotation marks “ ”
5. Unlike parentheses and brackets, quotation marks are further separated from
the rest of the sentence by additional punctuation, such as a comma.

Correctly used marks: He said to me, “I don't want you as my attorney.”

Notice that a comma and the requisite space which follows it separate the quoted
material from the rest of the sentence. Also, notice that the period is inside the quotes.
There is a lot of confusion about “the period, inside the quotes.” We noted one
variation above in the use of the ellipses, but there are others.
6. In most cases where the quotes are: (1) surrounding a direct quotation, and (2)
ending the sentence which is inside the quotes, the period should be inside the quotes.
7. Quotation marks should NOT be placed inside the quotes when the quotation
marks are: (1) NOT surrounding a direct quotation, but are merely being used for
emphasis; and (2) when the material being quoted is not the end of the quotation.

Correctly punctuated: He said he wanted “moral support”.

Note: I will add, however, that few people know this, as it has become accepted to always
place the period within the quotation marks. If you're unsure about when to do what,
then just place the period within the quotes.

SOMETIMES, a direct quotation is broken up.

Correctly punctuated: “I want to see him,” she demanded. “I won't wait.”

Notice that the quoted material is “I want to see him. I won't wait.” Two complete
sentences.

In this case, we have placed a comma where the period would normally be in the first
sentence, because the “she demanded” comes afterward and is, essentially, part of the first
sentence.

Correctly punctuated: “I wasn't anywhere near the bank,” she said, “or the grocery
store.”

When the second part of the quote is part of the first sentence, then we again use a comma to
separate it from the rest of the sentence. "She said" follows the rule of the appositive.

Ending Punctuation: period, question mark & exclamation point

There should be little confusion about ending punctuation. After all, a sentence ends when it
ends. Yet, herein lies the confusion. Some people have difficulty determining when a
sentence ends. And, in a sense, this takes us right back to our first discussion: What is a
sentence?

If the thought is complete, end the sentence. If you keep going on and on, eventually
meaning will be lost. I once edited a piece in which the writer had created an entire
paragraph that was just one sentence; it was 10 lines long. I kept it for years, but, sadly, do
not have it anymore to show you. Oddly, however, it was not a "run on" sentence; it was just
way, way too long.

A run-on is not just a sentence that is too long; it is a sentence that does not have the correct
punctuation in it, and, thereby, runs on from one thought to the next. Learn to use
punctuation correctly, and you will never write a run-on, no matter how long the sentence.

Dashes
Dashes have only one use: to separate a discontinuity of thought from the text of the
sentence. Any other use is wrong. What we mean by “discontinuity” is some comment that
is completely off topic; that is out of context.

Correct use: I peeked over his shoulder– I mean, what else could I do.
Incorrect use: I peeked over his shoulder– because I wanted to.
The first sentence above contains two complete thoughts, but the second thought is really
unrelated to the first. It is said to be a parenthetical thought, and, in fact, one option if one is
unsure about how to use the dash in such an instance is to simply use parentheses, instead;
e.g., “I peeked over his shoulder. (I mean, what else could I do?)”

The second example sentence should have a simple comma, rather than the dash, because the
second clause is a dependent clause to the first. It is part of the same thought. And, in fact,
even no interior punctuation would be permitted in the second sentence: “I peeked over his
shoulder because I wanted to.” Why? Because "because I wanted to" is explanatory and
could be considered "restrictive".

A word or two about the dash and the hypen.

*The dash is not a hyphen. A hyphen is only half the dash's length and is used to
connect two parts of a word or phrase, as in: “Use a semi-colon.” or “I like my mother-in-
law.”
*The dash should be connected to the word preceding it and be followed by a space.
In this, it is not different than any other internal sentence punctuation. ALL INTERNAL
SENTENCE PUNCTUATION IS CONNECTED TO THE WORD PRECEDING IT AND
IS FOLLOWED BY AT LEAST ONE SPACE.
Admittedly, sometimes you will not have a choice in this. Microsoft Word, for
instance, automatically connects two words between which there is a dash, because it uses
what's called an em dash or m-dash; so-called because it is the length of an M or 3 hyphens.
The m-dash is another convention of the printing world which was begun when computers
first began using proportional type. If you are using Word, just let it stand; or, if you'd
rather, just enter two hypens and a space. If you're using Corel WordPerfect and do that, the
software will, correctly, turn your two hyphens into a proper dash.

The lonely apostrophe

As does its lower line twin the comma (,), the first function of an apostrophe (‘) is to indicate
missing things. Consider "can’t", "won’t", "didn’t", etc. In such abbreviations, in which two
words have been turned into one shorter word, the apostrophe shows us that letters are
missing. One might also say that it acts as a joiner, of sorts, as well, in that it joins the letters
that are left to create the new word.

The apostrophe also shows possession, as in "Lynda’s book." However, it DOES NOT
INDICATE PLURALITY. Way too often, these days, I read student papers in which an "s"
has been joined to a word to indicate that it is plural, but it is preceded by an apostrophe.
This is wrong. An apostrophe preceding or following an "s" indicates possession only.

The people’s book. UMBC’s library. The students’ dorm. The children’s room.

The apostrophe also used to be used when we were talking about eras. "In the 1970's..." we
would say. But it is now rarely used– except possibly by me. "In the 1970s..." is acceptable.
 Part C:
Writing & Writing Formats
Writing

This section concerns the writing of essays. But all the writing that one may do, whether it
is a letter to the IRS, an article in a newspaper, or a blog entry, follows the same basic rules.
And, just as essays have formats, each of these types of writing have formats, as well. A
letter, for instance, written in hardcopy, has a physical format that the text must be plugged
into. An article in a newspaper requires the use of Associated Press format, or in a
professional journal, often APA (American Psychological Association) format; a blog entry
may contain certain short-cuts in writing that are not allowed in either letters or articles or
essays.

However, no matter what format one is following, the writing, itself, is consistent. The way
sentences are formed, the flow of the thought, these are constant. So, even though we focus
here on the essay– and, most particularly, the student essay– all these rules can be transferred
to other writing.

What is an essay?

If you go to a written or on-line dictionary, you will find standard definitions of the
word "essay". I took the following from Dictionary.com (accessed 8/21/09).

1. a short literary composition on a particular theme or subject, usually in

prose and generally analytic, speculative, or interpretative.
2. anything resembling such a composition: a picture essay.
3. an effort to perform or accomplish something; attempt.
4. Philately. a design for a proposed stamp differing in any way from the
design of the stamp as issued.
5. Obsolete. a tentative effort; trial; assay.

The #1 definition is what we might call the true "standard"; however, it includes some things
that may be confusing. For instance, it says that an essay is "short".

Define "short"?

Is an essay two pages or 10? One of the world’s most famous essayists, Ralph Waldo
Emerson, wrote an essay entitled "Self-Reliance". It runs 19 pages (46 paragraphs), single-
spaced. Short? Personally, I wouldn’t actually call that short. Or how about a 43-page
paper? Or a doctoral thesis of 400 pages? In fact, all of these examples follow the rules and
styles of essays, and may be thought of as essays.

Dictionary.com’s definition also says that an essay is a "literary composition". The average
person, whether in school or out, would not consider himself capable of writing something
that is "literary". We tend to think that one must know literature and/or write literature to be
literary. And those who are in that discreet group often disagree over just what literature is.
So, literary doesn’t really apply.
The #1 definition also states that an essay is written in prose– in other words, it’s not poetry–
yet, the #2 definition notes that "a picture essay" can be an "essay". So, one wonders, "If a
picture can be an essay, then why can not a poem?"

Let us ignore definition #4, permanently, because it has nothing to do with writing, and #3
for just a moment. I ask you, however, to keep in mind #5, even though it also seems to
have nothing to do with writing and, also, according to dictionary.com, is obsolete. The
reason I want you to keep #5 in mind is the content of an essay.

To get to content, we must go back to #1. The last part of that definition states that an essay
is, "...generally analytic, speculative, or interpretative." This part is important, because it is
content that really makes a piece of writing– or a picture or a poem, for that matter– an essay.
The most defining characteristic of an essay is that it makes a point.

I know this is not in any of the 1-5 definitions, but it is implied by the comment about
content. Why do we analyze something? Why do we speculate on something? Why do we
try to interpret something? To make a point.

Therefore, one thing an essay is NOT is a piece of writing that has no point to make. If it’s
just someone’s ramblings about his day, then it can be a blog or an entry on Facebook, but it
is not, under any circumstances, an essay.

And this takes us back to #3 & #5 above. Three says, "an effort to perform or accomplish
something; attempt." Five, "a tentative effort; trial; assay."

Once upon a time, the word essay meant "a tentative effort; trial; assay". When we analyze
or speculate or interpret something, we are making a "tentative effort" to understand and
accomplish something. We are sending up a trial balloon; considering possibilities; we are
surveying (assaying) issues and commenting on what they mean.

Therefore, these definitions really help us nail down what an essay is, which is as follows.

An essay is an attempt to examine and explain something, drawing

a conclusion. Though an essay usually takes form as prose, it can
also be a visual, auditory, musical, physical, or even poetic.

Now... I can imagine that there is also some confusion beginning over this definition. But let
me give you some examples.

C A schematic drawing of a fireplace is NOT a visual essay.

C A collage of fire, fireplaces, bonfires, etc., that is put together in an effort to make a
statement about how man misuses energy IS an essay.

C Someone dancing at a club is NOT creating a physical essay.

C A modern dance troop interpreting Beethoven’s Requiem IS creating a physical
essay.
C A student who writes a paper in which he simply summarizes the writing of another
has NOT written an essay.
C A student who writes a paper in which he explores, criticizes, and/or offers alternative
theories to those in the writing of another HAS written an essay.

In other words, content– not form and format– make an essay,

an essay.

We, of course, are not going to concern ourselves here with visual rhetoric (visual essay) or a
musical essay or a physical essay. Our only concern will be the written essay.

If you are saying to yourself, "Well... for Pete’s sake... why didn’t she just say that in the first
place," then I must say that if one is going to talk about a finger, one must first understand
that it is attached to a hand. In other words, we need to know what an essay looks like, both
in the short and long view. Now that we do, we will move on to our chosen type of essay:
the written essay.

Types of Essays

There are basically three types of essays: Expository Essays, Narrative Essays, and
Descriptive Essays.

Expository Essays investigate/expose a topic head-on. They are like news articles, giving
facts about a particular idea, thing or happening. Unlike a news article, they take a
perspective as they explore, define, contrast, etc., a topic. Like a news article, they should
always be written in 3rd person, with the focus on "it".

Narrative Essays have the same purpose, but they expose their topics through the telling of a
story. And, whereas an expository essay has no time constraints, a narrative does. The
narrative story must move through time, taking us from one point to another– sometimes
literally; sometimes figuratively. The narrative also tends to tell the story from someone’s
point-of-view; it has a lead character or characters. Usually, narratives are written in 3rd or 1st
person.

Descriptive Essays attempt to expose a feeling about an issue or happening. Just as do

narratives, a descriptive essay often isolates a point in time. Usually written in 3 rd, the
descriptive essay may also be written in 1st person, and, occasionally, in 2nd.

Examples:

Expository writing During the depression of the 1930's in America, women often worked
in "sweat shops". They were so-called because people were jammed
in closely together, there was no air-conditioning, and one tended to
sweat.

Narrative writing The door opened and Mary stepped through it. The sound of it closing
and locking behind her rushed over her like cold water, and she felt a
 chill. Directed to an empty sewing machine on the aisle, she grabbed a
sleeve from the pile that sat at her feet and began to sew.

Descriptive writing The air in the room grew foul with the smell of sweat as the day wore
on, even as it hummed with the continuous tat-tat-tat of the sewing
machines. Women, bent over their needles, forced their feet back and
forth on the treadles to keep the needles moving in steady rhythm.

that there is an element of narrative in the descriptive passage and there is also description in the narrative
passage. This is normal.

1. Although essays have distinct types, an essay is usually not confined by that type.
For instance: an 3rd person expository essay may have a 1st person narrative example
or a descriptive passage; a narrative essay my use description and occasionally
explain; or a descriptive passage may be found in narrative or exposition.

2. Person does not necessarily equate with point-of-view. A 3rd-person, expository

essay, for instance, can still be written from the writer’s (1st person) point-of-view. It
is not necessary to say "I think" or "I know" to have a 1st person point-of-view.

A fourth type of essay: Commentary

Commentary is a type of narrative essay; it is often called "narration". The two major
differences between narrative and commentary are time and perspective.

C Whereas narrative covers a short period of time, commentary may jump over years.
C Although narrative is always from the perspective of the "character" in the narrative,
commentary is always a 1st person point of view written in either 1st or 3rd person.
C Whereas narrative attempts to "show" a person’s point, commentary simply "tells".

If you have ever been told "show, don’t tell", then what you’ve been asked to do is either
write narrative or description, as opposed to the telling done through exposition or
commentary.

Examples:

Narrative Example:
3rd person Team United States walked into the Olympic stadium with
flags flying and music playing. People in the stadium cheered,
applauded; some even wept.
1st person As Team United States entered the Olympic stadium, I couldn’t
help the tears that welled up in my eyes. I reached into my
pocket for the tissue I’d put there hours ago; I’d known I would
need it.

Commentary Example:
3rd person
 w/1st persp. Watching Team United States enter the stadium was a
spectacular site. People cheered; some booed.
1st person I was astounded by the spectacle of the opening to the Winter
Games, but cringed when I heard some of the crowd booing.
Whatever happened to fair play?

All of these examples tell of the same moment in time, but the way each is approached is
unique.

Writing the Essay

1. Rid yourself of the 5-paragraph essay thinking

If students have written essays at all in grades K-12, they have written what is
commonly called the 5-paragraph essay. The rules of the essay are that you must introduce
your topic and state your entire thesis, usually word-for-word, in the first paragraph; follow
that with three body paragraphs; and end with a summary paragraph. It is very
straightforward and, honestly, is not a bad starting point if you are in 4th grade. However, it
is, in my not-so-humble opinion, ridiculous to graduate from high school thinking that every
essay one writes must be in this form.
Step up from it; think of it as the basic form and move on to more sophisticated writing.

2. The first sentence

The first sentence of an essay is the most important. It catches your readers’
attention, directs them toward your topic, and creates the gate through which your writing
finds its path. Too often, however, the first line of a student essay is dull, passive, and just
lies there, providing no service to the essay, whatsoever.

Let’s say a student has a 1,000-word expository essay to write. It must be on an issue that
affects college students. He chooses the lack of parking. His first sentence reads:

There are many reasons why parking at most colleges is not good, such as there aren’t
enough spaces for everyone.

What’s wrong with it? Well...

First, it is dull. It has no spark to pull in my interest as a reader.

Second, it is wordy (verbose). It takes why too many words to say what it wants to
say.
Third, syntactically, it is incorrect.
Fourth, it offers little information and what information it does offer is vague and
general.

So, let’s change it.

 First, we get rid of "There are many reasons...". Just make this a rule. Do not, under
any circumstances, begin any essay, letter, opinion column– anything– with those four
words or any variation beginning with “There are many...”.
Second, we get rid of "most". If you tell the reader that "most colleges" have parking
problems, his or her first thought is going to be "Who says so?" You need a documented
resource and data to prove "most colleges". So, the writer should just use his own college as
an example.
Third, we get rid of the evaluative word: good. This really tells the reader nothing;
one person’s "good" is another person’s "bad". Use a word that says something.
Fourth, don’t use "such as". If you have a "such as" phrase, then rewrite it to be an
active part of the sentence. Also, this "such as" is lame syntax. The writer says there are
"many reasons" and then offers only one; and the one he offers is, essentially, obvious.
There’s nothing new here.

Re-written, the line becomes a paragraph filled with description that captures the readers’
attention, but, more importantly, explains the problem.

To find a parking space at Howard Community College, some students and faculty
hover in an area that experience tells them there might soon be a space. Others drive
the circuit: around and around the same lot until a spot opens up. Others are stalkers.
They wait until they see someone headed toward the parking lot, and follow him or
her.

Then we need end the paragraph with a lead-in to the body of the essay. And, yes, it should
offer the reader a sense of the writer’s point-of-view, but it need not be the entire, verbatim
(word-for-word) thesis.

Thesis: Colleges need to find a way to make it easier to find on-campus parking.
Transition: If the seeker is lucky, he finds a place in minutes; but, in fact, the process
can take half an hour or more. When one has to get to class, finding a parking place should
be easier.

3. The body paragraphs.

The first sentence in the first body paragraph should directly relate to the final
thought in the first paragraph. It should not be a re-hash or restatement, but a continuance.
And, from the first paragraph, each successive paragraph should move along that same line,
taking its respective cue from the last sentence of the paragraph that preceded it.

When those in control of the parking situation think about making it easier to find a
parking space, the first thought is to simply build more parking. At HCC, just a few
years ago, a parking garage was built on an inconvenient edge of the campus. It was
meant to have held hundreds of cars and would have been an excellent place for staff
to park, thus freeing lot spaces. This new facility, however, was unsafe.

Whether the parking garage was built with too much rebar or too little concrete, this
author can not say; however, within a few months the parking lot was closed for
repair. Although it is once again open for parking, it has been of little help in making
parking easier, as, in that time, thousands more students have enrolled.
Up until this point, the writer has only been discussing parking at his school, but it is now
time to widen the issue to all schools. Notice how the first line of the next paragraph directly
takes the enrollment issue into the wider parking issue.

Limiting enrollment could be a way to make parking more available, but for
community colleges like HCC and other, primarily, commuter colleges, it makes little
sense. They are in the business of getting more students to keep the school going,
not fewer. So, what is the best solution?

The Community College of Baltimore County has come up with a solution that works
fairly well. Though it is not perfect– parking can still, on occasion, be hard to find–
the theory behind it makes sense and is simple. It is based on the realization that all
classes began and ended at the same time.

The typical college class begins on the hour: 8:00 o’clock class or 9:00, and so on.
CCBC changed this. Its classes begin at all kinds of odd times: 8:10, 9:25, 10:45. I
even had a class there that began at 11:27! By changing the times in this way, the
student who has an 8:10 class can find parking at 7:55, when the student whose class
ended at 7:37 is pulling out of a space. Cycling class times creates a situation in
which one parking space can hold three to four times as many cars as it would if all
classes began on the hour and ended 50 minutes later.

4. The conclusion

In the 5-paragraph essay format, the conclusion is often a summary. However,

although the conclusion may contain, and, in the case of very long papers, should contain
some summary, it primary purpose is to conclude. Concluding means to draw together facts,
to resolve, to make your point; it is not simply a summary.

To truly solve a problem, one must know the cause. In the case of the parking
shortage at HCC and other colleges that believe they need to build more parking, the
problem is not too few parking spaces, but the fact that all classes begin and end on
the hour or the half-hour. If such commuter colleges adopted staggered class
scheduling, one parking space would do the job of more. Such class staggering may
not totally correct a parking shortage, but it will certainly expand the number of
parking spaces available for students and faculty, and, overall, make finding a parking
space easier.

Notice that nowhere in this essay have I actually stated the thesis as written. However, what
I have done is explored the reasons why parking is difficult and come up with a solution to
make parking easier. I have, thereby, "stated" my thesis.

I would also like to bring to your attention that this is not an "A" essay. It is a good essay; a
"B" essay in my book, but not an "A". I have intentionally created it so as to show what a
good, average essay looks like. What would make it an "A"?

Had I, in my guise as student writer, done some research and found some data about parking
at schools across the country, that might have brought it to an "A". Had I given more
examples of other schools’ attempts to solve their parking problems, that might have brought
it to an "A".

But as it stands, what this essay has going for it is this: it is focused; it flows well; it states
the problem/issue in the first paragraph, which also has a good lead in; it offers examples; it
moves through the body toward a solid conclusion, and both the opening paragraph and the
closing one address the thesis.

To make your own essays achieve these goals, there are some things you need to understand.
The first is syntax.

Syntax

Everything that we have spoken of in Parts A and B relates to the syntax: the way words are
put together in sequence to create sentences. One must understand how to put words and
punctuation together to create meaning.

Syntax makes a difference in both the flow of writing and the ability of the reader to
understand meaning. Below is an sentence taken from a student paper. (Note: "Males" is the
author of a piece the student was analyzing.)

"The way that Males approaches this issue wasn’t really in a way of explaining the
fact that TV does indeed affect a child and how they grow up; he more so talked
about how many other things are out there that are influencing children’s actions."
(Student paper 09)

What he means is:

Males does not approach this issue by explaining how TV may or may not affect a
child and how he or she grows up; instead, Males speaks of the many other things that
may influence a child’s actions.

The student’s writing may get his point across, but it does it in what is called "garbled
syntax".
8. Such phrases as "in a way of explaining" have no real meaning in the English
language; they are, syntactically speaking, non-existent.
9. The student also does not properly use pronouns and confuses his message
that way. He speaks of "a child", then uses "they". Who are "they"? We only have
one child being spoken of.
10. He places the word "indeed," an interjection, which he does not surround with
commas, as is required.
11. He also does not use active verbs or present tense. Both of these are required
for the syntax in this sentence.

One new issue that garbles the syntax are phrases, such as "in a way of explaining", that are
being used in our everyday speech. "As to how" is another one that is seen quite frequently
as a substitute for that.
 Example: He said as to how he was going to the game. (incorrect)
He said that he was going to the game. (correct)

Of course, students are not the only ones who make syntactical errors, because students grow
up to be business people, government officials, etc. Pretty much anyone who writes often
makes syntactical errors, simply because he or she was never taught what is correct. Even
those who write grammatical textbooks make errors.

Example: "My friend Joyce never sets foot on campus without her can of mace."

This sentence appears in a published textbook in a practice exercise concerning pronouns and
antecedents. Contained in an unpleasant little paragraph about how college campuses are
riddled with crime, this sentence has a major punctuation error, which, perhaps, you might
now recognize. My friend and Joyce are the same; Joyce is an appositive and, therefore,
should be surrounded by commas.

Corrected: "My friend, Joyce, never sets food on campus without her can of
mace."

So, how do we make sure we are writing in a syntactically correct manner?

A long time ago, I created "writing rules" for my Writing and Speech students. These rules
will not guarantee that your syntax will be correct, but they go a long way toward nudging it
in that direction.

Writing Rule #1: Always use 3rd person (he, she, it, they/him, her, it, them) to express
your ideas.

Reason for this Rule: First person is weak and usually unnecessary. Although there are some
special circumstances in which first person is appropriate, such as a personal narrative
example, most writers use it because that is the way they speak. Also, in many cases, it has
been taught to them throughout their K-12 years as the way one expresses one’s opinion. I
have students who cannot– literally– conceive of expressing their opinions without beginning
their sentences with "I believe " or "I think". They are, however, not only incorrect, but the
sentences that they create are weak and less believable.

Examples:
weak 1st person: I believe that global warming is being exacerbated by man.
strong 3rd person: Global warming is being exacerbated by man.

Note that the 3rd person statement is just that: a statement. It sounds factual and allows one
to argue from a position of strength. If one says "I believe", then the reader must ask, "Who
are you? Who are you that I should believe you?"

Second person should only be used for instructions or in other special circumstances when
you, the writer, want to speak directly to the individual reader, as I am doing now.

correct use of "you": You must apply by February 5th. (instruction)

 incorrect use of "you": So, when a student applies, you must do it by February
5th.

In the incorrect use example, the writer wants to speak generally and has begun in 3rd
person, but, instead of continuing in 3rd person, he has created an "illogical shift" by using
"you". In this case, "you" should be "he" or "he or she".

To learn how to write in third person, you must begin by ridding your writing completely of
"I" or "you" in any way in any sentence. You must begin to think in 3rd person. Think about
the "thing" about which you are writing; 90% of our writing concerns "it".

In 3rd person: Student applications must be turned in by February 5th.

Notice how much clearer and more easily understood the 3 rd-person sentence is. Even the
2nd-person instruction is not as clear.

Writing Rule #2: Be specific.

a-Do not use qualifiers (sort of, maybe, etc.).
b-Do not use superlatives (best, always, etc.).
c-Do not overuse adjectives (big, pretty, etc.).
d-Do not use 10 words to say something, when you could use five.

This rule appears self-explanatory. Just as you must rid yourself of 1st and 2nd person, you
must also go through every paper, letter or report you write, and take out a, b and c, above.
However, "d" is a bit harder to achieve.

Too many people have learned how to pad text; to use more words to say something. The
most common thought is that the more words a writer uses, the more he sounds as if he
knows what he’s talking about. This is, in fact, incorrect. Too many words garble the
meaning and make a writer sound as if he does not, in any way, know what he is talking
about.

Let your writing be cogent and succinct. This what writers call writing that is "tight". It
means that every word which you have included in a sentence has meaning and needs to be
there.

Writing Rule #3: Avoid clichés, such as "The grass is always greener..." or "One bad
apple...."

Clichés include not just such well-known phrases and sentences as those above, but all
phrases that are used too often. "Foolish hopes" is one I came across recently in grading
some student papers. Why not just say "hopes"? Are all hopes "foolish"? There are times
when clichés can be very useful, but, generally, they should be avoided.
Writing Rule #4. Do not use slang or jargon, abbreviations or "net/text-speak".

Nothing frustrates a teacher more than seeing a student write some like "When u discover..."
or "Martin Luther King was a really cool guy" or "She went thru the door" in a formal essay.
Formal essays mean formal writing, and that includes completing all words, spelling them
correctly, etc.
Students will write things like, "Then, he ask what was correct", instead of "Then, he
asked...." This is not strictly a mistake of tense; it is, instead, writing what we hear. It is
rare, for instance, for even the best speakers to hit the "k-d" sound hard at the end of asked,
but that does not change the fact that the "ed" is there and the word must be written correctly.

The biggest trouble is that if we are allowed to write sloppily in school, it often translates to
our professional lives. I once saw a sign that read "Park cars ahead." I puzzled over it. Did
it mean that we must all park our cars ahead; did it mean that there was a parking garage
ahead; did it mean that there were cars ahead that belonged to the Park Service? I protested
to the City, and, amazingly, only a few months later– which is lightning speed for a
government– an "ed" was attached. The sign now read "Parked cars ahead."
Communication complete.

Writing Rule #5. Never start a sentence with "but" or "and"; never end a sentence with a
preposition.

I’ve suggested this in our discussion about properly using subjective and objective cases; but,
if you want to do yourself a favor, just follow this rule. You will be very unlikely to make
any subjective/objective errors if you do follow it, and your writing will be, overall, more
clear.

Writing Rule # 6. Never use a dash, even if one is absolutely called for. In that case,
rethink and rephrase.

Dashes are a great tool, if and when they are absolutely needed. However, most people use
dashes as a substitute for other punctuation that they don’t want to bother to use. There is no
reason for a dash in a formal essay. If you’ve put one in, it’s wrong. Take it out.

Writing Rule #7. Never use nouns as adjectives.

Do not say :"The Howard Community Band drum" or "Baltimore Inner Harbor skyscraper."

DO SAY: "The Howard Community Band's drum" or "The skyscraper, towering over the
Inner Harbor in Baltimore,..."

This, I’m afraid, is just another case of sloppy speaking and/or the influence of local dialects.
I hear students often say phrases like “Miss Lambert class”, when they mean “Miss
Lambert’s class”. Nouns are not adjectives; they must possess the final noun to properly
modify it.

Writing Rule #8. Do not make up words.

One of my favorite made-up words is "physicalize". I was watching a football game and
there was a particularly rough hit. The announcer said, "Wow! Did you see that guy
physicalize that quarterback?!"

This is a process I call "nouning and verbing". It occurs when someone takes one word and
changes it to fit what he wants to say. Sometimes, it is legitimate, because we lack a proper
word. For instance: google. Google is the name of a company (a proper noun) and a
website. Someone, however, somewhere, started using it as a verb for looking up things on
the website, as in "Google the topic." But, most of the time, nouning and verbing is not
legitimate; it is just lazy.

Writing Rule #9: Never use words that you don’t know the meaning of and common
usage for.

I have had students misuse the occasional word, here and there. But I had a student, once–
on the suggestion of her boyfriend, she later told me– take, essentially, every normal word in
her essay and substitute obscure words for them. This was supposed to make her look
intelligent!

Her paper was three pages of garbled syntax that meant absolutely nothing. She got a F.,

Let me show you what I mean, by just "translating" the first sentence in the previous
paragraph the way she did on her essay.

Original line: I had a student, once take, essentially, every normal word in her essay and
substitute obscure words for them.

Translated: I dupe an educatee, erstwhile conduct, essentially, every typic articulate in her
essay and ersatz recondite lyric for them.

If the translated sentence makes any sense at all to you, get yourself immediately to a
language lab– or perhaps a psychiatrist’s office. You need help.

Writing Rule #10. Never separate a subject noun from its verb.

Do not say: "The boy, who, as he got closer, I realized I knew, came toward me."

DO SAY : "The boy came toward me. As he got closer, I realized I knew him."

The rule here could have been stated, "Don’t write convoluted, confusing structures", but
simply remembering to never separate the noun from its verb seems easier to remember. The
examples really say it all; keep it simple; keep it tight.

Writing Rule #11. Whenever possible, show, don’t tell.

If you use active, descriptive verbs, you are more likely to be able to paint a picture of what
you are talking about to your reader, even when you are writing expository essays.

This is the difference between "The rain was heavy; the valley flooded and 25 houses were
destroyed." and "Torrential rains flooded the valley, leaving 25 families homeless and their
properties in ruin." Both of these sentences tell the facts. Both are totally respectable
sentences. But sentence two tells the story, too.

Writing Rule #12: Use more paragraphs rather than fewer.

I’ve had more than one student, who, stuck on the 5-paragraph essay format, insists that there
can only be five paragraphs in any essay– even in a 6-page paper! This is simply not true,
nor does it make for good communication.

Every new idea addressed requires a new paragraph. And, although it is generally true that
one should strive to have no fewer than 2 sentences in a paragraph, it is still acceptable to
have a single sentence paragraph if that is what is required, or, as I sometimes use them, for
emphasis.

Writing Rule #13. Don’t state your topic, introduce it.

Never, under any circumstances, use the phrase, "This is going to be about..." in your
writing; nor should you use any reconfiguration of this statement, i.e., "I'm going to talk
about...", "This essay speaks to...", etc., with one exception, APA format. The introductory
paragraphs in APA format often require just such phraseology. However, in all other
circumstances, don’t use them.

Writing Rule #14. NEVER USE THE PHRASE "In conclusion..."

The problem with this is that in almost all circumstances in which it is used, it is a dangling
modifier, e.g., it is syntactically incorrect.

If one is writing in first person, one can say, "In conclusion, I would like to end our
discussion by saying that...."; however, usually it can not be rendered this way, because one
is writing in 3rd person. So, instead, we get, "In conclusion, our discussion...". In this case, it
is a dangling modifier. And, if you don’t know what a dangling modifier is, consult a
comprehensive grammar text.
FORMATS: MLA, APA, and Chicago
What is a format?

A format is an artificial construction created by individual companies, organizations or

professions to serve their individual needs. Usually, a format will cover both a physical
format-- how something should appear-- and formats for reference citing and configuration,
as well as some writing conventions.

I’ve mentioned, for instance, AP format, which was created by the Associated Press to help
make all their reporters’ copy homogeneous. This, in turn, made it easier for typesetters.
The marketing profession has its own formats (even its own dictionary), as do engineers, the
medical establishment, and a great many other organizations and professions. However, we
are just going to be concerned with the three formats most often used in education: Chicago,
MLA and APA.

In education, the original format that everyone used was called Turabian, which eventually
became Chicago format. It requires footnotes for every reference, which either appear at the
bottoms of pages or in a single list of "endnotes" at the end of an essay or paper. Chicago
also has a bibliographical format, which none of the others do, which I’ll explain in a
moment.

In education, the Chicago format was supplanted by the MLA format in 1985. Developed by
the Modern Language Association, MLA does NOT have a true bibliography; it has, instead,
a Works Cited page. This was meant, I personally believe, to discourage students from doing
useless research which they could list on a bibliography, and to encourage pointed research
that they would actually cite in their papers. This is a laudable goal. And, although a Works
Cited list is a list of bibliographical entries, it is not a bibliography, per se, which is a
bibliographical list of all works consulted.

APA format is actually a journal article format created by the American Psychological
Association for its members. It has grown in its use beyond those boundaries, however, so
that now it is extensively used by graduate schools as an “essay” format. Don’t let
instructions confuse you, should your instructor ask you for an essay or a bibliography in
APA format. It actually covers neither. Just understand that what is wanted is a journal
article and a resource list. Or just question your professor on the specifics– as I do.

I am not going to show you the minutiae of these formats; nor am I going to explain,
specifically, how to use them. Each format has its own style guide; if you want more
information about a particular format, purchase its guide, or go to the library and pull it off
the shelf. Here, what I’m striving for is to help you understand the differences between the
documentation formats, and to help you understand directions you may be given by your
instructors. Perhaps, if you read this– or if they do– those instructions will become more
clear.

Item Chicago MLA APA

footnotes yes under certain conditions under certain conditions
parenthetical no yes yes
citations
reference page "End Notes" "Works Cited" "Resources"
bibliography yes no no

A Word about References: It can not be emphasized enough that you must document your
sources, and you must have sources for statements that you are not an expert on. As an
instructor, I am so tired of reading students’ papers that begin with an undocumented
statistic. "Fifteen percent of all college students do whatever."

"Who says?" is what I write in the margin. How do you know this?

Every statistic must be introduced with an attribution (see the next section) or formally cited
(see the one after that), or both! Every idea that you have gotten from somewhere else must
be attributed and/or cited. Every quotation must be attributed and/or cited. If you do not do
this, not only does it weaken your paper, but it turns you into a plagiarist, which is punishable
with fines and jail time if it reaches the "copyright infringement" stage, but, at its worst for
you, could mean failure in the class or expulsion from your school.

Footnotes and Citations in Chicago, MLA & APA

Citation is an interesting word, which is both overused and often inaccurately used. A
citation originally meant the actual quote taken from another source; yet, today, we mean the
identification of that quote.

Some use the term "in-line citation" when what they really mean is "attribution". For
instance, if I write, "John Smith, Professor of English at Johns Hopkins University, said, ..."
and then quote him, I have just attributed that quote to John Smith. Others would say that I
created an in line citation.

We use the word "cite" both as a noun meaning the actual written citation and as a verb
meaning the action of identification. I can also cite a work using a footnote.

Thoroughly confused yet? Just wait.

In-text citations are as follow. Chicago uses a footnote1, as here demonstrated. MLA has in-
text citations (Lambert, 50), as just noted, which contain the author’s name and the page
number from which the quote or information is taken. APA also has in-text citations, but
they can get amazingly long.

Near the end of this paragraph is an example of an APA citation that I used in a research
paper. Notice that it gives the author’s name and page number, as does MLA, but also
includes the year of the publication. Additionally, however, because I was quoting someone

1
The footnote is easily created these days by simply electing to "insert" a footnote. The
benefit of the footnote style is that it doesn’t interrupt the read and the reference moves as the
footnote moves. So, if you insert some materials above a footnote, bumping it to the next
page, the footnote moves too.
that the author also quoted and who was quoted elsewhere, it ends up: (Hein, 1991, as cited in
Boghossian, 2006, p. 1); and they can get even longer.

The primary point here, however, is that you must use documentation style which goes with
the format you are using.

Something else to keep in mind is that you can not have in-text citations and no companion
resource list. Too many students believe that it is enough to either provide the list or to
provide the cites, but they are worthless unless they work as a team. Citations must be used
in tandem with bibliographical documentation.

Bibliographical Documentation

Resource and reference lists, Works Cited lists and bibliographies all use bibliographic entry
formats, but they are not all bibliographies. A bibliography is so-called because it was
originally a list of books; that's what bibliography actually means. ("biblio" = book; graphy
= chart or list.)

A bibliography, of course, now includes on-line sites, magazines, journals, blogs and all
manner of written materials, as well as books; however, it is still called a bibliography if it
lists all references explored in one's research. This point is key.

A bibliography is a list of ALL RELEVANT REFERENCES consulted in one's

research. They need not all be cited in the research paper to make the list, just have
been consulted and be relevant.

Chicago has the bibliography, but, additionally, has either the end note page or footnotes
which show the individual cites actually used in the paper.

The APA resource list serves as a bibliography. It is meant to be a total listing of all
references consulted to create a journal article. At the same time, the resource list is also the
works cited/end notes list. It serves a dual purpose, so APA does not have two lists; just one.
APA format specifically notes that it has no bibliography; instead, it has a resource list.

MLA also has only one list, but it does not serve a dual purpose. The Works Cited list in
MLA is not meant to show all references consulted, but only those which are actually cited in
a particular paper. MLA does not have a bibliography; only the Works Cited list.

Therefore, it becomes really confusing when an instructor asks you to create a bibliography
in MLA format. As MLA has no bibliography, it would be difficult to find a format for it. It
is equally confusing when you look in the index of a grammar book for "MLA bibliography"
and it directs you to the page about the Works Cited list. So, to repeat: A Works Cited list
contains bibliographical entries, but it is NOT a bibliography, as previously defined. It
contains only those bibliographical listings for works actually quoted/used in the paper.

Likewise, APA is not an essay format; it's a journal article format. So, when an instructor
asks you to write an essay using APA format, you, the student, reach the ready-to-tear-your-
hair-out frame of mind before you realize that the instructor is simply mis-speaking. What
that instructor means write a faux journal article, but he is calling it an essay. And, to be fair,
an article is a type of expository essay; however, the formats are unique from each other and
therein lies the difficulty.

You will also find some instructors who want the APA resource list used strictly as a Works
Cited page, or you will have instructors who ask for a bibliography in APA format. I had one
in graduate school. I said, "How am I to do that, since APA has no bibliographical format?"
Her basic reply was "wing it". What I did was look at the bibliography in the back of the
APA Manual of Style and used that.

Each of these formats has particular conventions of documentation that are meant to make
papers consistent and easier to read. Yet, teachers will often amend a format for their own
needs. For instance, although I require my students use MLA format for essays, I also amend
that format by requesting a different header on the page which contains unique information.
Had I not asked for that unique header, however, students would simply submit using the
header specified by MLA format. Additionally, MLA no longer requires url’s on its Works
Cited entries; I do. The important point here is for the student to know what the format uses
and then, should the instructor require it, be able to adapt to that requirement.

I will end with a word of caution: Do not use the automatic, electronic bibliography creators,
either the on-line ones or the ones resident in Microsoft Word unless you know what is
correct. Once you know what is correct, you can use them for convenience sake, but not
until.

A Final Word...

As noted at the beginning of this reference text, I have not covered everything. Every student
and every parent should have a comprehensive grammar text to which he or she can refer.
What I hope I have done is given you answers to some of the questions that plague both
students and teachers, and offered some insight into how the American English language
works.

As the years continue, some things about the language will change, as they already have; but
the basic rules and the way the language works will not. Know these and you will be able to
navigate any changes that might occur.

Good Writing!
APPENDIX A: A quick review of verb tenses:

Basic Infinitive is written with the pronoun “to”

Present tense indicates current/momentary happenings, as in “I take Karate lessons.”

Past tense indicates things that are over and done with, as in “I took Karate
lessons.”

Future tense indicates a time when things have not yet happened, but will, as in “I
will take Karate lessons.”
Present perfect indicates something that began in the past and continues to the present,
as in “I have been taking Karate lessons.”

Past perfect indicates things over and done with, but there is always a “but”, as in
“I had thought to go, but I ended up not having the money to buy a
ticket.”

Future perfect indicates something that has its beginning now in the present, but will
finish in the future, as in “I will have saved enough money by the end
of next month.” If that same sentence were in the future tense, it
would read, “I will save enough money next month.” (See the
difference?)

Present progressive The word “progressive” simply means that the action continues (e.g.,
progresses) for a time. The present progressive means that the action
is continuing now, as in “He is walking every day.”

Past progressive The action is in the past, but it continued for a time, as in “He was
walking every day.” It is often followed by something more. “He was
walking every day, but now he's not.”

Future progressive The action will take place in the future, over time. “He will be
walking every day, as part of his diet plan.”

Present perfect prog. Something that began in the past and continues now. “He has been
taking Karate lessons.” (but will probably stop soon)

Past perfect prog. Something that began in the far past, continued until recently. “He had
been taking Karate lessons.” (but he's not now)

Future perfect prog. Something that will begin in the future and end at a known time in the
future. “He will have been taking Karate lessons for two weeks by
then.”

VOICE: Those who advise you on your writing will often say, “Keep it active.” or “Use
active verbs.” Below is a brief explanation of what they are referring to.

Active voice: The subject does the action. He picked up the gun.
Passive voice: The subject is acted upon.The gun was picked up by him.
APPENDIX B: IRREGULAR VERBS

Reminder: Verbs are said to be irregular if there are changes that occur either in the standard
conjugation of the verb, as in to be; or the verb is irregular if its past participle* or its past
forms are different from, or seem unrelated to, the infinitive. The verb “to go” is a good
example of this. “I go.” is present tense. “I went.” is past tense. Or the verb “to eat”, where
“eat” is present, “ate” is past, “eaten” is past participle.
Not knowing the irregular forms of the verbs is what produces such awkward
wording as “He should have went.” instead of “He should have gone.” or “He has ate.” or
worse yet, “He done ate.” instead of “He has eaten.”
Learning the irregular forms is simple. They must be committed to memory. The
following is a list of the most used irregular verbs. Use it for reference until you know them
by heart.

*Note: The past participle is the one used with have, has. (expl: He has gone) The present participle is used with is or was.
(expl: He is going.) The present form is also often used in combination with did. (expl: He did go. )

Infinitive Present tense Present Past tense Past

participle participle

to be am, are, is being were been

to arise arise, arises arising arose arisen
to bear bear, bears bearing bore borne
to begin begin, begins beginning began begun
to bend bend, bends bending bent bent
to bite bite, bites biting bit bitten
to blow blow, blows blowing blew blown
to break break, breaks breaking broke broken
to bring bring, brings bringing brought brought
to buy buy, buys buying bought bought
to catch catch, catches catching caught caught
to choose choose, chooses choosing chose chosen
to cling cling, clings clinging clung clung
to come come, comes coming came come
to creep creep, creeps creeping crept crept
to deal deal, deals dealing dealt dealt
to dig dig, digs digging dug dug
to dive dive, dives diving dove dived
to do do, does doing did done
to draw draw, draws drawing drew drawn
to drink drink, drinks drinking drank drunk
to drive drive, drives driving drove driven
to dwell dwell, dwells dwelling dwelt dwelt
to eat eat, eats eating ate eaten
to fall fall, falls falling fell fallen
to feed feed, feeds feeding fed fed
to feel feel, feels feeling felt felt
to fight fights, fights fighting fought fought
to find find, finds finding found found
to flee flee, flees fleeing fled fled
to fly fly, flies flying flew flown
to forbid forbid, forbids forbidding forbade forbidden
to forget forget, forgets forgetting forgot forgotten
to forgive forgive, forgives forgiving forgave forgiven
to freeze freeze, freezes freezing froze frozen
to get get, gets getting got gotten
to give give, gives giving gave given
to go go, goes going went gone
to grow grow, grows growing grew grown
to hang hang, hangs hanging hung hung (for objects)
hanged hanged (for people)
to have have, has having had had
to hear hear, hears hearing heard heard
to hide hide, hides hiding hid hidden
to hold hold, holds holding held held
to keep keep, keeps keeping kept kept
to know know, knows knowing knew known
to lay (objects only) lay, lays laying laid laid
to lead lead, leads leading led led
to leave leave, leaves leaving left left
to lie (people only) lie, lies lying lain lain (body position)
to lie lie, lies lying lied lied (falsehood)
to light light, lights lighting lit lit
to lose lose, loses losing lost lost
to make make, makes making made made
to mean mean, means meaning meant meant
to meet meet, meets meeting met met
to pay pay, pays paying paid paid
to prove prove, proves proving proved proven
to ride ride, rides riding rode ridden
to ring ring, rings ringing rang rung
to rise rise, rises rising rose risen
to run run, runs running ran run
to say say, says saying said said
to see see, sees seeing saw seen
to seek seek, seeks seeking sought sought
to sell sell, sells selling sold sold
to send send, sends sending sent sent
to shake shake, shakes shaking shook shaken
to shine (cast light) shine, shines shining shone shone
to shine (polish) shine, shines shining shined shined
to shoot shoot, shoots shooting shot shot
to shrink shrink, shrinks shrinking shrank shrunk
to sing sing, sings singing sang sung
to sink sink, sinks sinking sank sunk
to sit sit, sits sitting sat sat
to slay slay, slays slaying slew slain
to sleep sleep, sleeps sleeping slept slept
to slide slide, slides sliding slid slid
to speak speak, speaks speaking spoke spoken
to spend spend, spends spending spent spent
to spin spin, spins spinning spun spun
to spring spring, springs springing sprang sprung
to stand stand, stands standing stood stood
to steal steal, steals stealing stole stolen
to sting sting, stings stinging stung stung
to stink stink, stinks stinking stank stunk
to stride stride, strides striding strode stridden (rarely used)
to strike strike, strikes striking struck struck (stricken**)
to swear swear, swears swearing swore sworn
to sweep sweep, sweeps sweep swept swept
to swim swim, swims swimming swam swum
to swing swing, swings swinging swung swung
to take take, takes taking took taken
to teach teach, teaches teaching taught taught
to tear tear, tears tearing tore torn
to tell tell, tells telling told told
to think think, thinks thinking thought thought
to throw throw, throws throwing threw thrown
to understand understand(s) understanding understood understood
to wear wear, wears wearing wore worn
to win win, wins winning won won
to wring wring, wrings wringing wrung wrung
to write write, writes writing wrote written

**Note: The past participle of to strike is struck when it refers to physical violence; it is stricken when it refers
to emotional violence. “He was struck across the mouth.” “She was stricken by the news.”