1

The Noun
Noun classes:
(1)countable nouns= they denote individual countable entities (bottle, chair, forest, idea).
(2)uncountable nouns=they denote undifferentiated mass or continuum (bread, grass,
music, furniture, gold, money).

The language makes it possible to look upon some objects from the point of view of both
countable and uncountable:
Would you like a cake? (countable)-No, I don’t like cake. (uncountable)
She was a beauty. (countable)-She had great beauty. (uncountable)
She had many difficulties. (countable)-She had much difficulty. (uncountable)

Uncountable nouns can be reclassified as a countable noun involving a change of

meaning:
1. A: What cheeses have you got today? (types of cheese)
B: Well, we have Chedar, Gorgonzola, and Danish Blue.

2. -a noun like “coffee” which is normally uncountable (Do you want tea or coffee?) can
be considered a countable noun:
Can I have a coffee, please? (a cup of coffee)
This is a nice coffee. (type, kind, brand of coffee)
I like Brazilian coffees best. (type, kind, brand of coffee)

Partition in respect of quantity:

-both uncountable and countable nouns can be used with constructions denoting a part of
a whole (a piece of/kind of/type of). The most used partitive expression is “a piece of”: a
piece of paper/chalk/advice/information/news. In addition to the general partitives (a
piece of/ a bit of/ an item of) there are some restricted typical/specific partitives such as
the following:
a grain of truth
a bar of chocolate/soap/gold
a loaf of bread
a bunch of flowers/keys
a speck of dust/dirt
a herd of cattle
a sheet of paper/ice

-some uncountable nouns have countable equivalents as given below:

uncountable nouns
This is important information.
The news is bad today.
Your advice is reliable.
The furniture is expensive.
countable equivalents
a piece of/bit of information
a piece/item of news
a piece of/word of advice
a piece of/article of furniture

-some English uncountable nouns correspond to count nouns in some other languages:
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English uncountable nouns=homework, courage, equipment, research, resistance.

Number
-we distinguish three main number classes of nouns:
1.singular invariable nouns: nouns used only in the singular (music, gold, the unreal,
Henry)
2. plural invariable nouns: nouns used only in the plural (people, scissors)
3. nouns used with either singular or plural number (dog, dogs)

There are two subclasses:

4. regular: nouns with plural predictable from the singular (dog=>dogs)
5. irregular: the plural form of the noun is not predictable(foot=>feet,
criterion=>criteria)

1. VARIABLE NOUNS:
-note the special case of the collective nouns: committee, family, team, army
When used in the singular (My family is larger than his), the non-personal collectivity
of the group is stressed; when used in the plural (My family are at home), the personal
individuality within the group is stressed.

Regular plurals
-the plural suffix is written “-s” after nouns (hat=>hats)
There are however several exceptions to this rule:
a. after nouns ending in “-s”,, “-z”, “-x”, “-ch”, “-sh” the plural ending is “-es”:
gas=>gases, box=>boxes, bush=>bushes
b. nouns ending in “-o” have plurals in “-os” or “-oes”: just “s” in the case of proper
nouns, abbreviations.
-radios, pianos, Eskimos
-nouns with plurals only in “-oes”: heroes, potatoes, tomatoes, echoes
-nouns that have both“-os” and “-oes” plurals: volcanos/oes, tornados/oes, cargos/oes
c. nouns ending in “-y” preceded by a consonant change the “y” :
sky=>skies (“y” is kept after a vowel: day=>days)
d. the final consonant is doubled in a few nouns: fez=>fezzes, quiz=>quizzes
e. the apostrophe s (‘s) is used in: in the 1980’s, write two b’s
f. beliefs, cliffs, proofs, roofs / knives, leaves, halves, calves, leaves, shelves, thieves /
handkerchieves/fs, scarves/fs

Irregular plurals
a. the plural is formed by a change of vowel in the following seven nouns:
man=>men woman=>women
foot=>feet tooth=>teeth
goose=>geese louse=>lice
mouse=>mice

b. the “-en” plural occurs in three nouns:

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brother=>brethren (fellow member of a religious society)

child=>children
ox=>oxen (in Am E also oxes)

c. zero plural
Some nouns have the same form in singular and plural:
c.1-animal names: sheep(These sheep are ours./This sheep is alright.), deer
- fishes: denotes different species as in “the fishes of the Mediterranean”.
c.2-nationality names, nouns ending in “-ese” have zero plural: one/five Chinese (also
one/two Swiss)
c.3-quantitive nouns, dozen, hundred, thousand, million have zero plural when they are
preceded by another quantitative word: two hundred people, many thousand times,
several million inhabitants (but the plural form is used when they are followed by “of”:
hundreds of people, thousands of spectators)
c.4-nouns with equivocal number, nouns that can be treated as singular or plural:
means- “a means of communication” but “use all means possible”
series-“This new series is delayed.” but also “These new series are delayed.”
species-“This species is now extinct.” but also “These species are no extinct.”

d. foreign plurals
-nouns from Latin: stimulus=>stimuli, nucleus=>nuclei (but also nucleuses),
antenna=>antennae, alga=>algae
-nouns from Greek: analysis=>analyses, crisis=>crises, basis=>bases,
criterion=>criteria, phenomenon=>phenomena

e. compounds nouns which consist of more than one word (babysitter, close-up etc.)
e.1-nouns with plural in the last element: assistant-directors, grown-ups,
attorney/generals, forget-me-nots
e.2-nouns with plural in the first element: passers-by, mothers-in-law (but also mother-
in-laws), commanders-in-chief
e.3- nouns with plural in both first and last element: women doctors, gentlemen
farmers.

2. SINGULAR INVARIABLE NOUNS

a. concrete mass nouns (generally names of materials): silver, sugar, tobacco, furniture,
milk
! if in the plural, they have stylistic use = kinds of

b. abstract mass nouns: music, truth, knowledge, kindness

! if in the plural, their original content becomes less abstract: to exchange
confidences, to do personal kindnesses

c. proper names: John, the USA, Naples

d. invariable nouns ending in –s:

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o The noun news

o Names of diseases: rickets, measles, mumps, tantrums
o Subject names in –ies: mathematics, linguistics, physics, politics
o Games: dominoes, billiards, draughts
o Abstract adjectival heads: the beautiful, the absolute, the good, the evil

2. PLURAL INVARIABLE NOUNS:

a. tools, instruments and clothes made of two equal parts joined together: (scissors,
tongs, jeans, pants, pyjamas, shorts, braces, trousers How much are those
spectacles?/They are 60 pounds.

b. nouns that end in “-s” and in a given sense only occur in the plural and take a plural
verb(damages: These damages are paid.):
contents (table of…), customs (go through customs at the airport), goods (property,
merchandise), wages (weekly pay), spirits, compasses, premises.

c. nouns that have no plural marking but are used as plurals: people (when it means
“nation” it can be used as a plural: the English-speaking peoples), police (The police
have caught the burglar), cattle (The cattle are in the field), clergy, youth.

d. personal adjectival heads: the rich, the poor, the wounded, the unemployed, the
needy.

3. Gender
In English unlike many other related languages, nouns, determiners and adjectives are
not marked inflectionally for gender distinctions (do not generally have specific
suffixes to mark gender).

a. personal male/female nouns: bachelor-spinster, father-mother, monk-nun, widower-

widow, bridegroom-bride;

b. personal dual gender: friend, doctor, teacher, student, speaker. If information on the
sex of the person is necessary a gender marker may be added (male student/female
student);
e.g. Tom cat, Pussy/ Cathy cat, he/she lion, boy/girlfriend, male/female engineer, woman
doctor;

c. suffixes: actor-actress, waiter-waitress, prince-princess

Case. The form of the possessive/genitive case

A. 1. apostrophe s ('s) is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in “-
s”:
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a man's job the people's choice

men's work the crew's quarters
the children's room Russia's exports
2. with compound nouns, the last word takes the 's:
my sister-in-law's car
-names consisting of several words are treated similarly:
Henry the Eighth's wives the President of Romania's helicopter
-'s can also be used after initials:
the PM's secretary the MP's briefcase

B. a simple apostrophe (')

1. is used with plural nouns ending in “-s”:
a girls' school the students' hostel
the eagles' nest the Smiths' car
2. classical names ending in “-s” usually add only the apostrophe:
Pythagoras' Theorem Archimedes' Law

! other names ending in “-s” can take 's or the apostrophe alone:
Mr Smiths' s (or Mr Smiths' house) Yeats's (or Yeats ') poems

Use of the possessive/genitive case and of + noun

A. The possessive case is used of:

1. personal names: Mary’s car
2. personal nouns: the boy’s shirt
3. collective nouns: the government’s position, the company’s capital
4. higher animals: the horse’s neck, the lion’s tail, the dog’s bark
5. continents, countries: Europe’s future, England’s history
6. ships and boats: the ship's captain, the yacht's name
7. planes, trains, cars and other vehicles, though here the of construction
is safer: a glider's wings (but also the wings of a glider)
8. time expressions:
today's paper tomorrow's weather
in two years' time ten minutes' break
a ten-minute break, a two-hour delay are also possible
9. with for + noun + sake: for heaven's sake, for goodness' sake
10. sometimes certain nouns can be used in the possessive case without the
second noun: the baker's/butcher's/chemist's etc. can mean the baker's/butcher's shop.
Similarly, the dentist's/doctor's/vet's (surgery):
You can buy it at the chemist's. He's going to the dentist's.
-names of people can sometimes be used similarly to mean “…..’s house”:
We had dinner at Dana’s. They met at Vali’s.

B. of+noun is used for possession:

1. lower animals+ the other inanimate nouns
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2.when the noun is followed by a phrase or a sentence:

I took the advice of the man I met on the train.
3. with inanimate possessors, except those mentioned in A above:
the walls of the town the keys of the car
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Articles

A. a/an (the indefinite article) is the same for all genders:

a man a woman an actor an actress
• “a” is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or a vowel with a
consonant sound:
a man a hat a university a year a European
a) “an” is used : a. before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u)
b. words beginning with a mute h:
an apple an island an uncle
an onion an hour
c. individual letters spoken with a vowel sound:
an L-plate an MP an S0S

B. Use of a/an
a/an is used:
1. before a singular noun which is countable ( of which there is more than one) when it
is mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing:
I need a camera. They live in a flat. He bought an ice-cream.
2. before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of a class of things:
A car must be insured (= All cars/Any car must be insured.)
A child needs love (= All children need/Any child needs love.)
3. with names of professions:
She'll be a dancer. He is an actor.
4. in certain expressions of quantity:
a lot of a couple
a great many

5. with certain numbers:

a hundred a thousand
Before half when half follows a whole number:
one and a half kilos or a kilo and a half
But half a kilo (no a before half)
6. in expressions of price, speed, ratio etc.:
5p a kilo sixty kilometers an hour
four times a day
(Here a/an = per.)
7. in exclamations before singular, countable nouns:
What a pretty girl!
8. a can be placed before Mr/ Mrs/ Miss + surname:
a Mr Smith a Mrs Smith a Miss Smith
a Mr Smith means 'a man called Smith' and implies that he is a stranger to the
speaker. Mr Smith, without a, implies that the speaker knows Mr Smith or knows of
his existence.
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C. Omission of a/an
a/an is omitted:
1. after the verb turn: to turn coward/ traitor
2. in reversed word-order: Brute as he was, he still wanted to help her.
3. before names of meals, except when these are preceded by an adjective:
We have breakfast at eight.
He gave us a good breakfast.
The article is also used when it is a special meal given to celebrate something or
in someone's honour:
I was invited to dinner (at their house, in the ordinary way) but I was invited
to a dinner given to welcome the new ambassador.
4. with nouns denoting unique task: President, Captain, PM

D. a/an and one

1. a/an and one (adjective)
1a. when counting or measuring time, distance, weight etc. we can use
either a/an or one for the singular:
£1 = a/one pound £1,000,000 = a/one million pounds
-but note that in The rent is £100 a week the a before week is not replaceable by one
-in other types of statement a/an and one are not normally interchangeable, because
one + noun normally means 'one only/not more than one' and a/an does not mean
this:
A shotgun is no good. (It is the wrong sort of thing.)
One shotgun is no good. (I need two or three.)
1b. special uses of one
(a) one (adjective/pronoun) used with another/others:
One (boy) wanted to read, another/others wanted to watch TV.
One day he wanted his lunch early, another day he wanted it late.
(b) one can be used before day/week/month/year/summer/winter etc. or before the
name of the day or month to denote a particular time when something happened:
One night there was a terrible storm.
One day a telegram arrived.
(c) one day can also be used to mean 'at some future date':
One day you'll be sorry you treated him so badly.
(Some day would also be possible.)
2. a/an and one (pronoun)
one is the pronoun equivalent of a/an:
Did you get a ticket? - Yes, I managed to get one.
The plural of one used in this way is some:
Did you get tickets? - Yes, I managed to get some.

E. the (the definite article)

1. Form
the is the same for singular and plural and for all genders:
the boy the girl the day
the boys the girls the days
2. Use
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The definite article is used:

a. when the object or group of objects is unique or considered to be unique:
the earth the sea the sky the stars
b. before a noun which has become definite (the speaker knows it) as a result of being
mentioned a second time:
His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree.
c. before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or clause:
the girl in blue the man with the banner
the boy that I met the place where I met him
d. before a noun which by reason of locality can represent only one particular thing:
Ann is in the garden. (the garden of this house)
Please pass the wine. (the wine on the table)
-similarly: the postman (the one who comes to us), the car (our car), the
newspaper (the one we read).
e. before superlatives and first, second etc. used as adjectives or pronouns, and only:
the first (week)the best day the only way
3. the + singular noun can represent a class of animals or things:
The whale is in danger of becoming extinct.
-but man, used to represent the human race, has no article:
If oil supplies run out, man ..may have to fall back on the horse.
-the can be used before a member of a certain group of people:
The small shopkeeper is finding life increasingly difficult.
-the + singular noun as used above takes a singular verb. The pronoun is he, she or it:
The first-class traveller pays more so he expects some comfort.
4. the + adjective represents a class of persons:
the old = old people in general

5. the is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands, chains of
mountains, plural names of countries, deserts, regions:
the Atlantic the Netherlands
the Thames the Sahara
the Alps the Riviera
-and before certain other names:
the Mall the Sudan
the Hague the Yemen
-the is also used before names consisting of noun + of + noun:
the Bay of Biscay the Gulf of Mexico
the Cape of Good Hope the United States of America
-the is used before names consisting of adjective + noun (provided the adjective is not
east, west etc.):
the Arabian Sea the New Forest the High Street
-the is used before the adjectives east/west etc. + noun in certain names:
the East/West End the East/West Indies the North/South Pole
but is normally omitted:
South Africa North America West Germany
-the, however, is used before east/west etc. when these are nouns:
the north of Spain the West (geographical)
the Middle East the West (political)
-compare Go north (adverb: in a northerly direction) with He lives in the north (noun: an
area in the north).
6. the is used before other proper names consisting of adjective + noun or noun + of +
noun:
the National Gallery, the Tower of London
-it is also used before names of choirs, orchestras, pop groups etc.:
the Bach Choir the Philadelphia Orchestra the Beatles
and before names of newspapers (The Times) and ships (the Great Britain).
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7. the with names of people has a very limited use.

the + plural surname can be used to mean 'the. . . family':
the Smiths = Mr and Mrs Smith (and children)
the + singular name + clause/phrase can be used to distinguish one person from another
of the same name:
We have two Mr Smiths. Which do you want? - I want the Mr Smith who signed this
letter.
the is used before titles containing of (the Duke of York) but it is not used before other
titles or ranks (Lord Olivier, Captain Cook), though if someone is referred to by title/rank
alone the is used:
The earl expected . . . The captain ordered . . .

F. Omission of the
1. The definite article is not used:
1a. before names of places except as shown above, or before names of people.
1b. before abstract nouns except when they are used in a particular sense:
Men fear death but The death of the Prime Minister left his party without a leader.
1c. after a noun in the possessive case, or a possessive adjective:
the boy's uncle( = the uncle of the boy)
It is my (blue) book (= The (blue) book is mine.)
1d. before names of meals:
The Scots have porridge for breakfast but
The wedding breakfast was held in her father's house.
1e. before names of games: He plays golf.
1f. before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these normally prefer a possessive
adjective: Raise your right hand. He took off his coat.
-but notice that sentences of the type:
She seized the child's collar. I patted his shoulder.
The brick hit John's face.
could be expressed:
She seized the child by the collar. I patted him on the shoulder.
The brick hit John in the face.
-similarly in the passive:
He was hit on the head. He was cut in the hand.
2. Note that in some European languages the definite article is used before indefinite
plural nouns but that in English the is never used in this way:
Women are expected to like babies. (i.e. women in general)
Big hotels all over the world are very much the same.
-if we put the before women in the first example, it would mean that we were referring to
a particular group of women.
3. nature, where it means the spirit creating and motivating the world of plants and
animals etc., is used without the: If you interfere with nature you will suffer for it.

G. Omission of the before home, before church, hospital, prison, school etc. and
before work, sea and town
1. home
-when home is used alone (is not preceded or followed by a descriptive word or
phrase), the is omitted:
-home used alone can be placed directly after a verb of motion or verb of motion +
object, i.e. it can be treated as an adverb:
He went home. I arrived home after dark.I sent him home.
-but when home is preceded or followed by a descriptive word or phrase it is treated like
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any other noun:

They went to their new home. We arrived at the bride's home.
For some years this was the home of your queen.
A mud hut was the only home he had ever known.
2. bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school/college/university
-the is not used before the nouns listed above when these places are visited or used for
their primary purpose. We go:
to bed to sleep or as invalids to hospital as patients
to church to pray to prison as prisoners
to court as litigants etc. to school/college/university to study
-similarly we can be: .
in bed, sleeping or resting in hospital as patients
at church as worshippers at school etc. as students
in court as witnesses etc.
-we can be/get back (or be/get home) from school/college/university. We can leave
school, leave hospital, be released from prison.
-when these places are visited or used for other reasons the is necessary:
I went to the church to see the stained glass.
He goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures.
3. sea
-we go to sea as sailors. To be at sea = to be on a voyage (as passengers or crew). But
to go to or be at the sea = to go to or be at the seaside. We can also live by/near the sea.
4. work and office
work (= place of work) is used without the:
He's on his way to work. He is at work.
He isn't back from work yet.
-note that at work can also mean 'working'; hard at work = working hard:
He's hard at work on a new picture.
office (= place of work) needs the: He is at/in the office.
-to be in office (without the) means to hold an official (usually political) position. To be
out of office = to be no longer in power.
5. town
-the can be omitted when speaking of the subject's or speaker's own town:
We go to town sometimes to buy clothes.
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THE VERB

1. VERB CATEGORIES:
Primary:
Tense: (present/past/future)
Aspect: (simple/continuous/perfect/perfect continuous)
Voice: (passive/active)
Mood: (indicative/subjunctive/imperative)
Secondary:
Person: (1st/2nd/3rd)
Number: ( sg./pl.)

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD

1. TENSE:

DEFINITION: Tense is the linguistic reference to objective time (extra-linguistic

concept); it is the grammatical expression of location in time used to express time relation
with respect to the Speech Time.

1. PAST: < _________X____I_________ >

2. PRESENT: < ______________X_________ >
3. FUTURE: < ______________I_____X __ >

2. ASPECT:

DEFINITION: Aspect is the grammatical category of the verb, reflecting the status of the
action with respect to duration, result, etc. thus different ways of viewing the internal
temporal situation; it is the subjective point of view relative to time.

1. SIMPLE: < __________x_____________ >

2. CONTINUOUS (progressive): < _________xxxIxxx________ >
3. PERFECT (non-progressive): < _________xxx)xI__________ >
4. PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < _________xxx)xIxxx_______>
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So, all combinations resulting from merging TENSE/EXTERNAL TIME (objective time
itself) and ASPECT/INTERNAL TIME (subjective time) are referred to as TENSES:

Tense (3) X Aspect (4): => 12 TENSES of the indicative mood

1. PRESENT SIMPLE : < Pa._______x_______ F. >

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS: < Pa._____xxxIxxx___ ___F. >
3. PRESENT PERFECT: < Pa._____xxxx)xxxI_ _ _ _F. >
4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < Pa. ___xxxx)xIxxx___ _ F. >

1. PAST SIMPLE: < Pa._______x_____ Pr.__ F. >

2. PAST CONTINUOUS: < Pa___xxxIxxx_ Pr. _ _F. >
3. PAST PERFECT: < Pa._ __xxxx)xxxI_ Pr.__ F. >
4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < Pa. __xxxx)xIxxx Pr. __F. >

1. FUTURE SIMPLE: < Pa.__Pr.______x_______ F. >

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS: < Pa.__Pr.___xxxIxxx______F . >
3. FUTURE PERFECT: < Pa. Pr.___xxxx)xxxI_____F. >
4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < Pa. Pr.____xxxx)xIxxx__ F. >

FORMING TENSES

NAME = AUXILIARY VERB + LEXICAL VERB

Continuous = BE + V1-ing
Perfect = HAVE + V3
Future = WILL/SHALL + V1
Modality = Modal V + V1
Passive = BE + V3

1. PRESENT SIMPLE : < Pa._______x_______ F. >

V1 write

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS: < Pa._____xxxIxxx___ ___F. >

Be + V1-ing is writing

3. PRESENT PERFECT: < Pa._____xxxx)xxxI_ _ _ _F. >

Have + V3 has written

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < Pa. ___xxxx)xIxxx___ _ F. >

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Have + V3
Be + V1-ing
_________________
have + been +V1-ing has been writing

1. PAST SIMPLE: < Pa._______x_____ Pr.__ F. >

V2 wrote

2. PAST CONTINUOUS: < Pa___xxxIxxx_ Pr. _ _F. >

Be + V1-ing (past) was writing

3. PAST PERFECT: < Pa._ __xxxx)xxxI_ Pr.__ F. >

Have + V3 (past) had written

4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < Pa. __xxxx)xIxxx Pr. __F. >

Have + V3
Be + V1-ing
_________________
have + been + V1-ing (past) had been writing

1. FUTURE SIMPLE: < Pa.__Pr.______x_______ F. >

Will + V1 will write

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS: < Pa.__Pr.___xxxIxxx______F . >

Will + V1
Be + V1-ing
_________________
will + be + V1-ing will be writing

3. FUTURE PERFECT: < Pa. Pr.___xxxx)xxxI_____F. >

Will + V1
Have + V3
_______________
will + Have + V3 will have written

4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < Pa. Pr.____xxxx)xIxxx__ F. >

Will + V1
Have + V3
Be + V1-ing
________________________
will + have + been + V1-ing will have been writing
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PRESENT TENSES

1. PRESENT SIMPLE : < Pa._______x_______ F. >

1.1. It is used:
- to describe general truths and states which are regarded as permanent:
Water boils at 100 degrees.
- to describe repeated actions or habits:
What time does Mary finish work?
- exclamations introduced by “here/there”:
Here comes Mary!
- explanations, demonstrations:
I add the sugar to the egg yolks and place the basin over a saucepan of hot water.
- instead of the present continuous with verbs that cannot be used in the
progressive form;
- to refer to future events over which we have no personal control because they
are determined by calendars, timetables, programmes:
The plane arrives on Monday at a 10 p.m.
Our term starts at the beginning of October.
- instead of the future in a subordinate clause of time or condition:
Call me when you arrive.

1.2. FORM: [ V1 ] ! V1-s 3rd sg; [ DO+V1 ] [ DON’T+V1 ]

1.3. ADVERBS: (of frequency)

- every day; every week; every month; every year;
- usually, mostly, generally, rarely, seldom, frequently, always, never;
- sometimes, at times;

1.4. EXAMPLES:
1.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student writes formulae every day.
1.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Does the student write any formulae every day?
1.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student doesn’t write any formulae.

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS: < Pa._____xxxIxxx___ ___F. >

2.1. It is used:
- to represent an action, viewed in progress (continuous) at the very time of
speech:
I’m listening to music now.
- to represent an action viewed in progress (continuous) at the Time of speech
(present), even if not literally at the very moment of speaking:
I’m looking for a job.
 16

- to express a definite arrangement in the near future (immediate plans):

I’m visiting John this weekend.

- to express a temporary situation:

We are eating in the kitchen now, but we generally eat in the dining room.

- to express annoying habits:

She is always behaving rudely.

- with the verb TO BE to refer to somebody’s behaviour at the moment:

He isn’t being too friendly tonight, you know?

2.2. FORM: [ BE + V1-ing ]

2.3. ADVERBS: (of present moment)

- now, right now; this moment; at the time;
- at present;

2.4. EXAMPLES:
2.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student is writing a formula right now.
2.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Is the student writing a formula right now?
2.4.3. NEGATIVE; No, the student isn’t writing a formula right now.

3. PRESENT PERFECT: < Pa._____xxxx)xxxI_ _ _ _F. >

3.1. It is used:
- to express a completed action (perfect) still having an effect or result in the
moment of speaking (present):
He has washed his car.

- is used to represent activities completed in the immediate past, often associated

either with “just” or no time reference at all:
He has just finished his homework.

- is used to express activities completed in a period up till the moment of speech,

without being exact about the time:
He has visited London twice.

- is used to represent a completed action in an uncompleted time interval:

I have seen him this morning.
 17

- to denote an action which began in the past and is still continuing at the moment
of speaking:
He has known me for two years.
- instead of future perfect in temporal clauses:
I’ll let you know when I have finished.

3.2. FORM: [ HAVE + V3 ]

3.3. ADVERBS: (of interval, time span, period, uncompleted time interval)
- just, yet, already, never, ever;
- for…, since…;
- lately, recently;
- this morning, this afternoon, this evening, this night, this week, this month, this
year, this, spring, this century;

3.4. EXAMPLES:
3.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student has already written the formula.
3.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Has the student already written the formula?
3.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student hasn’t written the formula yet.

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < Pa. ___xxxx)xIxxx___ _ F. >

4.1. It is used:
- to express an activity still in progress (continuous) at the moment of speaking:
I’ve been waiting for an hour and he hasn’t turned up yet.

- to express an activity begun in the past which has only just finished and is
relevant to the current situation:
Sorry I’m late. Have you been waiting long?

- to describe a repeated activity, in which case a nuance of reproach, irritation,

wonder can be present:
I’ve been knocking for the past ten minutes. Why don’t you answer the door?

4.2. FORM: [ HAVE + BEEN+ V1-ing ]

4.3. ADVERBS: (of interval of time)

- since...;
- for…;
4.4. EXAMPLES:
4.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student has been writing for an hour.
4.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Has the student been writing for an hour?
4.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student hasn’t been writing for an hour.
 18

PAST TENSE

1. PAST SIMPLE: < Pa._______x_____ Pr.__ F. >

1.1. It is used:
- to represent simple actions completed at a definite time in the past:
I met him yesterday.

- to represent a series of actions in a sequence, often as part of a narrative:

He picked up his hat, said good-bye and left.

- to describe habitual, repeated actions in the past, and with verbs of permanent
characteristic:
She always wore black.
I met him every day on my way to the office.

1.2. FORM: [ V2 ] ! [ Did + V1]; [DIDN’T + V1]

1.3. ADVERBS: (of definite point, or period in the past)

- yesterday, last week, last month, last year, last century;
- ten years ago, before, on August 24th 1954;
- when ….past action;

1.4. EXAMPLES:
1.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student wrote that formula ten minutes ago.
1.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Did the student write that formula ten minutes ago.
1.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student didn’t write that formula ten minutes ago.

2. PAST CONTINUOUS: < Pa___xxxIxxx_ Pr. _ _F. >

2.1. It is used:
- to represent an action viewed in progress before the moment of speaking at some
point in the past:
When I arrived, Tom was talking on the phone.

- To denote plans and arrangements as viewed from the past:

I left home at 6:00 as I was meeting John at 6:30.

2.2. FORM: [ WAS/WERE + V1-ing ]

2.3. ADVERBS: (of definite point or period in the past)

 19

- yesterday, last week, last month, last year, last century;

- ten years ago, before, on August 24th 1954;
- when ….past action; at this time yesterday;

2.4. EXAMPLES:
2.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student was writing the formula at this time
yesterday.
2.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Was the student writing the formula at this time
yesterday?
2.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student wasn’t writing the formula at this time
yesterday.

3. PAST PERFECT SIMPLE < Pa._ __xxxx)xxxI_ Pr.__ F. >

3.1. It is used:
- to represent an action completed before another action or moment in the past:
He had read the novel before he saw the film.

- to denote an action that began before another moment in the past and
continued up to that time:
In 1990, we had known each other for ten years.
- to replace the present perfect and the past simple in reported speech:
He told us he had been ill for months.

3.2. FORM: [ HAD + V3 ]

3.3. ADVERBS: (of definite point in the past, and of interval)

- since…; for…;
- yesterday, last week, last month, last year, last century;
- ten years ago, before, on August 24th 1954;
- when/before….past action; at this time yesterday;

3.4. EXAMPLES:
3.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student had written the formula before he took the
test .
3.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Had the student written the formula before he took the
test?
3.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student hadn’t written the formula before he took
the test.

4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < Pa. __xxxx)xIxxx Pr. __F. >

4.1. It is used:
 20

- to represent a mostly completed action that is still viewed in progress at a

definite point in the past:
When I saw them, the boys had been playing football for three hours.

4.2. FORM: [ HAD + BEEN + V1-ing ]

4.3. ADVERBS: (of definite point in the past, and of interval)

- since…; for…;
- yesterday, last week, last month, last year, last century;
- ten years ago, before, on August 24th 1954;
- when/before….past action; at this time yesterday;

4.4. EXAMPLES:
4.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student had been writing for ten minutes, when the
test was over.
4.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Had the student been writing for ten minutes, when the
test was over?
4.4.3. NEGATIVE: No the student hadn’t been writing for ten minutes, when
the test was over.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING FUTURITY

1. FUTURE SIMPLE: < Pa.__Pr.______x_______ F. >

1.1. DEFINITION:
- is used to denote simple actions to be performed in the future, while the
performance of an action or the occurrence of an event in the future may be
caused by objective circumstances or by a mixture of the former and a
personal element; it may also depend on a condition:
I shall be twenty next month.
When will you leave?

1.2. FORM: [ WILL/SHALL + V1 ]

1.3. ADVERBS: (of definite point or period in the future)

- tomorrow;
- next week, next month, next year, next century;
- in 2055; in two years; after a few days; the following day;
- when….future action.

1.4. EXAMPLES:
1.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student will write the formula in ten minutes.
 21

1.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Will the student write the formula in ten minutes.
1.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student won’t write the formula in ten minutes.

2. FUTURE CONTINUOUS: < Pa.__Pr.___xxxIxxx______F . >

2.1. It is used to represent an action viewed in progress at some time in the

future:
We’d better move the dining-table in the kitchen.we’ll be eating there during the
winter.

2.2. FORM: [ WILL/SHALL + BE + V1-ing ]

2.1. 2.3. ADVERBS: (of definite point or period in the future)

- tomorrow; at this time tomorrow;
- next week, next month, next year, next century;
- in 2055; in two years; after a few days; the following day;
- when….future action;

2.4. EXAMPLES:
2.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: The student will be writing a formula during the next
two minutes.
2.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Will the student be writing a formula during the next
two minutes?
2.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student won’t be writing the formula during the next
two minutes.

3. FUTURE PERFECT: < Pa. Pr.___xxxx)xxxI_____F. >

3.1. It is used to represent a completed action at some point in the future:

By the end of next year your new maid will have broken all your cups.

3.2. FORM: [ WILL/SHALL + HAVE V3]

3.3. ADVERBS: (of definite point or period in the future and of interval of time)
- tomorrow; at this time tomorrow;
- next week, next month, next year, next century;
- in 2055; in two years; after a few days; the following day;
- when….future action;
- for…; since…; by…; already;

3.4. EXAMPLES:
3.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: By 10 o’clock the student will have already written that
formula.
3.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Will the student have already written that formula by
10 o’clock?
 22

3.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student won’t have written that formula yet by 10
o’clock.

4. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS: < Pa. Pr.____xxxx)xIxxx__ F. >

4.1. It is used to represent a partly completed action still viewed in progress at some
point in the future:
She will have been working there for 40 years in April this year.
4.2. FORM: [ WILL/SHALL + HAVE + BEEN + V1-ing ]

4.3. ADVERBS: (of definite point or period in the future and of interval of time)
- tomorrow; at this time tomorrow;
- next week, next month, next year, next century;
- in 2055; in two years; after a few days; the following day;
- when….future action;
- for…; since…; by…; already;

4.4. EXAMPLES:
4.4.1. AFFIRMATIVE: By 10 o’clock the student will have been writing that
formula for ten minutes.
4.4.2. INTEROGATIVE: Will the student have been writing that formula for ten
minutes by 10 o’clock?
4.4.3. NEGATIVE: No, the student won’t have been writing that formula for ten
minutes for ten minutes by 10 o’clock.

5. Present simple
6. Present continuous
7. BE GOING TO – is used to express the subject’s intention with or without a time
expression:
I’m going to tell him what I think of him.
- it is used to express a future action whose signs are visible at present:
It’s going to rain.

8. BE TO – it is used to express an arrangement, an immediate future action, an

order:
They are to meet at 4 pm.
You are to stay in bed for three days.

9. BE ABOUT TO – is used to express an immediate future action whose fulfilment

is imminent:
Look at her! She’s about to cry.
 23

THE PASSIVE VOICE

1. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS

1.1 Definition and form

Voice is a grammatical category which makes it possible to view the action of a sentence
in two ways without change in the facts reported. Consider the following examples:

( Subject – Agent) ( Action – Verb ) ( Result - Object)

Your friend ruined my party.
( Subject – Result ) ( Action – Verb) ( Agent )
My party was ruined by your friend.

In the first sentence the person who did the action (your friend) is the subject, and
comes first; then we say what he did by using the verb (ruined) and what he did it to,
namely the object (my party). In the second sentence, something different
happens: we start by talking about the party (thus the object of the first sentence has
become the subject of the second); then we say what was done to it (was ruined), and
who this was done by (your friend). The first sentence and the verb form used in it are
called active. The second sentence and the verb form used in it are called passive.
Therefore the subject in the active sentence becomes object in the passive one.

We form the passive by using the verb “to be” in an appropriate tense followed by the
Past Participle of the main verb. The main verb is always a transitive verb.

The article was written by a famous writer.

A new theory was discovered by this scientist.
They should have received a more severe punishment.
No meat is served in this restaurant.

In spoken English we sometimes use the verb “to get” instead of “to be” in the passive.

They got punished for making too much noise.

 24

Passive verb forms may be used with the different tenses of the verb “to be” followed by
a Past Participle. The tenses and the rules for their use are the same as for active verb
forms. Thus we have:

Present Tense Simple - This poem is dedicated to my mother.

Past Tense Simple – The first prize was won by the best man.
Future Tense Simple – This building will be restored next month.
Present Perfect Simple – This symphony has been performed thousands of times.
Past perfect Simple – When the police arrived everything had been stolen.
Future Perfect Simple – By the time the festival begins a new concert hall will have been
built.
Present Tense Continuous – The car isn’t ready because it is still being repaired.
Past tense Continuous – When we arrived at the stadium the national anthem was being
played.
* Note that Present Perfect Continuous and Past Perfect Continuous are not used in the
passive voice.
Modal verbs and Infinitive and Gerunds may also be used in the passive . Here are some
examples:

Modals in the Present – This medicine should not be taken more than twice a day.
Modals in the Past ( Perfect Modals ) – The pyramids must have been built more than
5,000 years ago.
Present Infinitive (“to be” + Past Participle) – He wants to be taken seriously all the
time.
Perfect Infinitive (“to have been” + Past Participle) – He was pleased to have been
awarded the first prize.
Present Gerund (“being” + Past Participle) – I enjoy being given flowers.
Perfect Gerund (“having been” + Past Participle) – Having been stung by bees she has
no love of insects.

1.2. Reasons for using the passive voice

• to focus on the action when the agent is either not important, unknown or obvious.

The criminal was sentenced to life imprisonment.

I was born in 1981.
Coffee will be made available before lunch.
My nephew has been arrested twice this year.

• the agent is ‘people or things in general’

Some verbs cannot be used in the passive.

• the agent is a long phrase

 25

Jane was extremely surprised by all the messages of encouragement she received.

• to focus on new information by making it the topic of the sentence

Several basic types of influenza have been identified.

• to make a statement more impersonal and formal by avoiding the use of personal
pronouns or vague words

It is generally recognized that smoking is bad for your health.

This paper cannot possibly be finished in two hours. (the paper is the problem not
our incompetence)

• to avoid the use of “you” in orders and rules:

You must hand in your applications before the end of the month. Becomes: All
applications must be handed in before the end of the month.

• in factual writing when the focus is usually on events, achievements rather than
agents.

Vaccination had been pioneered two hundred years earlier.

• in scientific and formal pieces of writing to highlight the objectivity of the

discourse

The time taken to travel between the units is calculated by the microprocessor.

*Note that not all ‘to be” + Past Participle verb forms are passive. They may also be
adjectives:

My friend has been depressed since her boyfriend left her.

2. AGENTS AND OBJECTS

2.1. The Agent

 26

The agent in a passive sentence is the same person or thing as the subject of an active
sentence. Compare:

I was amazed by their achievements.

Their achievements amazed me.

The agent is only expressed when it is important to say who or what something is
done by. In most passive sentences there is no agent as we have no interest in who or
what performs the action. What we are interested in is the action itself, who or what is
affected by the action, or what is the result of it. Statistics show that only about 20%
of passive sentences mention the agent:

A new mall has just been opened.

The car has been damaged again.
I’m always being blamed for other people’s mistakes.

We mention the agent when we consider that the information provided by it is really
important, especially if we want to say more about it with a relative clause:

The survivors were rescued from the water by a cruise liner which had heard their
desperate calls.
I remember being taught English by a wonderful teacher who was really
passionate about everything she was doing.
The agent is usually introduced with “by” but after some Participles which are used
like adjectives, other prepositions are used instead of “by” to introduce the agent:

We were worried about (or by ) her silence.

I was excited at (or by ) the prospect of travelling abroad.
Are you scared of alligators?

2.2. The Object

Many verbs, such as give, tell, send, show, lend, get, bring, buy, hand, offer, pay, teach,
write, can be followed by two objects ( a Direct Object and an Indirect Object), which
usually refer to a person and a thing. These verbs that have two objects in the active voice
usually have two passive forms because either of the objects can become subjects.
Consider the following examples:

( IO) ( DO )
Active = He sent her a letter.
Passive = A letter was sent to her.
Passive = She was sent a letter.

( DO) ( IO )
 27

Active = They gave the award to a famous actor.

Passive = The award was given to a famous actor.
Passive = A famous actor was given the award.

We usually add a preposition before the personal object. Usually this preposition is “to” .
Sometimes we may use “for” as well.

A note was given to the specialist.

A new room was prepared for the guests.

We can use some verbs, such as allow, ask, cause, forgive, deny, without a preposition:

Access was denied him.

Permission was refused them.
All his sins were forgiven him.

2.3. Verbs with limited use in the passive

• we cannot use intransitive verbs in the passive because they don’t have an object
that can be changed into the subject

Active = Dinosaurs disappeared many ages ago.

*Passive = Dinosaurs were disappeared many ages ago.
Active = They have a nice house.
*Passive = A nice house is had by them.
Active = Your father lacks diplomacy.
*Passive = Diplomacy is lacked by your father.

• the verbs “to suggest” and “to explain” cannot change the indirect object to
subject:

Active = We explained him the procedure.

Passive = The procedure was explained to him.
* Passive = He was explained the procedure.
Active = They suggested us a new time.
Passive = A new time was suggested for us.
*Passive = We were suggested a new time.

• some verb phrases with two objects cannot be passive at all:

Let me wish you the best of luck.

The album earned them a fortune.
I bear him no ill will.
 28

• after some verbs, the Direct Object can be followed by a noun or adjective which
describes the object:

Active = They elected him President.

Passive = He was elected President.
Active = We considered him a genius.
Passive = He was considered a genius.
Active = The other children called him stupid.
Passive = He was called stupid.
Active = We regarded him as an expert.
Passive = He was regarded as an expert.

3. INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS IN THE PASSIVE

3.1. Infinitives after certain verbs

Verbs such as make, see, help, hear, let have different patterns in the active and the
passive voice. In the active voice the verb is followed by object + short infinitive
(without the particle “to” ) while in the passive we use a long Infinitive ( with the
preposition “to”). Consider the following examples:

Active = They made us pay ten pounds for each ticket.

Passive = We were made to pay ten pounds for each ticket.
Active = The police saw the burglar enter the house.
Passive = The burglar was seen to enter the house.
Active = I heard him shout.
Passive = He was heard to shout.
Active = I helped him find the right path.
Passive = He was helped to find the right path.

We cannot use the verb “to let” in the passive when it is followed by a verb phrase.
Therefore in such cases it should be replaced by “ to be allowed to “ or “to be
permitted to”.

Active = They let the prisoner go free.

Passive = The prisoner was allowed/permitted to go free.
Active = My parents let me watch TV whenever I wanted.
Passive = I was allowed/ permitted to watch TV whenever I wanted.

Nevertheless we can use the verb “to let” in the passive in some fixed phrases.
 29

The dog was let loose.

They were let down by your attitude.

3.2. Impersonal passive constructions

After verbs referring to mental processes, such as think, say, believe, feel, presume,
understand, know or reporting verbs , such as claim, mention, request, point out, rumour
the passive can be formed in two ways:
a) It + passive verb + “that” Clause
b) Subject + passive verb + Present/Perfect Infinitive.
The latter construction is generally used in written English. It is often used in
newspaper reports to avoid mentioning the source of the information. Consider the
following examples :

It is rumoured that the president is unwell.

The President is rumoured to be unwell.
It is believed that the elections have been forged.
The elections are believed to have been forged.
It is thought that they have left the country.
They are thought to have left the country.
It is considered that he is a very dangerous man.
He is considered to be a very dangerous man.
We often introduce a statement with ‘It is said that…’ meaning ‘People generally
think, believe…’:

It is said that exercising improves physical health.

4. STRUCTURES WITH “GET” AND “HAVE”

4.1. Causatives
 30

We use “get” and “have” in both active and passive voice when we talk about
making other people do something for us.
• The active patterns meaning ‘cause or order somebody to do something’ are the
following:
“get” + person + Long Infinitive ( with the particle “to”)
“have” + person + Short Infinitive ( without the particle “to”)

I will get the waiter to bring you the menu.

I will have the waiter bring you the menu.
I will get the students to help you with the revision.
I will have the students help you with the revision.

* Note that “have “ is much more common in American English while “get “ is
common in spoken British English

• the passive pattern meaning ‘arrange for somebody else to do something’ is the
following:
“get/have” + object + Past Participle

I will have /get the menu brought to you.

I will have/ get the students help you .
I must go and have/get my hair cut .
I had to get/have my dress cleaned after one night in a club.
I will have /get the photocopies made for you in a moment.

• without including it in the group of causatives one should mention the frequent
use of the pattern “have” + object + Past participle to describe things that happen
to us, often misfortunes. In these cases the subject is the person who experiences
what happened.

I have had my car damaged.

I need to have /get my passport stamped before the end of the month.
They had/got their house broken into last night.
She has had her application for a job in banking turned down.

• in spoken English we can sometimes use “get” instead of “have”

She has got her article published in the newspaper.

*Note that sometimes it is only the context that can provide the exact meaning:

They had their house demolished. (The two possible meanings are the following:
either they employed someone to demolish their house = causative; or the house was
demolished without their knowing it)
 31

THE SUBJUNCTIVE

SYNTHETICALLY - OLD = infinitive (present subjunctive)

- MODERN -PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
- PAST PERFECT SUBUNCTIVE

ANALYTICAL – MODAL VERB+VERB

1. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD expresses:

an - UNREAL
- VIRTUAL states or events
- UNACCOMPLISHED

IND. - factual
SUBJ. - non-factual

There are two categories of subjunctive:

• the synthetical subjunctive
• the analytical subjunctive

The syntactical subjunctive has two forms:

- the old form which is only formally identical with the infinitive and the
modern form which evinces two tenses: Past and Past Perfect.

I. The synthetical subjunctive with the old form is also called PRESENT
SUBJUNCTIVE by some grammarians. Its meaning shows an event or state which can
be fulfilled and which is thus assumed possible. This is why this mood can convey
assumption, time, concession, conditions, wishes, order, doubts, purpose, requests.
The syntactical subjunctive does not enjoy a wide circulation in British English,
but it is quite frequently used in American English.
a. Independent sentences and main clauses make use of this mood in formulaic set
phrases sometimes:
"Long live king George"
 32

Come what may!

A month come tomorrow.
Far be it form me to hint that!
So be it!
Be that as it may
Come rain and she will know how to use an umbrella.
b. The old subjunctive is also used in certain exclamations to express a wish or
hope, very often involving supernatural powers.
God bless you!
Damn you!
Heaven help us!
Curse, this fog!
Good-bye ( God be with you)

c. It is sometimes used in poetry, either to express a wish or in clauses of

condition or concession.
If this be error, and upon me proved (if this is error)

Synthetically Subjunctive in its modern forms knows two tenses: Past

Subjunctive and the Past Perfect Subjunctive.
a. The past subjunctive has the same form as the simple past tense in all verbs
except to be, whose past subjunctive is were for all persons.
b. The past perfect subjunctive is the same as the past perfect indicative.

PAST SUBJUNCTIVE used after if, if only, as if / though and wish.

Past subjunctive can be used after if and if only to express improbability or
unreality in the present.
If it rained for six months ( improbable)
If we all lived underground (unreal)
If only we had a rope (unreal).

if only + would can express regret about a present action , an alternative to if only
+ past tense ( it has the same meaning as wish + would)
If only he would drive more slowly = we are sorry he isn't welling to drive more
slowly.

PAST PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE is used when the supposition refers to

the past:
If it had rained last month (but it didn't)

THE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE can be used similarly after as if/as

though to indicate unreality or improbability or doubt in the present (there is no
difference between as if and as though)
He behaves as if he owned the place (but he doesn't own it)
 33

After as if / though we use a past perfect where referring to a real or imaginary

action in the past.
He talks about Rome as though he had been there himself (but he hasn't).
The past subjunctive is used after wish to indicate an unreal situation in the
present.
Wish + past subjunctive is really an expression of regret:
I wish I knew = I'm sorry I don't know.
When the action regretted occurred in the past, we use the past perfect :
I wish he hadn't gone = I'm sorry he went.

Wish + would
Would is used after wish to express a not very hopeful wish concerning the future:
I wish it would stop raining.

PAST SUBJUNCTIVE used after:

it is time + subject
would rather / sooner + subject
After it is time we can either use :
a past subjunctive
for + object + infinitive construction.
It is time we went
- implies that it is already a little late.
It is time for us to go ( the correct time has arrived)

High is sometimes added to make the expression more emphatic:

Would sooner / would rather are followed by the infinitive (without to) when
then is no change of subject i.e. when the subject of would rather / sooner is the subject of
the action which follows:
Tom would rather go = Tom would prefer to go.
But when the person who expresses the preference is not the subject of the action
which follows we use:
a. would prefer + object + infinitive
I'd prefer her to go by train
b. would rather / sooner + subject + past subjunctive.
but I would rather she went by train

THE ANALYTICAL SUBJUNCTIVE

- is more used in contemporary British English.
The analytical subjunctive makes use of auxiliary verbs which are followed by the
: - indefinite
or of lexical verbs
- perfect infinitive
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Simultaneity or posteriority to the action in the main clause is expressed by the

indefinite infinitive form.

Anteriority to the action in the main clause is rendered by the subjunctive

containing the perfect infinitive.

1. May or Might + Infinitive occur

a. in main clauses conveying a wish:
May you live long!
b. in subordinate clauses expressing hope or fear:
John hopes you may come back soon.
c. in subordinate clauses expressing purpose:
She has told you this so that you may know what kind of men he is.
d. in subordinate clauses of concession
Whatever she may say do not heed her words.
e. in adverbial clauses of comparison after
as if
as though
She talks as she may be the boss here.
f. after phases like:
it is possible
it is likely
it is probable.
It is possible that George may see her.
g. after wish to express an unfulfilled action:
Jerry wishes he might have met you.

Can / could + infinitive is employed as an informal equivalent for may /

might + infinitive. The can / could subjunctive implies that action is viewed as being real:
I'll show you my book so that you can / could realize its importance.

- will / would may be used in clauses of purpose to form the analytical subjunctive:
They are climbing higher so that they will get a better view.
He worked late last night so that he would be free today.

Should + Infinitive replaces the synthetically subjunctive and this shows that an
action is desired / possible.
It appears:

a. in subordinate clauses of purpose, negative clauses, subject clauses, time

clauses, object clauses:
It is a shame that you should make such mistakes. (subject)
He gave you this money so that you should keep quiet. (purpose)
He ran lest he should miss the train.
Go over calculations until you should make sure they are correct. (time)
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b. in subordinate clause of concession when the action is in the future.

No matter what mother should think about at, her son will follow
her advice. (concession)

c. That...should can be used often certain verbs as an alternative to a gerund.

• - suggest
- propose
- insist on

Tom suggested selling the house (gerund)

Tom suggested my selling the house. (possessive adjective + gerund)
Tom suggested that I should sell the house.

• recommend,
• advise can take
either gerund + Poss.
or infinitive + Acc
or should

He recommended my buying new tyres

He recommended me to buy new tyres
He recommended that I should buy new tyres.

d. determined
was determined take either infinitive
agreed or
demanded should
He agreed to divide the prize between Tom and Ann
He agreed that Tom and Ann should share the prize.

e. arrange
stipulate can be followed by for + object + infinitive
be anxious or should construction
I am anxious for nobody to know where I am going.
I am anxious that nobody should know when I am going.

f. order
command
urge

normally take an object + infinitive construction. But that...should is sometimes used,

particularly in the passive.
He urged the committee to buy the site. (acc)
He urged that the site should the bought.
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g. that...should after it is / was + certain adjectives

that...should can be used after.

- it is / was - necessary
- admissible
- essential
- better
- vital
- important
- right
- fair these are often preceded by only
- natural
- just
- reasonable
as an alternative to a for + infinitive construction
It is better for him to hear it from you that he should hear it from you.

- that...should can be used after :

it is / was strange
odd
surprising
amazing as an alternative to that + present/ past
annoying
ridiculous
absurd
It is ridiculous that we should be short of water in a country when it is always
raining.