A SURVEY OF MODERN GRAMMARS

Methods of a grammatical analysis of a language originated over 2000 years back.

Traditional means of grammatical analysis were developed to analyze classical Greek and
Latin ,both of which are quite different from Modern English in several respects. More
recently, other methods have developed for the analysis of languages. Our objective here
will be an attempt to compare these methods, not so much to choose the best.

TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR THEORY

Traditional grammar basically takes its roots from the Greek school, specifically Greek
grammar. One of the distinctions in traditional school is that it for the first time ever
divided language into eight parts of speech – noun, verb, participle, article, pronoun,
preposition, adverb and conjunction, defining these in a variety of ways and outlining the
uses of each in sentences. Also, the Greeks established as a basic assumption the idea that
there was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in
expressing his ideas. In the medieval period, grammatical rules were held valid only
when they adhered to logical system. Hence, some logical categories were transferred to
grammar and this became grammatical categories in languages , including English. The
most outstanding representatives of traditional grammar are Henry Sweet, Otto Jesperson
and Hendrick Poutsma. These and other traditional grammarians still attempted to sort
the English language into parts of speech and syntactic functions by defining logical – or
psychological – meanings expressed by other speakers of English. For example, nouns
were the names of persons, things, they served as subjects, objects, complements, and so
on; they showed singular and plural number and had a common and genitive case.

DESCRIPTIVE AND STRUCTURAL LINGUISTICS

AMERICAN LINGUISTICS

At the turn of the 20th century many linguistic scholars began to direst their attention to
the events in the communicative process that could be considered objectively. They
believed that in language study they could only examine the objectively verifiable events
of speech and the physical situations in which an utterance appears. In America, the
greatest researchers were Franz Boas and, later, Edward Sapir. Because Boas and others
sought to describe languages as they were used instead of fitting them into an already
established pattern, their field became known as descriptive linguistics. Because
descriptive methods became the analysis of the structure of English and other languages,
the term structural linguistics came into general use.

Another American linguist Leonard Bloomfield, widely regarded as the father of

linguistics in this country, defined the scientific study of language as one that admitted
only data which could be objectively verified.

The methods of structural grammarians consist of breaking the flow of spoken language
into the smallest possible units, sorting them out, and then studying the various ways in
which these units are joined in meaning full combination. Structural grammarians often
refer to levels of analysis.

The levels of analysis are these: phonology, morphology and syntax. The grammar of a
language is a complex of systems that may be analyzed, and studied on these three levels.

GENERATIVE OR TRANSFORMATIONAL GRAMMAR

Originate in late 50-s by the world-known American scholar Noam Chomsky, this theory
involved various formulas or rules for describing simple declarative English sentences
and demonstrating relationships holding between the parts of the sentences, According to
this theory, a second set of formulas and rules would be required for transforming these
into other type of sentences and structures. Since the theory seeks to set up a system that
will generate sentences, it is frequently called generative grammar. Because a part of the
theory involves transforming basic sentence types such as questions, negative and passive
sentences, it is sometimes called transformational grammar. Occasionally it is referred
to by the combined term transformational-generative grammar. The system assumes
that sentences such as
Michael didn’t paint the portrait
Did Michael paint the portrait?
The portrait was painted by Michael
What did Michael paint?
are all based on the transformation of a single sentence “ Michael painted the portrait”
 The Problem of the Parts of Speech

The words of language, depending on various formal and semantic features, are
divided into grammatically relevant classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words
are called “parts of speech.”
The problem of parts of speech caused much difficulty both in general linguistics
and in the analysis of separate languages. Though it has been studied for more than 200
years, the criteria for defining parts of speech have not been worked out yet. Traditionally
grammar gave a semantic definition of parts of speech, taking into account only meaning.
However, only meaning cannot be a reliable criterion for defining parts of speech because
different parts of speech may have the same meaning and vice versa. E.g. the nouns
“books”, “tables”, “students”, denote objects and there are nouns as flight”, “movement”,
“arrival”, which do not denote objects but belong to nouns. We see that meaning cannot
be the only criterion for defining parts of speech. The structural school of linguistics does
not take into account meaning only but only form. Form alone cannot be a reliable
criterion either because many parts of speech especially in English may have the same
form, e.g. water-to water, silk (adj.) - to silk. Moreover, if we take into account only
form, then such unchangeable words as article, particle should be referred to only part of
speech.
We see that the criterion of form is not sufficient. The grammatical criterion
should be taken into account to give an adequate definition of any part of speech. By
grammatical features we mean:
a) morphological
b) syntactical
By morphological features different categories are meant. The morphological
categories of noun are the categories of number and case. By morphological categories of
adjectives we mean the category of quality (degrees of comparison).
By syntactical features of the part of speech the syntactical functions of it are
meant. The syntactical function is the most reliable criterion. Thus, the modern
conception and amended definition of part of speech should take into account all the
above mentioned criteria in complex.
 The Problem of Notional and Functional (Formal) Parts of Speech

According to the view held by some grammarians, words should be divided into 2
categories on the following principle: some words denote objects of reality (these would
be notional words), whereas other words denote relations are connections between the
notional words (these would be formal words or form words).
Notional words are defined as follows: they have full lexical meaning and
independent syntactical functions in the sentence. To the notional parts of speech of the
English language belong the noun, the adjective, the numeral, the pronoun, the verb, the
adverb.
Formal parts of speech differ from notional ones semantically, they are words of
incomplete nominative meaning and non-self-dependent, their lexical meaning is more
general. Formal parts of speech serve either to express different relations between
notional words, they have mediatory functions in the sentence, or they specify the
meaning of the word. To the basic functional parts of speech in English belong the
article, the preposition, the conjunction, the particle, the modal word, the interjection.
Some linguists are of the opinion that the distinction between notional and formal
parts of speech is to some extent relative. The matter is that some words belonging to
particular part of speech is occasionally perform a function differing from that which
characterized the parts of speech as a whole. E.g., in the sentence “I have some money
left” the verb “have” performs the function of the predicate, which is the usual function
of a verb in a sentence. In this case it is a notional word. But in the sentence “I have
found my briefcase” the verb “have” is an auxiliary; it is a means of forming a certain
analytical form of the verb find. So, we have one and the same verb “have” but with
different functions on the sentence.

Distributional Approach to the Problem of Parts of Speech

Distributional approach, which was formulated by Charles Fries, has become

popular with the grammarians of the 20th century. He applied 2 principles:
a) the principle of distribution
 b) the principle of substitution
The principle of distribution consisted in the fact that he classified all the words o
their position in the sentence. He found four main positions of notional words in the
English sentence; those of the noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), adverb (D). So, he
divided all the notional words into 4 classes. His principle of substitution consisted in
substituting the words of other positions. He found out that all the word that can occupy
the same position in different test frames (A, B, C) belong to the same part of speech.
Frame A. The concert was good (always).
Frame B. The man remembered the task (suddenly).
Frame C. The team went there.
The 4 main classes contain approximately 67 percent of the total number of
words.
Functional words (function words) are unable to fill in the position of the frames
without destroying their structural meaning.
Modern English is exceptionally rich in homonymous words and word-forms. It is
held that languages where short words abound leave more homonyms than those where
longer words are prevalent. Therefore, abundance of homonyms in Modern English is to
be accounted for by the monosyllabic structure of the commonly used English words.

Homonymy of the Words and Homonymy of Word-Forms.

When analyzing different cases of homonymy we find that some words re
homonymous in all their forms, i.e. we observe full homonymy, e.g. in seal1 “a sea
animal” and seal2- “a design printed on paper”. The paradigm “seal, seal’s, seals, seals’”
is identical for both of them.
In other cases, e.g.-“seal1” – “a sea animal” and “to seal” – “to close tightly”, we
see that although some individual word-forms are homonymous, the whole of the
paradigm is not identical:
seal1 – “seal, seal’s, seals, seals’”
(to) seal3 – “seal, seals, sealed, sealing”
It is easily observed that only some of the word-forms (seal, seals) are
homonymous, whereas others (e.g. sealed, sealing) are not. In such case we cannot speak
of homonymous words but only of homonymy of individual word-forms or of partial
homonymy. This is true of “find, found, found” and “found, founded, founded”.
Homonyms may be also classified by the type of meaning into lexical, lexico-
grammatical and grammatical. In seal1 and seal2 the part of speech meaning of the word
and the grammatical meanings of all its forms are identical. The difference is confined to
the lexical meaning only: seal1 denotes “a sea animal”, seal2 – “a design printed on
paper”. So we can say that seal2 and seal1 are lexical homonyms because they differ in
lexical meaning. If we compare seal1 (a sea animal) and seal3 (to close tightly), we shall
observe not only the difference in the lexical meaning of their homonymous word-forms
but a difference in their grammatical meanings as well. As both grammatical and lexical
meanings differ we describe these homonymous word-forms as lexico-grammatical.
Modern English abounds in homonymic word-forms differing in grammatical
meaning only, e.g. asked (P.I.) and asked (P.P.), brother’s and brothers. It may be early
observed that grammatical homonymy is the homonymy of different word-forms of one
and the same words.
 The Theory of Grammar. Introduction.
The term “grammar” is used in 2 meanings:
a) a part of language, its grammatical structure alongside of the other 2
parts: word-stock, phonological structure.
b) The theory of grammatical structure, a science of the grammatical part
of language.
Language incorporates 3 constituent parts: a) the phonological system, b) the
lexical system, c) the grammatical system. Only the unity of these 3 elements forms the
language. Each of these 3 constituent parts of language is studied by a particular
linguistic discipline. Thus, the phonological description is effected by the science of
phonology, the lexical description – by the science of lexicology, the grammatical
description – by the science of grammar. Any linguistic description may have a practical
or theoretical purpose. A practical description is aimed at providing the student with
practical mastery of the corresponding part of language. A theoretical description pursues
analytical purposes and presents the given part of language in relative isolation. Such a
description makes it possible to gain inside the inner structure of the given language and
to expose the mechanism of its functioning. Hence, the aim of the course of theoretical
grammar is to present a theoretical description of the grammatical system of language,
i.e. scientifically analyze this system and define the grammatical categories in the light of
principles of modern general linguistics.
The nature of grammar as a constituent part of language is better understood in the
light of discriminating the two planes of language, the plane of content and the plane of
expression. The plane of content comprises purely semantic elements of language. The
plane of expression comprises the material (formal) units of language taken by
themselves, apart from the meaning rendered by them. The 2 planes are inseparably
connected so that no meaning can be realized without some material means of expression.
Grammatical elements of language present a unity of content and expression
(meaning and form). In this respect they are similar to lexical elements though the quality
of grammatical meaning is different from that of the lexical meaning. On the other hand,
the correspondence between the planes is very complex; this is illustrated by the
phenomena of polysemy, homonymy, synonymy.
 Structure and Systemic Character of Language. The Units of Each Level.
In order to get a full insight into language, one has to consider its organization, its
mechanism, or, as is accepted to term, its structure and system. The term “structure” is
sometimes related to the elements, forms, constructions of language and their meanings.
At the same time, by the term “structure” they often mean the relations and
interconnections between the elements of language, or one complex which is made up of
the elements and relations as well as connections between them. System is referred to as
one complex unity of interrelated and interconnected elements, while structure represents
inner relations between the elements, or the inner organization of the complex unity. So,
system may be classified as a complex of the elements and relations between the
elements (structure)
Language as a system is divided into elements on different levels. The biggest is
the division into such “elements” as phonetics, lexis, word formation, morphology, and
syntax. These are the basic parts of language mechanism. There exist specific
connections and relations between them.
Modern linguistics lays stress on the systemic character of language and its
constituent parts. Language is a system of signs (meaningful units) which are closely
connected and interdependent (structure). Units of immediate interdependencies form
different micro-systems (subsystems) within the framework of the global macro-system
of the whole language. The phoneme, the morpheme, the word, and the sentence are units
of different levels of language structure; the phoneme is the unit of the lowest level, the
sentence of the highest.
Each system is a set of elements related to one another by a common function.
The lowest level of lingual segment is phonemic. The phoneme has no meaning; its
function is purely differential. It differentiates morphemes and words as material bodies.
Since the phoneme has no meaning, it’s not a sign.
The unit of the next level is the morpheme. The morpheme is smallest meaningful
unit. It is built up by phonemes, so that the shortest morpheme includes only one
phoneme, e.g. ros-y, come-s.
The morphemes often express abstracts meanings which are used as constituents
for the formation of more concrete nominative meanings of words.
 The third is level of words, or lexemic level. Since the word is built up by
morphemes, the shortest words consist of 1 morpheme only, e.g. well, but, I. The word is
smallest naming unit, that’s to say it names things, actions, qualities, relations, etc., e.g.
terror, to terrify, terrible. The function of word is nominative.
The sentence is the smallest communicative unit, e.g. It rains. This is a sentence
since it contains information. The function of the sentence is predicative. A unit of a
higher level usually contains one or more units. But the combination of units of a certain
level does not make a unit of higher level unless it acquires the properties of a higher
level. The combination of morphemes only is not a word, it names nothing. The
combination of the words “of the teacher” is not a sentence, it communicates nothing.
On the other hand, a single unit of a given level becomes a higher level unit on
acquiring the proper qualities. The phoneme [] ] becomes a morpheme when the word
“awe” becomes a sentence, when it makes a communication. E.g. “What feelings did you
have?” ”Awe”.
Above the sentence there is still another one that is the level of sentence-groups,
“supra-sentential constructions”. The supra-sentential construction is a combination of
separate sentences forming a textual unity.
The common function of the linguistic signs of all levels is to give expression to
human thoughts (the main function of the language).
The systemic nature of grammar is more evident than that of the other levels,
since grammar is responsible for the very organization of utterances.
 Language and Speech
Language is defined as a system of signs, while speech as the use of signs. The
sign (meaningful unit) in the system of language has only a potential meaning in speech.
The potential meaning of the linguistic signs is actualized, that’s to say is made
situational significant as part of grammatically organized text.
Language is understood by modern linguists as a system of signs having their own
meaning and form, while speech is understood as a system of the use of these signs.
Language in the narrow sense is a system of means of expressions, while speech is the
manifestation of the system of language in the process of communication. The system of
language includes, on the one hand, the body of material units; on the other hand, the
regularities or rules of the use of these units. Speech comprises both the act of
producing utterances, and the utterances themselves. Thus, language is realized through
speech. For instance, the concrete phrase “very fine weather” is a fact of speech, created
by the individual spoken for his own purpose, and founded on the knowledge of the
pattern “adverb + adjective + noun”, which is certainly a statement about language,
namely, about the syntactical system of English on the phrase level.
We have the broad philosophical concept of language, according to which
language is the system of signs (language proper) and the use of signs (speech proper).
Grammar (the grammatical system) is an integral part of the lingual macro-system
– language- because it connects language and speech. Sentences pronounced or written
are the result of organizing words taken from the word-stock of the language according to
the rules existing in the grammatical system of the language. The grammatical relations
are expressed in different language differently.
Types of languages
All the languages are divided into synthetical and analytical. The Dutch scholar
Otto Jespersen connected the development of the language with its progress. He
considered languages which we developed from synthetical into analytical to be
advanced and vice-verse – from analytical into synthetical – regressive.
The grammatical signals of analytical languages are follows
1) Word order is fixed in analytical languages and it is very important
because of the loss of inflexions. E.g. The hunter killed the bear. The bear
killed the hunter.
2) The existence of a large number of functional words, like auxiliary
words and form words (prepositions, conjunctions, articles, particles). E.g. the
title of the book - ·ñùÇ í»ñݳ·ÇñÁ. In Armenian we have 2 words, in
English – 5 words.
3) Inflexions in analytical languages are very few due to their loss, their
loss, their role is fulfilled by function words and words order. The main
inflexions in Modern English are -s-, -ed, -ing-, -en.
4) Intonation does not play an important role in English. It is used only in
some cases as a means of forming a sentence. E.g. water, fire, but: Water!
Fire! The word has a stress and intonation gives sense to it. In such cases
intonation has only a sentence forming function.
 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between linguistic units
There exist intralinguistic relations between words and between word-forms.
Itralinguistic relations of words and word-forms are basically of two main types:
syntagmatic and paradigmatic.
Syntagmatic relations define the word or word-form when it is used in combination
with other words in the flow of speech, oral or written. Syntagmatic relations appear
when elements of one level of language enter the higher level of language, eg. phonemes
into morphemes, morphemes into words, words into phrases, and so on. Syntagmatic
relations are immediate linear relations between units in the string of speech.
Paradigmatic relations are those that exist between individual grammatical forms of the
word (eg. come, comes, came, will come, and so on) outside the string of speech.
Paradigmatic relations define the word (word-form) through its interrelation with other
grammatical forms of the same word. For example, the meaning of the form “got” can be
fully understood only in comparison with other forms of the same set of forms(get, gets,
getting).
Syntagmatic relations exist in speech, in real utterances, that is why they are described
by the Latin formula as relations “in preasentia”. Paradigmatic relations exist in language,
to be more exact, between the elements in the system of language. Paradigmatic
relations cannot be directly observed in utterances, that is why they are referred to as
relations “in absentia”. However, the members of paradigmatic relations appear in speech
and thus enter the syntagmatic relations.
The distinction between syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations is conventionally
indicated by horizontal and vertical presentation as is shown below.
Syntagmatic relations
P He gets a letter
a
r He got the letters
a
d He will get the letter
i
g He got the letters
m
a
t
i
c
 Morphology and syntax. The Boundary Line Between Them.
The usual definition of morphology lies as follows. Morphology is the part of
grammar that treats of the words, their structure, classification.Syntax is the part of
grammar that treats of phrases and sentences. These definitions are based on the
assumption that we can clearly distinguish between words and phrases. This, however, is
far from being the case. E.g., we have the word “indestructibility”, which is obviously a
word, long as it is. But what about “has been found”. This is evidently a phrase since it
consists of 3 words and thus falls under the heading of syntax, but, on the other hand, it is
a form of the word “to find” and thus should fall under the heading of morphology. It
seems most advisable to include all such cases under morphology, considering the
syntactical side of the formation to have been put, so to say, at the disposal of
morphology.
The problem becomes more complicated if we take into account such formations
as “has been often found”, where one word (often) comes to stand between two elements
of the form of another word (find). Such formations will have to be considered both
under morphology and under syntax. This means that morphology and syntax overlap
here.
It may be said that, in a way, morphology is more abstract than syntax, as it does
not study the connections between words actually used together in sentences, but
connections between forms actually found in different sentences and extracted from their
natural surroundings.
In another way, however, morphology would seen to be less abstract than syntax
as it studies units of a smaller and of a more compact kind, whereas syntax deals with
larger units.
The peculiar difficulty in the treatment of analytical verb forms, such as “have
done” lies in the fact that they have both a morphological and a syntactical quality. They
are morphological and facts in so far as they belong to the system of the verb in question,
because the auxiliary verb adds nothing to the lexical meaning expressed in the infinitive.
But the same forms are facts of syntax as they consist of two or three or four elements
and sometimes other word may come in between them. We are bound to admit that the
formation “has … come” is something of a syntactical formation. The inevitable
conclusion is that “has come” and other formations of this kind are simultaneously
analytical verb forms and syntactical unities.
 The Notion of the Grammatical Category and Grammatical Meaning

Grammatical category and grammatical meaning are considered to be basic notions

in grammar. Grammatical meaning is a generalized meaning common to the words of
the same class and which is expressed only through the grammatical form. The latter is
a means of expression of grammatical meaning.
Traditional grammar viewed grammatical category as a set of words with different roots
and different lexical meanings but having the same grammatical form and meaning E.g.
pens, books, students, women, children, crises – all these words have one thing in
common – they have the grammatical meaning of plurality, which is expressed through
one and the same form.
According to modern conception, the categorical meaning (e.g. the grammatical
number, or meaning of number) unites the individual meanings of the correlated
paradigmatic forms (e.g. singular – plural) and is exposed through them. The meaning of
the grammatical category and the meaning of the grammatical form are related to each
other. Modern grammarians view a grammatical category as a unity of meaning and
form, i.e. as a system of expressing grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic
correlation of grammatical forms. The set of grammatical forms expressing a categorical
function constitutes a paradigm. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms are
exposed by the so-called “grammatical oppositions.” The correlated elements (members
of the opposition) must possess two types of features: common features and differential
features. A grammatical category must be expressed by at least one opposition of forms.
These forms are ordered in a paradigm. Thus, what was considered a grammatical
category by the traditional grammar according to the modern conception is nothing else
but a form-class. E.g. pen, book, student, woman, child, crisis – this form-class is
opposed to the second form-class: pens, books, students, women, children, crises. A
grammatical category is a set of at least two form classes which are in the relation of
opposition and mutual exclusion. The form-classes are opposed to each other both in
meaning (grammatical meaning) and in form (marked and unmarked form-class), and
thus constitute a grammatical category.
 The unmarked form-class and its members have no positive marker (differential
features) or possess zero marker (zero morpheme). There is also a difference in the
semantic contents of the two form-classes: the unmarked (weak) form-class has more
general meaning (is extensive), the marked (strong) form-class has more specialized
meaning (more particular, and concrete). Morphological oppositions must reflect both the
plane of expression (form) and the plane of content (meaning).
Every grammatical category is the expression of some general idea, some logical
category. Thus, the grammatical category of number falls under the wider logical
category – the category of quantity, the grammatical category of tense is the linguistic
expression of the logical time.
But in actual language which is always an imperfect instrument of expressing
human thoughts the grammatical and logical categories do not always correspond to one
another. Thus, in the word group “a ten pound note” compared with “ten pounds”
plurality is not expressed grammatically by any inflection, but it is inferred from the
meaning of “ten.” In such a word-group as “many a man” the divergence between the
grammatical and the corresponding category is still stronger: “many” shows that more
than one is meant, “a man” is a regular expression of the singular number.
 Types of Word-Form Derivation. Types of Inflexional Morphemes
Grammar deals with inflexional morphemes, while derivational morphemes are in the
sphere of lexicology. Depending on the fact by what means the inflexional morpheme is
expressed, there exist the following main types of word-form derivation:
1) synthetic types– those which are limited to the changes of phonemes in the body of
the word, without having any auxiliary words. Synthetic types consist of 2 elements:
a) affixation (prefixation, suffixation); there is also infix (in the root of the word, the
only case being infix n in the verb ‘stand”;
b) morphophonemic alteration (the change of a phoneme within a morpheme)

2) analytical types – those which imply the use of auxiliary words

a) function words + affixation
b) function words + morphophonemic alteration

Synthetic: eg. going – ing is the grammatical suffix, go(lexical m.) + ing (gram. m.);
speaks – s is a grammatical suffix; but in “done” we have morphophonemic alteration (as
“do” changes into part II “done”)
man – men (the phoneme changes and brings about morphophonemic alteration).

Analytical:
a) If we add “is” to “going”, this will be analytical type of word-form derivation:
“is” is considered to be a function word, and it denotes person, number of the verb
“go”; “going” is considered to be a case of affixation
b) has done – here we have function word (has) + morphophonemic alteration (done)

Affixation as a Means of Word-Form Building in English

Prefixes are derivational morphemes. They are not studied by grammar and thus
affixation here is limited to suffixation, which is called inflexion. Suffixes may be
derivational – for word building (-ful, -ness, -ly,etc.) and inflectional – for words-form
building. The latter are studied by grammar. Inflectional suffixes may be of 2 types: a)
productive, b) non-productive.
The Productive Suffixes
The productive suffixes used for expressing grammatical categories and relations in
English are:
1) the morpheme if plurality {(e)s} with its 3 phonologically conditioned allomorphs
[s, z, iz]
2) the morpheme of the possessive case with its allomorphs {-s}-[s, z, iz]
3) the morpheme of the 3rd person singular, Present Indefinite {(e)s} with its
allomorphs -[s, z, iz]
4) the morpheme of the past tense of the regular verbs with its 3 allomorphs {(e)d}-
[t, d, id]
5) the morpheme of participle II of the regular verbs {(e)d}-[t, d, id]
6) the morpheme of the participle I and the gerund {ing}-[iŋ]
It is a case when a morpheme and an allomorph coincide.
7) the morpheme for degrees of comparison {er}, {est}
It is easily seen that the whole system of the productive suffixes may be represented by
the following allomorphs [s, z, iz, t, d, id, ə, ist, iŋ].
Besides, we can see that one and the same sequence of allomorphs can represent
different grammatical morphemes. Such cases when the same set of allomorphs represent
different grammatical morphemes is called grammatical homonymy. It is the coincidence
of the phonemic shape of different morphemes. This is widely spread in English.

Non-Productive Suffixes
The non-productive suffixes are morphologically conditioned
1) the plural of nouns{-en}-[ən] (children, oxen, brethren)
2) The plural of the nouns of Greek and Latin origin {ei}-[əi]
e.g. nucleus, nuclei [njuklai]
3) {-um}-[əm] data - datum
4) suffix of the pronouns in the objective case e.g. him, them, whom
 Unlike the Russian language, in English the inflexion morpheme has only 1
grammatical meaning, with the exception of -S- in the 3rd person singular Present
Indefinite: it expresses the grammatical meaning of tense, mood, person, number, and
aspect.

Morphophonemic Alteration and Suppletion

By morphophonemic alteration we mean the meaningful change of the phonemes
within one and the same morpheme. It is called morphophonemic because it is the change
of the phoneme that has morphological function, value, e.g. take – took, man – men.
Morphophonemic alteration (inner inflexion) is used in English in irregular verbs (most
of them belong to the Germanic strong verbs) for the formation of the past indefinite and
past participle; besides, it is used in a few nouns for the formation of the plural.
Morphophonemic alteration as well as suffixation is used in English not only in the
system of inflectional morphemes, but also within the derivational morphemes, e.g. food
- feed blood – bleed, bath - bathe (lexical change), but take – took (grammatical change).
Grammar studies this phenomenon only in the system of inflectional morpheme.
Morphophonemic alteration may take place not only in the root of the word but also
in suffixes. However, in cases of suffixation morphophonemic alteration is not a means
of inflexion, because it has no morphological value. e.g. [s, z, iz, t, d, id] this sound
alteration is phonemic alteration.
Alteration may be:
a) vowel alteration : woman – women, man – men, break – broke.
b) consonant alteration: life – lives, house – houses, leaf – leaves, do - done. Here we
have morphophonemic alteration + suffixation. In most cases, vowel and
consonant alteration are combined in one word, like in “bring – brought”, “think –
thought.”
The special case of alteration is represented by the cases when the given phoneme is
replaced by a zero phoneme, that is to say the omission of the phoneme. E.g. have – had,
[hæv - hæd] v→o +(e)d. originally “have” was “haved”, but (v) was omitted and (d) was
added.
 The extreme case of morphophonemic alteration is when all the phonemes of a
word are replaced by other phonemes, other roots and thus the phonemic shape of a word
is different. Such case is called suppletion. Suppletion is used in the forms of the verbs to
be and to go, in the irregular forms of the degrees of comparison, in some forms of
personal pronouns. E.g. to be – am – are – is – was – were - all the forms of the verb “to
be” are different; we – us, she – her, good – better. Phenomena standing close to
suppletion may be observed in modal verbs, eg. must – had to – will have to; can – was
able to – will be able to.
Some grammarians (eg. Ilyish) consider suppletion as a special type of derivation
alongside with such types as synthetic and analytical. They consider it to be the third type
of synthetic word-form derivation. However, this view can hardly be accepted because
suppletion is nothing else but morphophonemic alteration, the sounds of a word are
replaced by other sounds, consequently suppletion cannot be considered as a special type
of a word-form. It is only the element of the synthetic type alongside with affixation.
Thus, we may believe there is no division line between morphophonemic alteration and
suppletion. There exist only different degrees of phonological similarity between the
allomorphs of difference (s, z, t, d) to the absolute dissimilarity which is called
suppletion.
 Analytical types of word formation
Analytical type is opposed to the synthetic, that is to affixation and
morphophonemic alteration. It consists in the combination of these 2 elements + the third
element – functional (form) word.

1) affixation
2) morphophonemic alteration
} + 3) form words

E.g. I’ve done- “done”- morphophonemic alteration

He is writing – “writing” is affixation and “have”, “is” are form words

The analytical form is such a form in which lexical and grammatical meanings are
expressed by 2 different words. This is the traditional definition and the modern
linguistics introduces some changes in it because not every combination of a functional
word with a notional one makes an analytical formation. If it were so, such combination
as “in the street”, “at the table” would be considered analytical because they consist of
functional (form) word and notional words. (English prepositions never lose their lexical
meaning to that degree as to become functional words). But, however, they can hardly be
considered analytical, because in an analytical combination there is a specific distribution
of lexical and grammatical meanings. The real analytical forms are those which contain a
discontinuous morpheme that is a functional word + a notional word, which is inflected.
E.g. He is writing

gram. m gram. m. (form word “is” + affixation (ing))

has done
gram. m. morphophonemic alteration

The grammatical meaning in an analytical form is expressed twice - once by a functional

word and the second - by the suffix of a notional word. Thus, the grammatical morpheme
of such a form is disconnected by the root of a notional word, that’s why the morpheme
of the analytical form is called discontinuous morpheme. An analytical form is a
combination of functional (form) words expressing grammatical meaning and a notional
word expressing both lexical and grammatical meaning (the lexical meaning is expressed
by the root and the grammatical by the suffix, e.g. writ ing

lex gram.

The typical cases of discontinuous morpheme of analytical forms are those with
auxiliaries “to have” and “to be.”
{be}...{is} break{ing}
{be}…{en}, {-ed} is broken
{have}…{en}, {-ed} has broken, has changed

According to the definition of the analytically form given above the future Ind.
tense, as well as the degrees of comparison of adjectives with “more” and “most” cannot
be considered analytical formations because they have no discontinuous morpheme in
their structure. In “I shall go”- shall – gram. m., go – lex. m. The grammatical meaning is
used only once instead of truce. Besides, there is a view that “shall” and “will” have a
lexical meaning. Still, on the whole the future indefinite, as well as the mood forms are
considered to be analytical forms.

For any language it is peculiar to have both synthetic and analytical or synthetic
type of word-form derivation. Thus, English is characterized as an analytical because it
has few inflexions (ing, es, ed), with their allomorphs and a great number of analytical
formations. In analytical languages like English the word forms and grammatical
relations are expressed by means of functional words or form words and also by word
order sometimes by intonation. A language is referred to analytical or synthetic type on
the basis of the analysis of its grammatical structure which exists at the present moment
of its development, that is to say a language is analyzed synchronically without taking
into consideration its historical development. Synchronically English is an analytical
language, diachronically in different stages of its development it was either synthetically
or analytical.
 Morphemics. Morph. Types of Morphs.
The study of possible combinations of phonemes is the province of morphemics.
Morphemics, as a part of morphology, is the second level of structural analysis, which
studies the morphemic compositions of English words. In morphemics we deal with
morphs, morphemes, and allomorphs.
Morphs.
The idea of morph can be better understood if we compare the following sets of
words:
clear pleasant invisible
clearly pleasure impossible
clarity please immoral
clarify displease illegal
clearness irregular

If we divide these words into smaller meaningful units, we get morphs. A morph is
a minimal meaningful unit into which a word can be divided. A morph, then, is a
combination of phones, sounds that has a meaning, and which cannot be subdivided into
smaller meaningful units. Morphs have different phonemic shapes in different phonetic
environment, distribution. Different variations of the same morph, that are similar in
phonemes and meaning, are called allomorphs. The notion of morph and morpheme is
based on the so-called allo-emic theory which was put forward by the American
descriptive linguists. In accord with this theory, lingual units are described by means of 2
types of terms – allo - terms and eme – terms. Eme – terms denote the generalized units
characterized by a certain function(meaning) in the language. Allo – terms denote the
concrete manifestation (variants) of these generalized units depending on the different
conditions. Accordingly, there exist phonologically conditioned allo – morphs and
morphologically conditioned allo – morphs. That means that the inflexion –ed has 3
allomorphs [t, d, id], which are phonologically conditioned and productive, while in
man-men there are morphologically conditioned allomorphs (here we have a replacive
morph), they are not productive. Morphs may be of 2 types – free and bound. Free
morphs are those which can be found alone in the syntagmatic line. It is very easy to
distinguish free and bound morphs if a word consist of one free and one or more bound
morphs (teacher). In many cases the same sequence of phonemes is in one case a free
morph, in another case a bound morph. E.g. undertaker, though the preposition under is a
free morph. But in the words “thunder” and “hammer”, –er is not a morph, but a part of
morph. Thus, in order to distinguish different types of morphs, a word should not be
taken alone, but in the paradigmatic system.

}
thunder
the morph “thunder” is a free morph as
thunders “thund” does not exist.
thundered
thundering
outlook

outline }the morph out is a bound morph and is a prefix

outtalk

to look out
to shut out } the morph out is a free morph
to knock out

Types of morphemic distribution

 Three main types of morphemic distribution are distinguished in the distributional
analysis of morphs: contrastive distribution, non-contrastive distribution, and
complementary distribution.
The morphs are said to be in contrastive distribution if their meanings are
different. Such morphs constitute different morphemes, e.g. the suffixes ed and ing in
the verb-forms returned and returning.
The morphs are said to be in non-contrastive distribution if their meaning is the
same. Such morphs constitute “free variants” of the same morpheme, e.g. the suffixes
ed and t in the verb-forms learned and learnt.
If two or more morphs have the same meaning and the difference in their form is
explained by different environments , these morphs are said to be in complementary
distribution and considered to be the allomorphs of the same morpheme, e.g. the
allomorphs of the plural morpheme s, z, iz, which stand in phonemic complementary
distribution; the plural allomorph en in oxen, which stands in morphemic
complementary distribution with the other allomorphs of the plural morpheme.

Morphemes. Types of Morphemes.

 The morpheme is a meaningful segmental component of the word. The morpheme
is formed by phonemes: as a meaningful component of the word it is elementary (i.e.
indivisible into smaller segments).
Morpheme of plurality (e)s [ s, z, iz] morpheme of past tense e)d [t, d, id]
cats[ s] after voiceless consonants helped [t]
dogs [z] after voiced consonants changed [d]
bushes [iz] after sibilants mended [id]
These 3 allomorphs of the plural of nouns (e)s and of the past indefinite of the regular
verbs (e)d are used in mutually excluding environments. But in different environments
they have the same grammatical meaning. Thus a class of allomorphs which are used in
mutually excluding environments and have the same meaning are called morphemes.
We can call a group of allomorphs that are semantically (functionally) similar and in
complementary distribution a morpheme. Morpheme is a collective term for a family of
linguistic forms that are semantically similar and in complementary distribution. For
example, a plural morpheme in English, which may be designated by the cover symbol
{Z}, has principal allomorphs /s/, /z/, and /iz/, but it also includes a few occurrence of /
n/ as in oxen, or “zero” allomorph, as in / ip/ (ship), and some instances of internal vowel
change, as in /mays/(mice).Morpheme is an emic unit and exists only in language, while
allomorphs are used in speech. For designating a morpheme, 2 important conditions are
to be fulfilled:
1. Allomorphs should have the same meaning , eg. [s],[z] ,[iz]; clear, clarity
2. They are used in mutually excluding environments (complementary
distribution)
There may be zero morphemes, that is the absence of a morpheme may indicate a certain
meaning, e.g. book is characterized by a zero morpheme which indicates a singular form.
There are cases in language when the morpheme and the allomorph coincide, eg. in the
words sheep, deer, swine – the morpheme of plurality is expressed by a zero allomorph.
Here the morpheme and the allomorph coincide. It can be best illustrated if we compare
the following sets of words:
Weather no plural element sheep plural is expressed
Sugar deer by a zero morpheme
 swine
Eg. The weather is fine
The sheep is going up the hill
The sheep are going up the hill

Types of Morphemes.
Morphemes may be classified according to 2 principles: functional (semantic) and
structural (positional).
According to the structural classification, morphemes are divided into free and bound. A
morpheme whose form can be a word by itself is called a free morph. A morpheme that
must be attached to another morpheme is a bound morpheme. Free morphemes are
usually roots (lexical morphemes), bound morphemes are affixes. Roots are obligatory
morphemes, affixes are non-obligatory morphemes( affixal morphemes) , eg.
un/reason/ab/ly, clear/ly. Affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.
According to the functional classification, morphemes may be inflectional and
derivational. Derivational morphemes are those which produce new words but not new
grammatical forms of the same word. They do not show any grammatical relations
between words. They are not studied by grammar, but by lexicology. The differences
between the two types of morphemes are as follows:
1. The use of the derivational morphemes does not influence the syntactical function
of the word in the sentence or the forms of other words connected with it in the
sentence: A good boy – A joyful boy.
2. The use of an inflectional morpheme influences the surrounding words, eg. The
boys are sitting – The boy is sitting. The boy has come – The boys have come.
The meaning of the inflectional morpheme is compulsory and the zero morpheme
has its grammatical meaning.
3. The number of derivational morphemes is not limited at least theoretically, eg:
friend, friendly, friendliness, friendship
While the number of inflectional morphemes in a word is definite, namely, no more
than two. When a word contains both morphemes, the inflectional one is placed after
the last derivational morpheme, eg. teach/ er/ s
 Root deriv. Infl.
The exception is in the case when two inflectional morphemes are used in the same
word that is the case of the plural of some nouns which make their plural by means of
internal inflectional (internal – sound interchange, external 0 affixes), eg. children’s
4. The number of derivational morphemes in the language is very great, while the
number of inflectional ones is limited, namely in English. The derivational
morphemes are more productive.

Morphs, Morphemes, and Allomorphs Compared.

A morph is a sound or a combination of sounds that carries a single, indivisible
meaning. Eg. the word bucks contains two morphs: buck and s.
Morpheme is a collective term for a family of linguistic forms that are semantically
similar (s, es, en, internal vowel change (mouse-mice). Morpheme is a group of
individual morphs, all of which carry the same meaning within the morphemic system of
a language.
Allomorphs are member morphs of a morpheme. They may or may not be similar in
sound, but they do show a pattern of complementary distribution among other morphs.
An allomorph, then, is one the member forms of a given morpheme([s], [z],[iz], [ n])
 Verb: Introduction

The verb is the most complex part of speech. It performs the central role in the
expression of the predicative function of the sentence, in this way establishing the
connection between the situation named in the utterance and reality. The complexity of
the verb is also due to the fact that it falls into two different sets of forms: the finite forms
and the non-finite forms.
The general categorical meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically. This
holds true not only about the finite verbs, but also about the non-finite verbs. In the
sentence the finite verb performs the function of the verb-predicate, expressing the
categorical features of predication, that is, time, aspect, voice and mood.
The non-finite verb performs different functions according to its intermediary
nature (subject, object, adverbial modifier, attribute). Still, in their self-dependent use
they perform a potentially predicative function, constituting secondary predicative centres
on the sentence, e.g.
On coming home he turned on TVset.
He came home and turned on TVset.

From the point of view of their structure, verbs may be:

3. simple – to go, take, read. These stems are not numerous.
4. sound-replacive: food-feed, blood-to blood
 5. stress-replacive: import – to impórt, présent – to presént. Both the sound-
replacive and the stress-replacive types are non-productive.
6. expanded: these are the verbs expanded with the help of suffixes and
prefixes e.g. broad-to broaden, go-undergo, understand-misunderstand.
7. composite (compound) which correspond to the composite non-verb
stems: blackmail-to blackmail
8. the phrasal verbs: to have a smoke, to give a laugh.
From the point of view if meaning, verbs fall into two groups: verbs of full
nomination value (notional verbs) and verbs of partial nominative value (semi-notional
and functional verbs)
To semi-notional and functional verbs refer auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, semi-
notional verbal introducer verbs, link-verbs. The essence of semi-notional verbal
introducer verbs is seen if we compare the following sentences: “He began to read” and
“He began the reading of the book.”
All the notional verbs can be divided into actional and statal. Actional verbs present
the subject as an active doer. To this subclass belong such verbs as “do”, “to make”,
“go”, “read”, “write.” Statal verbs denote the state of their subject. To this subclass
belong such verbs as “be”, “live”, “stand”, “to see”, “to know.” A third subclass could be
also distinguished which is made up of verbs expressing neither action nor state, but
“processes.” As representative of processual subclass the following verbs may be pointed
out “consider”, “support”, “pen”, “thaw.”
From the point of view of aspective semantics, the verbs can be of the following 2
types:
1. durative, i.e. continue”, “last”, “live”, “exist”
2. terminate, “finish”, “close”, “stop”, “solve”
The verbs of the first class can be also called “unlimitive” as they present a process
as not limited. The verbs of the second class can be also called “limitive” as they present
process as potentially limited. Some verbs can be of double aspective nature, or of
“mixed” lexical character. These are capable of expressing either a “terminative” or
“non-terminative” meaning depending on the context. For example, “I knew it at once”-
(term. verb), but “I knew it very well” (durative) “I stood at the head of the stairs” (dur.),
“He went and stood by the window” (term.)

Verbal Valency. Transitive and Objective Verbs

The combining power of words in relation to other words is called their syntactical
“valency.” The valency of a word is realized when a given word is actually combined
with another word, that is its velency adjunct.
The syntactical valency falls into two types: obligatory and optional. The obligatory
valency is realized for the sake of grammatical completion of syntactical construction
(e.g. we saw a house in the distance).
The optional valency may or may not be realized depending on the concrete
information to be expressed in the sentence (we saw a house in the distance)
The notions of verbal transitivity and objectivity should be also considered.
Verbal transitivity is the ability of the verb to take a direct object. Verbal objectivity
is the ability of the verb to take any object, be it direct, or prepositional. Transitive verbs
are opposed to intransitive verbs; objective verbs are opposed to non-objective verbs
(subjective verbs).
Besides, there are also bicomplemetative objective verbs such as
1) taking direct and indirect object (addressee object), to give, to bring, to show.
2) taking 2 direct objects: to teach, to ask, to excuse, to forgive.
3) taking 2 prepositional objects (to argue, to consult)
4) taking a prepositional object and an addressee object (to remind of, to tell about)

The System of Verbal Categories

The verb is the only part of speech in Modern English that has developed a complex
morphological system based on a series of categories. In this respect it may be said that
the verb plays a central role in the morphology of English. The complicated character of
the verbal system has given rise to a lot of controversies about the structural formation of
the finite verb categories.
 The problem of the grammatical categories is connected with a number of
difficulties, which is accounted for, in the first place, by the analytical character of the
modern English language, and also by a great number of unmarked homonymous forms.
While analyzing the verbal categories, very often difficulties arise whether to consider
certain constructions as analytical forms of the verb or not, or whether one and the same
unmarked form of the verb represents different forms (categories) which are
homonymous or one form having different meanings (the problem of homonymy and
polysemy).
In connection with the study of the verbal expression of time and aspect, the great
controversy is going on as to the temporal or aspective nature of the verbal forms of the
indefinite, continuous, perfect, and perfect-continuous series.
There are lots of mutually opposing views regarding both the content and the
number of the voice. The problem of the subjective mood may be called one of the most
difficult problems in the theory of grammar.
Another difficulty arises in connection with the forms of the English verb, having
no positive morphological markers (with zero inflections). As compared with other
languages (synthetic, such as Russian or American), the number of such forms in English
is very great. Let’s consider as an example the paradigm of the conjugation of the verb,
present tense, indicative mood and imperative mood.

Indicative Mood Imperative

I play We play Play!
You play You play
He, she, it plays They play

Thus, we see that out of 7 forms of the English verb, if we consider that Imperative
mood is represented by 2 homonymous forms – singular and plural, 6 or 7 forms are the
forms with zero inflections, i.e. in the system of the present tense, indicative mood and
imperative mood there exist 7 homonymous zero inflections:

1. the inflection of 2nd person sg. and pl.

2. the inflection of 1st sg. and plural
 3. 3rd person pl.
4. imperative sg.
5. imperative pl.

The verb system has come under the most intensive analysis undertaken by
contemporary linguistics. In the course of these studies the oppositional nature of the
categorical structure of the verb was formulated. The paradigmatic system of the
expression of verbal functional semantics was competently described. the categorical
system of the English verb is based on oppositional criteria worked by Soviet and foreign
scholars. The verbal system includes the categories of person, number, time (tense),
aspect, perfect, voice, and mood. Only finite verbs can have these 7 verbal categories.
E.g. He speaks good English.

1. tense – Pr. Ind.

2. aspect – non-cont.
3. perfect – non-perfect
4. voice – active voice
5. person – 3rd person
6. number – singular
7. mood – indicative

Non-finite verbs (verbides) have only 3 categories:

1. aspect
2. perfect
3. voice
E.g. To be talking to her is a real pleasure.

1. aspect – cont.
2. perfect – non-perfect
3. voice – active voice
 Verb. The Category of Tense

The existence of the category of tense is universally recognized. However, the

opinions of the scholars differ as to the number of theses in English. The divergences of
viewpoints are accounted for by drawbacks of the traditional grammar. Traditional
grammar confused tenses category with that of aspect (phase) and the category of perfect
continuous and perfect forms were considered to be tense forms.
Another drawback of the traditional grammar was that it confused the notions of
time and tense. Time as well as space is the basic form of the existence of matter. It is
independent of human perception. Time is reflected by man through his perception and
intellect and finds its expression in his language.
The Grammatical category of tense is nothing else but the linguistic expression of
time. Tense is one of the typical functions of the finite verb, because of the meaning of
process finds its realization only if presented in certain time conditions.
It is natural that time as the universal form of consecutive change of things is
appraised by the individual in reference to the moment of his immediate perception of the
world reality. This moment is constantly shifting in time and serves as the demarcation
line between the past and the future. Thus, tense as the linguistic expression of time is
relative. It is always correlated with the moment of immediate perception or “present
moment.”
As to the general definition of this category, there is no need to look for a special
one for the English language, since the basic features of the category appear to be the
same in English as in other languages. The category of tense may be defined as a verbal
category that reflects the objective category of time and expresses on this background the
relations between the time of the action and the time of utterance.
The main division of objective time is clear enough: past, present and future.
However, it does not mean that tense systems of different languages are identical. On the
contrary, there are wide divergences in this respect. According to a well-established
tradition, practical grammar distinguishes 16 tense-aspect forms in English, which fall
under 4 classes – Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect and Perfect Continuous, each
embracing 4 tenses – present, past, future and Future in the Past.
 But not all scholars find this system satisfactory. Indeed, if tense is to be defined as
linguistic expression of time, that is to say as the form of the verb which serves to denote
time relations existing in reality, only 3 forms can be recognized in English as tense
forms – the Present, the Past, and the Future.

The Problem of the Future Tense in English

Some scholars express doubt as to the existence of the Future tense in English. This
view was held by such a recognized authority of English grammar, of the older
generation of the 20th century as Otto Jesperson. The reason why Jesperson denied the
existence of the Fut. t. in English was that English Future is expressed by the
combination of the words shall, will with the Infinitive. The controversial point about
such combination is whether they really constitute the categorical expression of the
verbal tense, namely the Future tense, or they are just model phrases with the Indefinite.
In fact, the verbs shall and will originally belonged to the group of the so-called preterit
presence with model meaning of obligation and volition. The adherents of this view hold
that the verbs “shall” and “will” retain their modal meanings in all their uses.
In our times quite a few scholars, among them successors of descriptive linguistics,
consider these verbs as part of the general set of modal verbs, “modal auxiliaries”,
expressing the meaning of capability, probability, obligation and the like. A well-
grounded objection against the inclusion of the construction “shall, will + infinitive” in
the tense system of the verb was advanced by L. S. Barckhudorov. The combination in
question can express both the future time and the past time (the form Future in the Past)
which hardly makes any sense in terms of a grammatical category. Indeed, the principle
of the identification of any grammatical category demands that the forms of the catefory
should be mutually exclusive.
In analyzing the English Future tenses the modal factor naturally should be taken
into consideration. A certain modal colouring of the meaning of the future cannot be
denied, especially in the form of the first person, but as it is widely known, the expression
of the future in other languages is also connected with modal semantics. The future
action, unlike general feature of reality. In other words, a future action is not something
real existing at the moment of utterance, but it is only planned or anticipated or desired
for the time to come.
Thus, the expression of a future action is always connected with some modal shade
of meaning. This meaning becomes more prominent in the typically cases expressing
intention or desire, such as “I will do it” and promise or command on the part of the
speaker in cases like “you shall, he shall be punished, - I promise.”
These rules apply to refined British English. In American English “will” is
described as expressing modality. However, this does not fully agree with the existing
linguistic facts. In British English very often “will” is used with the first person without
any modal connotation. E.g. I will call for you and your young mom at 7 o’clock. When
we wake up, I’ll take him up and carry him back.
Thus we cannot agree with the scholars denying the existence of the future tense in
English, taking into consideration all that was said above.

The Category of Aspect

This category, which is also called the aspective category of development, is

constituted by the opposition of two form-classes, the unmarked or weak form class and
the marked or strong form-class represented by the continuous aspect. If we take “write,
wrote, will write, has written, had written” and oppose to the forms “is writing, was
writing, will be writing, has been writing, had been writing” we will see that the first set
is opposed to the second not by lexical meaning of the verb, but by the grammatical
meaning. The first set denotes an action not limited by time limits, while the second set of
forms denotes an action going on continuously within certain time limits.
Forms of the second set are usually called or termed as the continuous forms, the
term “continuous” being very appropriate for the phenomenon, which is described by
them. The aspective meaning of the verb, as different from its temporal meaning, reflects
the inherent mode of the realization of the process irrespective of its time. The categorical
meaning of the continuous is “action in progress.” As to the set of the first type these
forms are described by the term, “common”, non-continuous, because their intrinsic
meaning is very indefinite and leaves room for various uses of this aspect. The common
aspect may denote:
1) momentary action, like - He dropped his book.
2) a usual, habitual, repeated action ( I always go to the office at 8)
3) an action going on for a long period of time. E.g. he lived in London from
1960 to 1978
4) an action out of time (not limited by any time limit). E.g. the sun rises in
the morning.
The semantic contents of the continuous aspect are:
1) duration – the action already begun but not finished yet.
2) The concreteness of the action – the action limited by a certain period of
time.
Comp. I work at the Institute (unlimited time)
I am working at my new book (limited time)

All the terminative verbs in the common aspect have the meaning of habitual
recurrent general action. E.g. He gets up at 6. While all the durative verbs used in the
common aspect have the meaning of an action not limited by any time limits. E.g. He
loves children.
On the other hand, the use of the durative verbs in the continuous aspect is
restricted, because they can be used in this aspect only with emphatic force. E.g. You are
always finding faults with me. She is constantly wanting money from him.
It is clear that these are the cases of the unusual use of the continuous form. They
do not fit in the definition of the continuous form. In these examples the continuous form
has the peculiar shade of meaning – the emphatic meaning and the action is represented
as going on without interruption and that gives the sentence additional, emotional
colouring. In these cases the action is represented as if never ceasing, that is to say it is
meant to be unlimited by time. These are the cases when the continuous meaning is
neutralized. E.g. He is constantly grumbling.
These are exaggerated statements where the form of the continuous aspect is used
with emotional shade of meaning. This is the so-called stylistic application of the
continuous forms. The stylistic effect is brought about due to the descriptive value of the
continuous forms. The fallowing fact should be mentioned. In all books on practical
grammar it is mentioned that the statal verbs denoting abstract relation (to belong, to
consist, to possess), verbs denoting mental activity (to know, to understand) and verbs
denoting sense perception or emotion (to see, to hear, to fear) are not used in the
continuous form.
E.g. It was as if she was seeing herself for the first time
Don’t shout, I’m hearing you quite well.
Yet, such use of the continuous form is quite common in modern English, quite
appropriate. In such cases the action is interpreted as a momentary action and the
continuous form shows that the action is taking place for the some time and is not a mere
a statement of the fact. This application is also due to the descriptive character of the
continuous form. The continuous aspect of the link verb “to be” shows a person’s
behavior in a concrete situation, but not his general character.
E.g. I think, you are being unjust (at this moment).
You are being damn and fool.

The continuous aspect shows that it is not a permanent characteristic feature, but it
is peculiar only to the particular case.
E.g. He is being honest (in general, he is not honest, but now he is honest).
I’ll be seeing him tomorrow.
The linguistic implication of these uses of the continuous is indeed very peculiar. It
amounts to de – neutralizing the usually neutralized continuous. Here we have an
emphatic reduction of the continuous serving the purpose of speech expressiveness.

Different Interpretation of the Category of Aspect

For a long time the continuous aspect was not recognized at all as a separate
grammatical category and all the continuous forms were treated as different tenses of the
continuous group.
 The evolution of views on connection with interpretation of the continuous forms
has undergone three stages.
The traditional analysis placed them among the tense-forms of the verb, defining
them as expressing an action going on simultaneously with some other action. This
temporal interpretation of the continuous was developed in the works of H. Sweet and O.
Jesperson. In point of fact, the continuous usually goes with a verb which expresses a
simultaneous action, but the timing of the action is not expressed by the continuous as
such.
A further demonstration of the essentially non-temporal meaning of the continuous
is its regular use in combination with the perfect, i.e. its use in the verb-form perfect
continuous.
At the second stage of the interpretation of the continuous, the form was understood
as rendering a blend of temporal and aspective meanings. This view was developed by I.
P. Ivanova.
The combined temporal-aspective interpretation of the continuous introduced
comprehensively grounded basis for the idea of aspective meaning in the grammatical
system of English. Besides, it demonstrated the actual connection of time and aspect in
the integral categorical semantics of the verb.
Thus, latter phase of study, initiated in the works of A. I. Smirnistsky, V. N.
Yartseva and B. A. Ilysh, was developed future by B. S. Khaimovich and B. I.
Rogocskaya and was most comprehensively formed by L. S. Barkhudarov.

The Category of Mood

The category of mood is the most controversial category of the verb. The relation of
this category to other categories, the number of moods – all this has received different
presentations of this category given by different scholars seems to be the same with slight
modifications. Mood is the grammatical category of the verb reflecting the relation of the
action denoted by the verb to reality from speaker’s point of view. In other words, the
category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted and
the actual reality either presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or
will happen or treating it as imaginary phenomenon, that is to say that subject of a
hypothesis, speculation, desire.
Mood expresses the outer interpretation of the action as a whole, the introduction of
it as actual or imaginary.
The relation of the action to reality is otherwise termed “modality.” Thus, mood and
modality are closely interrelated but not identical. Mood is a narrower notion. Modality is
a wider notion and it may be expressed not only by grammatical means (mood), but also
by lexical means (modal verbs, modal words, and phrases, parenthetical clauses and by
intonation).

Comp. Ind. Mood Subj. Mood

It is true If it were true
It can’t be true It couldn’t be true
Perhaps, it’s true I wish it were true
It’s true, I believe I demand that it be true

There is not unity concerning the number of moods in English. Thus, A. I.

Smirntitsky, O. S. Akhmanova, M. Ganshina and N. Vasilevskaya find six moods in
modern English – Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive I and II, Suppositional and
Conditional.
B. Ilysh, I. Ivanova, L. Iafic, V. Kaushanskaya find only 3 moods in English -
Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive. M. Y. Bloch, L. S. Barkhudarov and D. A Shteling
distinguish only the Indicative and the Subjunctive mood. The imperative is treated as
forms outside the category of mood C. N. Vorontsova distinguish 4 moods in English –
Indicative and 3 oblique moods. The main division that has been universally recognized
is the division of moods into 2 groups, the one which represents an action as real, that is
to say as actually taking place (the Indicative) and the one which represents it as non-real
(imaginary, conditional, possible, probable).

Indicative Mood
 The Indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it is the most
developed system including all the grammatical categories of the verb. Semantically it is
a “fact” mood/the terminology of H. Swell). It serves to present an action as a fact of
reality. It is the most objective and the least subjective of all the moods. It conveys
minimum personal attitude to the fact. This is particularly manifested in sentences of the
type “Magnet attracts iron.”
It should be noted that the mention of the speaker or writer who represents the
action as real is most essential. If we limit ourselves to saying that the Indicative mood is
used to represent real actions we should arrive at the conclusion that whatever is stated by
anybody in a sentence with the predicate in the indicative mood is always true. But the
speaker may be mistaken or else telling a deliberate lie. The point is that Grammar does
not deal with the truth or untruth of the statement, from the meaning of this category is
used by the speaker as the meaning of correspondence to reality.
Some doubt about the meaning of the indicative mood may arise if we take into
account its use in conditional sentences of the type. E.g. “I’ll speak to him if I meet him.”
In this sentence the action denoted by the verb in the Indicative mood is represented not
as a fact, but merely as a possibility (I may meet him and may not). However, the
conditional meaning is expressed by the conjunction “if” and the meaning of the verb as
such remains.

The Imperative Mood

There are essential peculiarities distinguished the imperative mood and they have
given rise to doubts as to whether the imperative can be referred to moods at all. This
needs a comment on what we mean by mood. A serious difficulty connected with
Imperative is the absence of any specific morphological characteristics, since all verbs
including the verb “to be” it coincides with the Infinitive. This fact gave some scholars a
right to exclude the imperative from the system of moods. Besides, in all verbs except “to
be” the form of the imperative coincides with the Present Indicative except 3rd person
singular.
 E.g. Go! Be quiet! (It coincides with the indicative. Here we have grammatical
homonymy). If we accept the definition of mood given above there would be no ground
to deny that the imperative is a mood. The problem is what mood it is, direct or oblique.
M. Ganshina and M. Vasilevskaya consider that the imperative is a direct mood.
The scholars who object to this viewpoint consider that it is an oblique mood, since its
meaning is not that of a real action desired by the speaker. This can be easily shown by
transformations.
E.g. be off→ I demand that you be off.
Do be careful with the paper→ My request is htat you be (should be) careful.
According to M. Bloch, the imperative may be looked upon as a variety of the
subjective.
Though the system of the imperative mood does not contain person distinction, it
cannot be said that there is no meaning of person implied in the form of this mood. On
the contrary, the speaker addresses his order or request to a definite person, the second
person. This makes it unnecessary to use the subject expressed by the pronoun. (Usually
indefinite or personal pronoun is used)
E.g. Somebody switch on the light.
You get out of here!
Don’t you do it!

The Problem of the Analytical Imperative

Some scholars are of the opinion that modern English possesses analytical forms of
the imperative mood for the first and third persons built up with the help of the
semantically weakened, unstressed “let” + pronoun in the objective case. E.g. Let him
come. Let us go there.
G. Vorontsova give a detailed analysis of these constructions to prove that they are
analytical forms of the Imperative. The objections to this viewpoint are:
1) If we admit the existence of the analytical imperative, we will have to admit that
the subject may be expressed by a pronoun in the objective case.
 2) The basic meaning of the imperative is to urge, to induce the listener to fulfill an
action denoted by the notional verb. The construction with “let” is devoid of this basic
meaning of the imperative, the meaning of inducement, especially in sentences of the
type. “Let me do it” (kind of suggestion)
3) The imperative mood forms its negative forms with the auxiliary “do” + not. E.g.
“Don’t go there”, “Let him not go there” (the second is a suggestion, advice).
All these and the fact that the verb “let” has its own lexical meaning (though weak)
show – that “let” has not established itself as a morpheme of the analytical imperative
mood. Consequently, the analytical imperative does not exist in English.

The Oblique Mood

The problem of the subjunctive, conditional, suppositional or whatever other name

we may choose to give these moods is a very difficult one. The main difficulty is the
absence of a direct relation between meaning and form. Sometimes the same form has
two or more different meaning depending on the content or vice versa. The same modal
meaning is expressed by two different forms. Compare: I think we should come here
again tomorrow (“should come” is equal to “ought to come here”). It means another thing
in the sentence “If I knew that he needs me I should come to see him” (here “should
come” denotes a conditional action, i.e. an action depending on certain conditions). It
means another thing in “How queer (strange) that we should come at the very moment
when you were talking about us” (here “should come” denotes an action which has
actually taken place). Here “should come” is a form of suppositional mood and “should”
is here a modal auxiliary.
Matters are still more complicated by two phenomena we are faced with – a choice
between polysemy and homonymy. Compare: 1. He lived here five years ago, and 2. if he
lived here he would come at once. In the first sentence “lived” denotes a real action and it
is the past tense of the indicative mood, while in the second sentence the meaning of
“lived” admits of two interpretations:
1. either the form “lived” is the same form of the past indicative, but it has acquired
another meaning in this particular context.
 2. or else the form “lived” is the form of some other mood which denotes imaginary
action, and which is homonymous with the past indicative. Some scholars (O. Jesperson,
H. Sweet) accept the first point of view and call such cases “tense-mood” forms or
imaginative use of tenses. N. Kobrina and E. Korneyeva call such cases non-factual use
of tenses. These scholars are of the opinion that in instances like this the meaning of
modality is brought about by the very use of the past indicative instead of the present
indicative in the context of the present.
There is another difficulty in the analysis of mood. The question is what verbs are
auxiliaries of mood in Modern English. The verbs “should”, “would” are auxiliaries
expressing unreality (what system of moods we may adopt). But the question is less clear
with the verb “may” when used in such sentences as, “Come closer that I may hear what
you say”, or “May you be happy!” Is the group “may hear” some mood form of the verb
“to hear” or is it a free syntactical combination of a modal verb + infinitive. Does it
belong to the sphere of morphology or to that of syntax?
If we start from the meanings of the mood forms (leaving aside the meaning of
reality, denoted by the indicative) we obtain the following headings:

Meaning Means of expression

Inducement go(!) (no ending, no auxiliary, usually without
subject)
Possibility 1. (he) come (no ending, no auxiliary)
2. should go (should for all persons
Unreal condition 3. may go
came, had come, used in subordinate clauses
Consequence of unreal condition should go
would go

If we start from the means of expressing moods we shall get something like this
system.

Means of expression Meaning

come(!) Inducement
(he) come Possibility
came, had come Unreal condition
should come Unlikely condition
should come Consequence of unreal condition
would come wish or purpose

Syntax. Fundamentals of Syntax.

The course of grammar of the English language is divided into two basic sections:
morphology and syntax. Morphology, as it is already known, studies the grammatical
forms of words, parts of speech. Syntax, which is sometimes called “elder brother of
morphology” (Tenier, “Основы структурного синтаксиса”) deals with sentences and
combinability of words, classification and combinability of phrases. Thus, there are two
units of syntax – the phrase – the minimal unit and the sentence – the highest unit and
correspondingly two levels of syntax – the level of phrase, which is also called minor
syntax, and the level of sentence, also called major syntax.
According to a modern point of view, the relation between morphology and
syntax is not always so simple as that. In this view we should distinguish between 2
angles of research: 1) the elements dealt with; from this point of view grammar consists
of morphology and syntax. 2) the way these elements are studied; from this point of view
there exists paradigmatic are syntagmatic study. Thus, we get 4 divisions:
1) paradigmatic morphology (vertical relations)
2) syntagmatic morphology
3) paradigmatic syntax
4) syntagmatic syntax (horizontal relations)
Of these 4 items the first and the fourth require no special explanation; the two
other items require special comment.
1) Syntagmatic morphology is the study of the combinability of parts of
speech. E.g. I can go (can is used only with infinitive, we cannot use it with
other parts of speech but infinitive). Whenever we speak of parts of speech
we remain within the sphere of morphology. Thus, the statement that an
adjective is used to modify a noun, an adverb – to modify a verb is a
statement of syntagmatic morphology.
 2) Paradigmatic syntax is a part of grammatical theory which did not
appear in the traditional systems.
E.g. My friend has come.
Has my friend come?
My friend will have come.
My friends have come.
My friends have not come.
All these sentences are variations of one and the same sentence – the paradigm of
the sentence. Still, it should be mentioned, that from the point of view of
communications, “My friend has come” and “My friends have not come” are different
sentences as they express different combination.

Syntactic Connections of Words

Performing their semantic functions, words in an utterance from various

syntagmatic connections with one another. One should distinguish between the following
groupings.
1) notional word + notional word (notional phrases). Such phrases denote
complex phenomena and have self-dependent nominative function (phrases
with secondary predication, complexes with the verbals are also included
here) E.g. a sudden trembling, strangely familiar, hurrying along the street, to
lead to a cross-road
2) notional word + functional word
These combinations are equivalent to separate words by their nominative
function. Since function words express abstract relations, they are not self-
dependent. E.g. as a rule, with difficulty, but a moment, and Jimmy. Such
phrases are called formative combinations. They are synsemantic, that’s to say
dependent on the context.
3) function word + function word
Such phrases are analogous to separate functional words. They are used as
connectors and specifiers of notional elements of various status. E.g., from
 under, apart from, from out of, up to. Such phrases are functional phrases.
They constitute a limited group supplementing the corresponding one-item
function words as different from notional phrases which form open groups of
various semantic destination.
The first group-notional phrases – fall into 2 mutually opposite types by their
grammatical and semantic properties.
1) Combinations in which words are related to one another on an equal rank, so
that neither of them sewers as a modifier of the other. Depending on this
feature such combinations are termed equipotent.
E.g. My colleagues and I will be present at the meeting.

Equipollents
Here both “my colleagues” and “I” can be used subject of the sentence separately
taken.
In “My colleague will be present” my colleague is not equipollent as “my” cannot
be used as a subject in the sentence.
2) Combinations formed by words which are not syntactically equal, one of them
plays the role of modifier to the other. These combinations are termed dominantional.
The function of the adjunct is different from that of the whole phrase.

My colleague will be present at the meeting.

Attribute Subject
According L. Bloomfield, such phrases are endocentric (containing a head-word
or contra). The endocentric group has the same distribution as one of its members. In
terms of substitution, the head word of the endocentric group functions in the same way
as the whole phrase.
Subordination (junction) is a type of syntactical connection when the syntactical
function of the whole group is different from the syntactical function of one of the IC-s
(immediate constituents) that is adjunct. E.g.
 A tall boy came in.
A tall came in.
A boy came in.
The IC the syntactical function of which coincides with the syntactical function of
the whole group is the head; The IC the syntactical function of which is different from the
syntactical function of the whole group is the adjunct of the phrase.
The syntagmatic relation between the IC-s is dominational, that’s to say the IC-s
are syntactically unequal, one of them dominates the other. In the substitution test the
deletion of one of the IC-s (the adjunct) should not lead to the change of the syntactical
connection between other words in the same sentence. E.g.
He is a good boy.
He is good (the structure of the sentence is changed).
He is a boy (the main structure of the sentence is kept).

Coordination is a type of syntactical connection, when the syntactical function of

the whole group is identical with the syntactical function of each IC.
E.g. John and Bill came They drove slowly and silence. (adv.
mod. of m.)
John came. They drove slowly. (ad. of m.)
Bill came. They drove in silence. (adv. of m.)

He stood silent and motionless.

He stood silent.
He stood motionless.

The predicative connection of words uniting the subject and the predicate (which
is also called nexus) builds up the basis of the sentence. The syntagmatic relation
between the IC-s is domination. But this domination is reciprocal, the subject dominates
the predicate is determining the reason of the predication, while the predicate dominates
the subject determining the event predication, that’s to say ascribing to a person some
action, state or quality. The difference in the meaning between the elements of
predication underlines the mutually opposite direction of domination – thus mutual
dependence – and exposes its dialectic essence. The domination of the subject over the
predicate is exposed in agreement (the predicate agrees with the subject in number and
person). E.g.
I come. He comes.
The predicate domination over the subject is demonstrated by the correspondent
noun phrase which places the predicate in the position of the headword and the subject –
in the position of the adjunct. E.g. The train arrived → The arrival of the train.
Alongside of fully predicate groups of the subject and the finite verb-predicate,
there exist in language partially predicative grouping – formed by a combination of a
non-finite verbal form with a substantive element. Such are infinitival, gerundial and
participial constructions. Comp. The pupil understands his mistake (mutual domination)
→ the pupil’(s) understanding his mistake → the pupil understanding his mistake.
In such predicative constructions, which are also called semi-predicative or
potentially-predicative, there is no formal domination of the subject (no agreement), but
the two directions of domination remain by virtue of the very predicative nature of the
syntactic connection. Thus, predication, as a type of syntactical connection, exists in 2
forms – complete predication (primary predication), incomplete predication (secondary,
or semi-predication, or potential predication, or partial predication).

The Phrase

In modern grammar theory there exist different approaches to the definition of the
phrase – the lowest unit of syntax. One of the widest definitions is suggested by Prof.
B.A. Iliysh: “Any combination of two or more words, which is a grammatical unit but not
an analytical form of some words, is a phrase”. According to this definition the
constituent element of a phrase may belong to any part of speech (both notional and
functional). Syntagmatically they may be notional phrases (cold water) , formative
phrases (in the garden), functional phrases (in reference to). Prof. L. S. Barkhudarov
gives a narrower definition of a phrase. According his point of view, a phrase is a group
of two or more syntactically connected notional words which is not an analytical from
and not a sentence. From this point of view in the sentence “When John and Bill wake in
the morning, they opened the window”, we may single out the following three phrases:
a) woke in the morning
b) John and Bill
c) Opened the window
The combinations “John and Bill woke”, “they opened” are sentences, “in the
morning”, “the window” are not phrases as one of the ICs is a functional word.