Wind energy Offshore wind farms 1

Wind turbine Wind energy Offshore

wind farms Wind turbine Wind
energy Offshore wind
A Template for Offshore Wind Farm
farms Wind
turbine Wind energy Projects Offshore wind
Directed Research – MBA in Project
farms Wind turbine Management Wind energy
University of Northern Virginia - Cyprus

Offshore wind farms Wind turbine

Alireza Aleali

Wind energy Offshore wind farms

Wind turbine Wind energy Offshore
wind farms Wind turbine Wind
energy Offshore wind farms Wind
turbine Wind energy Offshore wind
farms Wind turbine Wind energy
Offshore wind farms Wind turbine
Wind energy Offshore wind farms
Wind turbine Wind energy Offshore
wind farms Wind turbine
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 4

1.1 THE PROBLEMS A SSOCIATED WITH THE CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY ................................................ 5
1.1.1 Fossil fuels ................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1.2 Nuclear ........................................................................................................................................ 7
1.1.3 Hydroelectric ............................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 THE WIND SOLUTION ............................................................................................................................ 8
1.3 WHY WIND ENERGY? ............................................................................................................................ 9
1.3.1 Relying on no fuel ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.3.2 Scattered supply of electricity....................................................................................................... 9
1.3.3 Efficiency /Feasibility.................................................................................................................. 10
1.3.4 Cost ........................................................................................................................................... 10
1.3.5 Predictable Cost of Electricity ..................................................................................................... 11
1.3.6 Security of supply ....................................................................................................................... 11
1.4 STATUS OF WIND INDUSTRY IN THE WORLD .............................................................................................. 11
1.5 FUTURE OF WIND I NDUSTRY.................................................................................................................. 13
1.6 OFFSHORE WIND INDUSTRY .................................................................................................................. 14
1.7 STATUS OF O FFSHORE WIND ENERGY ...................................................................................................... 14
1.8 FUTURE OF OFFSHORE WIND INDUSTRY ................................................................................................... 15
1.9 MOTIVATION FOR C ONDUCTING THE RESEARCH ......................................................................................... 16

CHAPTER 2. ENGINEERING PROSPECTIVE ....................................................................................................... 18

1.10 THE PARENT DISCIPLINE 1: ENGINEERING PROSPECTIVE ............................................................................... 18

1.11 CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................................................... 19
1.12 POWER OF THE WIND........................................................................................................................... 19
1.13 BETZ’ LAW (MAXIMUM POWER EXTRACTABLE) .......................................................................................... 20
1.13.1 Maximum Power Of The Site .................................................................................................. 21
1.15 CONVERSION EFFICIENCY ...................................................................................................................... 22
1.16 MEASURE – CORRELATE – PREDICT TECHNIQUE ......................................................................................... 23
1.17 WIND ROSE ...................................................................................................................................... 23
1.18 COMPONENTS OF THE SYSTEM ............................................................................................................... 24
2.9.1 Turbine ...................................................................................................................................... 24
2.9.2 Tower ........................................................................................................................................ 26
2.9.3 Rotor ......................................................................................................................................... 26
2.9.4 Nacelle ...................................................................................................................................... 27
2.9.5 Electronic Controller(s): .............................................................................................................. 28
2.9.6 There are Electronic controllers inside the turbine which control different parts of the turbine: ... 28
2.9.7 Sensors ...................................................................................................................................... 28
2.9.8 Tower ........................................................................................................................................ 29
2.9.9 The wind farm ground / sea station............................................................................................ 29
2.9.10 Scales of Wind Turbines ......................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER 3. PROJECT MANAGEMENT PRESPECTIVE ....................................................................................... 31

3.2 DOCUMENTS OF A PROJECT ................................................................................................................... 31
3.2.1 Project charter ........................................................................................................................... 31
3.2.2 Scope of Work (S.O.W.) statement ............................................................................................. 32
3.2.3 Scope Of Work for an Offshore Wind Farm ................................................................................. 32
3.2.4 Project management plan .......................................................................................................... 33
3.3 CHAPTER 4. WORK PLANNING PROCESS ................................................................................................ 34
3.3.1 Definition: .................................................................................................................................. 34
 3.3.2 Work Breakdown Structure ........................................................................................................ 34
3.3.3 Top-down approach ................................................................................................................... 35
3.3.4 Bottom-up approach .................................................................................................................. 35
3.4 TIME AND COST ESTIMATION ................................................................................................................. 36
3.4.1 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) ..................................................................... 36
3.4.2 Critical Path Method .................................................................................................................. 36
3.4.3 Gantt Chart ................................................................................................................................ 37
3.5.............................................................................................................................................................. 37
 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays Electricity has become an indispensable part of our lives and is something often
taken for granted. In industrial countries living even few hours without electricity is
unthinkable for many. Economy is also very vulnerable to production of electricity. In fact
there is strong and two way relation between growths of electricity production per capita and
gross national product (GDP).
Electricity is the fastest growing fuel in Energy sector. Global demand for electricity is
growing by around 2.4% annually. This would mean doubling the production of electricity
between 2004 and 2030 from 16,424 billion kWh to 30,364 billion kWh. That’s total of 85%
escalation. According to the estimations and by 2025 electricity overtakes natural gas as the
world’s largest source of energy for household use.
This growth is present both in developing countries and industrialized countries. The member
countries of The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) which
are mainly developed countries with well established infrastructure are projected to have
growing demand of 1.3%. Non-OECD countries which are mainly the developing countries
are expected of have 3.5% growth in demand of electricity on average.

Growth of OECD and Non-OECD Residential Sector Delivered Energy Consumption by Fuel, 2004 – 2030
Source: International Energy Annual 2004

The prime sources of today’s electricity are fossil fuel power plants. 65.67% of the total
electricity consumed world wide comes from fossil fuels. After that hydroelectric with
16.57%, then Nuclear with 15.71% and lastly renewable energies with mare 2.05% contribute
to the electricity generation.
The growing demand for electricity is traditionally met largely by installing fossil fuele power
plants. However there are important concerns regarding this trend which are going to be
discussed in this chapter.

1.1 The Problems Associated With the Conventional Sources of Electricity

1.1.1 Fossil fuels

Traditionally fossil fuels have been very reasonable source of energy. They were chip,
comparatively abundant and it is possible to store and move them in vast amounts relatively
easily. However these some of these advantages are not very factual today and have turned
into disadvantages.
Fossil fuel contributes more to electricity generation than all other energy resources
combined. Today the main concerns about fossil fuels are:
1. Scarcity
2. Growing demand
3. Dependency on other countries and Security of supply
4. Environmental issues

Scarcity
Although there are arguments about the exact amount of fossil fuels, one thing is for sure and
that is they are NOT unlimited; for the reason that it takes between 10 and 300 million years
for petroleum material to be formed from organic material. One day sooner later they are
going to end, according to most experts, as soon as 50 years for oil reserves and 400 years for
gas reserves.

Dependency on other countries and Security of Supply

On one hand most countries do not have enough oil and gas reserves to support their own
needs and on the other hand the considerable number of countries that have excess of oil and
gas reserves and export them are located in politically and economically unstable regions, like
the middle east which is responsible for 66% of the worlds oil and gas production. [Wiki]
Clearly today’s dependency on oil, and therefore oil producing countries, involves huge risk
of unsteady supply and unpredictable prices. As these countries go through internal and
external crisis the prices of oil and gas fluctuate.
Cost
According to European Commission every $20 rise in oil price per barrel adds €15 Billion to
EU’s energy bills. At the time of this writing the price of oil is all time high $150 a barrel and
has had a continuous rise since 2003. Below is graph showing average price of oil in last 12
years.

Avarge price of oil 1996 – 2008 (Source: Bloomberg.com)

Continuous growth of price of oil makes use of other sources of electricity production, such as
wind, more economical and more feasible.

Growing Demand
Another reason that can be associated to the raising oil price is the demand and supply factor.
As mentioned before due to its very nature supply of fossil fuels are limited. But the demand
has been growing rapidly in last 200 years, and it can be said that we are in all time high
demand for oil.
Developing countries, especially china and India, are the main cause of the high demand.
Industrialization and Electrification process seen in these countries calls for vast amount of
fossil fuel and electricity supply.

Environmental Issues
Using fossil fuels as the primary source for electricity generation has major harmful
environmental affects, namely global warming and pollution.
A recent study at Stanford university shows that for every 1 Celsius of global warming there’s
is about 20,000 death world wide in a year [3]1 and it is believed that mass consumption of
fossil fuels is one of the contributors to global warming. Energy sector is the largest source of
green house gas emissions. Table 2 shows the amount carbon dioxide emitted by energy
sector.

World Energy-related Carbon Dioxide emissions by Fuel Type 1990 – 2030

Source: International Energy Association
Excess Carbon Dioxide, as a toxic gas, is very harmful and causes variety of disease,
especially for heart and lungs. Overwhelming use of fossil fuels caused emission of 26.9
Billion Metric Tons of Carbon Dioxide in 2004 which is a part of the cause to death and
disease of thousands world wide.
There are other pollutions associated to fossil fuel than air pollution. One of them is related to
its transportation. Transportation of oil across the planet produces pollution and sometimes
due natural accidents or damages large oil spills pour into waters and pollute large parts of
oceans and kill of sea habitants.

1.1.2 Nuclear

Although nuclear energy has been providing significant amount of electricity in last 50 years
and helped to decrease carbon emission, still is not a clean resource. There has been no
convincing solution as to how to dispose the nuclear waste. Temporary solutions such as
burring them in non habitant areas, doesn’t reduce its long term danger, especially when more
and more countries access to the nuclear technology.
Besides nuclear power plants must run in an accurate and secure fashion, and mistakes can
turn into catastrophic disasters, as in case of Chernobyl in Ukraine in 1984.
1.1.3 Hydroelectric

About 19% of the world’s electricity comes from Hydroelectric. Hydroelectric is one of
cleaner resources, it has no emissions and it is abundant in many parts of the world. In Latin
America it contributes to 75% of the electricity generation. Although Hydroelectric doesn’t
emit carbon dioxide, it does effect the environment. A good example is the Three Gorges
project in China. It will result in displacement of 2.3 Million people. []2 the water behind the
dam will result in the flooding of large parts of land and eliminates the habitat for plants and
animals.
There has also been continues argument as to whether or not Hydroelectric is a form of
renewable energy. Although hydroelectric renews, but the process is not instantaneous.

1.1.4 Conclusion

As one can see conventional sources of electricity cannot bare the demand for more and
cleaner energy. Oil is scares, not really chip anymore, pollutant and causes global warming;
Nuclear wastes can become hazardous as nuclear technology is used more and more.
Hydroelectric can be considered a reasonable solution for some parts of the world, but the
price for environmental changes caused by it is considerable.
Therefore as the demand for electricity grows so do concerns about how to supply it with less
harm and more availability. The solution to this problem is to diversify resources through a
process called “diversification of the energy portfolio”. This is primararl achieved by utilizing
renewable energies such as: solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, tidal, wave and so on.

1.2 The Wind Solution

Wind is one of the best resources of renewable energy being used. The infrastructure for
utilizing the wind to generate electricity is the least expansive among renewable. In fact
capital requirement for commercial wind farms has dropped by 80% from 1986 to 2006.
Wind, as a resource, is abundant in many countries is now being used for electricity
generation in 70 countries.
1.3 Why Wind Energy?

The reasons why wind energy industry is fastest growing trade among all other renewable
energies are not limited to being cost effective but also there are other strategically and
economical derives behind it. Below the most important grounds for emergence of Wind
Farms is discussed.

1.3.1 Relying on no fuel

Wind energy has no reliability to any kind of fossil fuel. Once a Wind Farm is established and
is functional its costs are only for its maintenance. All a wind farm needs as source is
continuous blow of wind, which is abundant, free and has zero air pollution.

1.3.2 Scattered supply of electricity

Nuclear, fossil fuel and hydroelectric power plants, require heavy investments, and in return
provide enormous amount of electricity which is then distributed among large number of
cities and users.
However this centralized setup of electricity generation has 2 main disadvantages. First of all
case of an emergency or a maintenance service shut downs, can result wide spread electricity
cut. The case of 2003 blackout throughout Northeastern, Midwestern US and Ontario Canada,
which left around 50 Million people without electricity and resulted around $6 Billion loss, is
a good example of such case. [1]
And secondly demand for electricity in developed countries increases by a low rate (e.g. 1.7%
average for US). So once a new Fossil fuel, Nuclear or Hydroelectric power system is built it
take sometimes up to 20 years, sometimes even more, for the plants to be used to its full
potential, which means lower Return on Investment.
Wind energy addresses both of these issues. There are several wind turbines each Wind Farm,
each providing usually 1.8~3.6 MW of energy. Therefore, in case of an emergency or
maintenance shut down, a wind turbine can be shut off without seriously effecting capability
of the power plant.
The same concept, distribution of electricity generation units, also means shorter time for
ROI. Because when more power is needed, simply adding a wind turbine or upgrading to
newer turbines on already existing wind farms can meet the demand. Or a new wind farm can
be constructed just large enough to address the need.

1.3.3 Efficiency /Feasibility

According to a research done by Department of Energy in US, prime locales of the world
have the potential of supplying more than ten times global energy needs. Practically almost all
countries have possibility of generating sizeable amount of electricity through their potential
wind farm sites.
Large Wind Technology is central point of Research and Development of major Industrial
countries. In the US, the DOW has established partnerships with public and private bodies to
expand research to improve Large Wind Technology and Distributed Wind Technology.
Therefore every year more and more efficient and less expensive turbines are introduced to
the global market. The latest development in commercially available turbine is Enercon’s
E112 capable of generating 4.5 to 6.0 MW of electricity, enough to power 4000 average
homes. It has cut-in wind speed of 2.5 m/s and cut out wind speed of 28-34 m/s.

1.3.4 Cost

As the wind farms use free and abundant wind as their source , the main expenses are of the
initial construction, launching and maintenance of the turbines. By advancement of
technology the installation costs are dropping and less maintenance is required. In capital and
energy costs, wind now competes on its merits with conventional power technologies and it
has become least expensive source of electrical power-traditional or new-in many parts of the
world. Since 1980s, wind technology capital costs have reduced by 80% world wide.
Operation and maintenance costs have declined by 80% and availability factor of grid-
connected wind plants has increased to 95%. In 2004, the capital cost of wind generation
plants was $600 per kW and electricity generation cost has reduced to 6 cents per kWh.
At the time of this writing wind turbines are capable of producing electricity at 4 – 9
cents/kWh in the Class 4 wind (5.8 m/s at a height of 10 m) regimes that are broadly available
across the United States, depending on many factors, including project financial structure.

1.3.5 Predictable Cost of Electricity

One of the challenges facing industries and families in last few years has been fluctuations in
cost of energy. Cost of electricity produced by Wind Energy is very predictable, once the
initial investment is made and associated natural risks are taken to account and contingencies
are made.

1.3.6 Security of supply

In some way the electricity produced from wind farms is more reliable than fossil fuel and
nuclear stations. The reason being that the source (fuel) of wind farms is not controllable by
any supplier and is free for any country to use. There is little uncertainty about the supply of
electricity once long term wind data are available and careful predictions have been made.

1.4 Status of Wind Industry in the World

Wind farms have been constructed for commercial use in over 60 countries and all most all
major countries have long term plans to establish Onshore and Offshore wind farms,
including oil rich countries like Iran, UAE and Qatar which their oil resources are estimated
to be large enough to support local demand and export (global) for the next 80 years.
Wind industry has been experiencing record breaking growth rates in last decade and is the
fastest growing source of energy among both renewable and non-renewable. Since 2005 US
wind energy industry experienced a growth rate of around 40%. Meaning it has doubled the
installed capacity of wind turbines. In Europe wind energy contribution to total new installed
capacity was 40% of total in 2007. In US Wind generation increased to 26 billion kWh in
2006, up from 18 billion kWh in 2005, representing 45% growth. This moved wind’s share of
the renewable generation market from just 5 percent to 7 percent in one year.
Global growth rate of wind power capacity has been between 21% to 40% in last 10 years. By
year 2007 the total wind capacity installed reached 94 GW and the total market value for new
generating equipments of wind energy was € 25bn. Table 2 demonstrates the growth of wind
industry in term of cumulative installed capacity in the last 10 years.
Relative to total consumption Denmark is the leading nation in harnessing the power of the
wind with 20% of its electricity demand met by wind power, 7.432 TWh in 2006.

Global Commulative Installed Capacity

100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
in MW

50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007
Year

Source: Global Wind Energt Council

Germany is the first country in terms of total wind power installed capacity 22,247 MW in
2007. USA with 16,818 MW, Spain with 15,145 MW, India with 8,000 and China with 6,050
MW in cumulative installed capacity come after Germany. Table 2 is the list of top 10
countries in terms of installed capacity.

MW %
Germany 22,247 23.6
US 16,818 17.9
Spain 15,145 16.1
India 8,000 8.5
China 6,050 6.4
Denmark 3,125 3.3
Italy 2,726 2.9
France 2,454 2.6
UK 2,389 2.5
Portegual 2,150 2.3
Rest of world 13,019 13.8
Total 94,123 100
Total installed capacity by 2007
1.5 Future of Wind Industry
Wind industry is expected to grow even more rapidly due to raising oil prices and
environmental concerns. Many countries have commited to reduce their carbon emissions by
signing Kyoto protocol. Wind energy is one of the most feasible ways of achieving set targets.
It has a mature technology and proven results in terms of stablitiy and reliability. It is also the
least expensive source of renewable energy.
Global Wind Energy Council has made predictions according to market trends and major
issues that are expected to effect growth of wind industry in mid-term. The results of this
forecast can be seen in table 2.

Preditcted Global Total Installed Capacity

2008 - 2012
300,000

250,000

200,000
in MW

150,000

100,000

50,000

0
2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Year

Table 2. Forecasted growth rate for years 2008 to 2012

Source: Global Wind 2007 report, Global Wind Energy Council
1.6 Offshore Wind Industry

There are two categories of commercial wind farms, onshore and offshore. Onshore wind
farms have been in use in for decades and they represent 98% of total wind farms by capacity.
Onshore wind industry enjoyed 33.4% growth annually between 1992 to 2006.
Offshore wind farm, on the other hand, are rather a new concept. It offers more advantages
than onshore wind farms. First of all wind resources are stronger in the see, because there is
no turbulence. Second, unlike onshore wind farm which are installed on hill tops or flat
country sides, they have little or no visual impacts. Third they have the potential to be used
close to large population centers close to shore, where onshore wind farms are not feasible
due to lack of space.

1.7 Status of Offshore Wind Energy

Offshore wind farms are essential part of energy portfolio diversification in Europe. The first
commercial offshore wind farm was established in 1991 in Denmark. At the time when this
research was conducted there were 21 offshore wind farms operating and 100% of them were
located in EU countries namely, Denmark, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Sweden and
Ireland. There are 18 offshore wind farms operating. In 2007 the capacity of Europe’s
offshore wind farms was 1,100 MW which represents 1.8% of the total wind energy capacity
installed and produced 3.3% of the total electricity produced by wind. Table 3 shows installed
capacity of offshore industry in the world.

Table 3 Total global installed capacity

 Source: Delivering Offshore Wind Power in Europe, 2007, European Wind Energy Association

There are several reasons why Europe is pioneering the offshore wind industry. First,
traditionally Europe has strong position in wind industry in general. 8 out of 10 commercial
wind turbines produced in the world are made in Europe. Second, in terms of offshore wind
resource Europe is situated in one the best, if no the best, geographical positions on earth. As
a matter of fact developing 5% of North Sea surface wind energy for electricity production
can generate 25% of EU’s needs. Third, major consumption centers are located close to the
shore; in fact 50% of EU citizens live less than 50 km away from the coastline, which makes
it more economical to transfer and distribute electricity generated offshore. Fourth, Europe
has strong maritime infrastructure. Last but not least, because centers of population are
located close to coast line, there is little or no room for gigantic wind turbines to be installed
onshore.

1.8 Future of Offshore Wind Industry

Offshore wind industry has just begun to develop and be massively utilized. There are various
numbers from 20 GW to 80 GW predict as the total installed offshore wind energy capacity
by 2020 in Europe. In 2007 European Wind Energy Association expected two different most
likely scenarios in which 20 GW to 40 GW are estimated to be the total installed capacity.
Political and regulatory barriers have made the growth of offshore wind industry slower.
Nevertheless most major market players and government agencies predict a faster growth in
coming years, as this industry matures, proves its efficiency and regulatory complications are
eased.
There are many offshore wind farm projects under construction and many more are in
planning stage. The fist Giga Watt capacity off shore wind farm is licensed to be built in UK
close to London. Figure 1 is the map of operating and future offshore win farms in EU.
 Operating Wind Farms Planned to be built in 2008 - 2009
Map of Offshore Wind Farm in European Union
Source: Delivering Offshore Wind Power in Europe, 2007, Erupean Wind Energy Association

1.9 Motivation for Conducting the Research

The expected massive growth of off-shore wind farms projects both in terms of quantity and
installed capacity motivated the author to conduct a research regarding the requirements for
installing off-shore win farms, costs, durations, various activities and work packages
involved.
This research intends to present a template that can be used initially for the planning of off-
shore wind projects. It provides an introduction to Engineering concepts that are necessary to
understand while planning or managing such projects. It also includes list of various work
packages that are involved in the project life cycle of such projects. They contain resource
estimation, feasibility studies, planning, design, construction, monitoring and commissioning.
The conducted research is largely based on literature made available from companies that
have implemented such projects and have publicized the lessons learnt from their performed
projects. The durations and costs mentioned are estimated for an average project and are guide
lines that must be modified according to conditions of different projects.
As there has not been large number of off-shore wind farm projects executed, not sufficient
literature is available. Some companies such as Vestas publish reports indicating the lessons
learnt.
This research will also demonstrate how Project management principles, tools and techniques
can help businesses and government to plan, design, construct and manage wind power plants
projects within budget and deadlines.
The demonstrated templates are for a 60 MW generic off shore wind farm consisting of 30
turbines with 2 MW capacities.
 CHAPTER 2. ENGINEERING PROSPECTIVE

1.10 The Parent Discipline 1: Engineering Prospective

Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by
the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns
are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetation. Humans use this wind
flow, or motion energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating
electricity.
The terms wind energy or wind power describes the process by which the wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines generate electricity by harnessing the
natural force of the wind in order to power an electrical generator. They convert the kinetic
energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific
tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical
power into electricity.
The first windmill to generate electricity was installed in 1887 in Scotland3. An experimental
grid-connected turbine with as large as 2 MW was installed in 1979 and a 3 MW was tested in
1998.
Today large turbines are routinely installed, commercially competing with electric utilities in
supplying economical, clean power in many parts of the world. The average turbine size was
300 kW until early 1990s. New mechanics being installed are in the 1-to-3-MWcapacity
range. The latest commercially available development, at the time of this writing, is Erenco’s
E-126 which is the world’s largest wind turbine. This turbine has a rotor blade length of 126
meters (413 feet) and is expected to produce 7+ MW of electricity, enough to power 5000
average European homes. (More information on is given in latter chapter). 4
Figure 3.1 is a conceptual layout of a modern multi-megawatt wind tower suitable for utility
scale applications.
Improved turbine designs and plant utilization have contributed to a decline in large-scale
wind energy generation costs from 35 cents/kWh in 1980 to 3 to 4 cents/kWh in 2004 in
favorable locations. At this price wind energy is the least expensive new source of energy in
the world, less expensive than coal, oil, nuclear, and most natural-gas-fired plants. Hence it
has become economically attractive to utilities and electric cooperatives. In 2006, the greatest
growth in the renewable sector was in wind generation, which contributed 95 percent of the
growth in renewable energy. Wind generators produced 26.6 million MWh, 49.3 percent
higher than in 2005.
In this chapter the technical issues of wind farms are reviewed and discussed, technical
specifications are explained.

1.11 Calculations

Although the detailed calculation and design of wind farms is not of responsibility of a Project
Manager, the conceptual knowledge of basic parameters and equations is essential to efficient
management of a wind farm project.. In this section common calculations and laws of the
wind are reviewed and some simple rules are presented where applicable (rule of thumb).

1.12 Power of the wind

The Electricity produced in a wind turbine is a function of several parameters: key among
them are:
Air density (ρ, / )
Rotor-blade-sweep area (A, ),
Wind velocity (V, m/sec)
Time (t, sec) and a conversion efficiency factor
The instant energy (dE, kWs) produced is the power rate (P, kW) multiplied by the instant
time period (sec), as given by:
dE= P dt (2.1)
The kinetic energy generated in the wind turbine is given by

KE= Power = (mass low per second)V (2.2)

And the mass flow rate of air, m (kg/s), is given by

M=ρAV (2.3)
Where:
= air density (kg/m3), which is 1225 ⁄ at sea level and 20 °C
A = area swept by the rotor blades (A = Π r2, m2),
V = velocity of the air (m/s)
By applying the volumetric flow rate (AV) and the mass flow rate of the air (ρAV), the
mechanical power coming in the upstream wind is given by the following equation:

= ( ) = (2.4)

1.13 Betz’ Law (Maximum Power Extractable)

Betz’ law shows the maximum energy that can be extracted from a fluid at certain speed and
that it is not possible to capture all the power. In case of wind turbines it means that not all the
power in upstream wind can be captured as the downwind continues to move with a lower
speed. The power extracted from the wind is the difference between the power of upstream
and downstream wind. So it can be driven, from Equation 2.2, that:
= ( ){ − } (2.5)

Where,
= mechanical power extracted by the rotor, i.e., the turbine output power,
= upstream wind velocity at the entrance of the rotor blades, and
= downstream wind velocity at the exit of the rotor blades.

Mass flow per second of air that passes through the plane of rotor blades can be calculated by
averaging the downstream and upstream wind speeds, therefore from Equation 2.4 and 2.5:
= ( ){ − } (2.6)

It is algebraically possible to rearrange Equation 2.6 to the following form:

= (2.7)

It is common to show Power extracted from the wind as the following:

= C (2.8)

Where:

= (2.9)

The factor is called the power coefficient of the rotor or the rotor efficiency and is the
fraction of the upstream wind power that is extracted by the rotor blades and fed to the
electrical generator.
Betz’s mathematically proved that the maximum value of to be or 0.59 and that occurs

when ⁄ is 1/3. In figure 2.1 the relationship between upstream and downstream ratio and
the power coefficient is demonstrated.

Figure 1. Adopted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz'_law

The practical maximum for two-blade turbines is from 0.4 to 0.5 and 0.2 to 0.4 for multi-
blade modern turbines.

1.13.1 Maximum Power Of The Site

As a rule of thumb it is possible to state that maximum power that can be extracted from a site
is calculated by the below simple formula, assuming the maximum is 0.5:

= (2.10)

Important observation from the above equation is the affect of wind velocity, which is by 3rd
power, in output power of the turbine, and thus the overall performance of the wind farm. 5

1.14 Wind power density (Wind Class)

As mentioned before the power density of the wind determines how much energy can ideally
be extracted by a wind turbine and is influenced by two factors: wind speed and air density.
To simplify the comparison of the wind resource at different sites, wind power density has been
standardized in Wind Power Classes. These classes are based on wind speeds taken at certain
heights, generally using sea level air densities. Since the wind speed at any site will vary with height
due to the effects of the terrain on the wind flow, the wind class is often defined at more than one
height. A site with a measured average wind speed of 5.8 m/s at a height of 10m and 7.2 m/s at a
height of 50 m has a Class 4 wind resource.6 Table 2.1 displays the wind speeds associated with Wind
Power Classes at 50m, assuming sea level air density.

10 m height 50 m height
Wind Class
Wind speed m/s Wind power Wind speed m/s Wind power

1 0-5.1 0-160 0-5.6 0-200

2 5.1-5.9 160-240 5.6-6.4 200-300
3 5.9-6.5 240-320 6.4-7.0 300-400
4 6.5-7.0 320-400 7.0-7.5 400-500
5 7.0-7.4 400-480 7.5-8.0 500-600
6 7.4-8.2 480-640 8.0-8.8 600-800
7 8.2-11.0 640-1600 8.8-11.9 800-2000
As a rule of thumb it can be said that wind farms can be practical where class 2 or higher
wind conditions exist most of the time.

1.15 Conversion efficiency

The second major limitation for the power rate is the large and continuous variation in the
wind speed. This variation is especially important since the rate is proportional to the third
power of the wind velocity (Eq. 2.4). A twofold change in velocity results in an eightfold
change in power output. Thus a major problem in estimating the annual output of a wind
turbine in (kWh) is the time variation means wind velocity over an annual period. Long term
wind statistics for a proposed wind-farm site generally compiled as a Weibull probability
function to estimate the mean number of hours per year at each velocity interval. The data are
plotted in the form of a Raleigh wind speed frequency distribution. 3
The following is a report with graph of Missouri Anemometer Loan Project; Data are
collected at 20 meters above ground level and covers first year of data collection.
Site1003 Skidmore Missouri in Eastern Atchison County
Data collection ongoing as of November 30, 2005
Prepared by the Missouri Department of Natural Resources' Energy Center.7
1.16 Measure – Correlate – Predict Technique

A common method used to predict the wind condition is Measure-Correlate-Predict

Technique. Wind speed data are collected over a short period of time, e.g. 1 year, and then are
correlated to long term data from a nearby site to predict long term annual wind speeds.

Figure 2.2 Frequency Distribution Graph of Missouri Anemometer Loan Project

1.17 Wind Rose

Another tool which is commonly used when assessing a potential site is called Wind Rose.
Wind Rose is basically graphical representation of the frequency of the wind from different
direction at a particular point. The length of each "spoke" around the circle is related to the
frequency that the wind blows from a particular direction per unit time. Each concentric circle
represents a different frequency, emanating from zero at the center to increasing frequencies
at the outer circles. A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each spoke is
broken down into color-coded bands that show wind speed ranges. Wind roses typically use
16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc., although they may be subdivided
into as many as 32 directions.8 Figure 2.1 represents a sample wind rose.
Wind roses are used to determine the best location and direction for the turbines to capture the
wind.
 Figure 2.3 A sample Wind Rose

1.18 Components of the system

Almost all the wind turbines that produce electricity consist of a rotor with blades that turns
on a horizontal shaft; the latter is connected to a mechanical transmission assembly or
gearbox and, finally, to an electrical generator, both of which are located in the nacelle
mounted at the top of the mast.

2.9.1 Turbine

Turbine is the most important component of a wind farm. It converts energy of the wind to
electricity. Therefore choosing the right type of turbine is of vital importance to success of a
Wind Farm Project. Principles by which wind turbines operate are the same in all modern
wind turbines.
The wind turbine captures the wind’s kinesthetic energy using a rotor which has two or three
blades. The rotor is installed on a tall tower, to enhance the energy capture the power of the
wind. Numerous wind turbines are installed at one site to build a wind farm of the desired
power generation capacity.
As seen on formula 2.4 swept area of a rotor blade plays a key role in power generation of a
wind turbine, therefore one of the most important factors while choosing a wind turbine is the
size of the blades. The larger the blades, the larger the swepts area and thus larger output
power of the turbine.
Larger and lighter turbines enter the market almost every year, providing more power per
turbine. In 2008 German company Enercon introduced E112 which is capable of producing
4.5 MW to 6 MW of electricity.
Operation with constant or variable rotor speeds are both common in the market. Automatic
power control systems ensure that the turbine is kept in operation mood most of the time;
depending on wind speed, with cut out at very high speeds (mechanical safety): by means of
the angle of the blade (pitch) or its own aerodynamics (stall). Availabily of 98% per year is
the common standard.
Figure 2.3 provides a schematic view of a wind turbine’s major components

Figure 2.3 Schematic view of a wind turbine

2.9.2 Tower

Tower is the base of the turbine on which the necle and the rotor are installed. It is constructed
both by steel and concrete. The aerodynamics of the tower is the major engineering challenge.

2.9.3 Rotor

Rotors are up to 90 meters in diameter and usually consist of 1 to 3 blades. The most
commonly used are 3 bladed rotors which provide best balance of high rotation speed, load
balancing and simplicity. 2 and 1 bladed are more complex in design. They have to rotate
much faster than 3 bladed rotors to provide the same amount of power The blades are usually
made of glass-reinforced polyester or epoxy fiber up to 50~60 meters length. The lighter and
stronger carbon fibers are preferred and are used in larger blades. The rotor typically with
three blades provides the best balance of high rotation speed, load balancing, and simplicity.
The rotor itself is composed of following subcomponents:
Rotor Blades:
Blades utilize the principles of lift to convert the energy of the wind into
mechanical energy. Stall-regulated blades limit lift, or momentum, when wind
speeds are too great to avoid damaging the machine. Variable-pitch blades rotate
to minimize their surface area and thereby regulate rotational speed.
Pitch Drive:
This system controls the pitch of the blades to achieve the optimum angle for the wind speed
and desired rotation speed. At lower wind speeds a perpendicular pitch increases the energy
harnessed by the blades, and at high wind speeds, a parallel pitch minimizes blade surface
area and slows the rotor. Typically one motor is used to control each blade. Power is either
electric or provided by hydraulics in the nacelle, and supplemented by a hydraulic
accumulator in the event of system failure.
Extenders:
These steel components serve as a means to support the rotor blades and secure them to the
hub.
Hub:
The hub serves as a base for the rotor blades and extenders, as well as a means of housing the
control systems for the pitch drive. It rotates freely and attaches to the nacelle using a shaft
and bearing assembly.

2.9.4 Nacelle

The nacelle includes:

Outer frame protecting machinery from the external environment
Internal frame supporting and distributing weight of machinery
Yaw Mechanism and Four-Point Bearing to rotate the turbine directly into the wind in order
to generate maximum power. Typically, four yaw sensors monitor the wind direction and
activate the yaw motors to face the prevailing wind. A four-point bearing connects the nacelle
to the tower. The yaw mechanism turns the blades 90 degrees from prevailing winds under
high winds to reduce stress on internal components and avoid over-speed conditions.
Low Speed Shaft and High Speed Shaft which transmit rotational work from the rotor hub to
the gearbox and from the gearbox to the generator.
Gearbox Converts low-speed rotation from the input shaft of the rotor to high-speed rotation;
from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational
speed required by most generators to produce electricity, which then drives the high-speed
shaft of the generator assembly. Wind turbine gearboxes typically use a planetary gear
system. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are
exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear
boxes.
Coupling attaches the gearbox to the generator. Flexible couplings may be used to reduce
oscillating loads that could otherwise cause component damage.
Bearings: A number of bearings are required for the shafts, gearbox, yaw mechanism,
generator, and other rotating parts.
Mechanical Brakes: A mechanical friction brake and its hydraulic system halt the turbine
blades during maintenance and overhaul. A hydraulic disc brake on the yaw mechanism
maintains nacelle position when nacelle is stationary.
Electrical Generator converts high-speed shaft work into electrical energy
Power Electronics: Couples the generator output to the step-up transformer input, typically
with an IGBT bridge, allowing the generator to run at variable speed while still outputting 50
or 60 Hz AC to the grid. Also makes reactive power possible.
Cooling Unit: A large fan drives air to convectively cool the generator and gearbox and
exhausts waste heat from the nacelle assembly. Ducting directs cool air to the generator

2.9.5 Electronic Controller(s):

The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and
shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about
55 mph because they might be damaged by the high winds.

2.9.6 There are Electronic controllers inside the turbine which control different parts
of the turbine:

Base controller, located at the base of the tower, utilizes PC’s and fiber optics to monitor and
record performance data, as well as to facilitate communication between both sub-controllers
and external parties.
Nacelle controller monitors activity within the nacelle assembly.
Hub controller, being used in more recent models, communicates directly with the nacelle
controller to more precisely monitor rotor activity

2.9.7 Sensors

There are two types of sensors in a wind turbine:

An anemometer, located on the tower, measures wind velocity and relays data to the yaw
mechanism.
A wind vane measures wind direction and relays data to the yaw mechanism.
A cable twist counter monitors cables within the tower to determine if the turbine has been
yawing in one direction for an extended period of time.
A thermocouple senses temperature within the nacelle assembly.
2.9.8 Tower

The tower is the supporting structure for the turbine. It is typically made of rolled, tubular
steel, and built and shipped in sections because of its size and weight. Common tubular towers
incorporate a ladder within the hollow structure to provide maintenance access. Utility-scale
towers range in height from 60-100m and weigh between 200-400 tons. Tubular towers made
of steel and generally painted in light grey, with heights of up to 100 meters
Typical components of a wind turbine tower are described below:
Rolled steel tubes connected in series.
Flanges and bolts joining each section.
A concrete base serving as a stable foundation for the turbine assembly.
Concrete segmented towers and hybrid steel/concrete towers may also be used for large
turbines in cases where steel tower section transportation is difficult.
Base supports the tower and transfers the loads to the foundation soil or bedrock. The
foundation size and type depends on the foundation conditions but is typically constructed
with steel-reinforced concrete.
Flinger and Bullets join tower segments.

2.9.9 The wind farm ground / sea station

Apart from the turbines wind farms have ground facilities to transfer electricity and provide
two way communications with outside the wind farm. In case of offshore wind farms
electricity and data cables are collected at a Base Station. The following provides a list of
items of a wind farm on the ground or sea surface.
Electrical collection system: Transformers step up voltage transmission in the collector line to
convert energy generated by the turbine into usable electricity for utility grids. Underground
cables are used to connect the power lines until a standard 25kV overhead collector line may
be used. Reclosers and risers act as circuit breakers and isolate a section of the line should
there be a power fault. Power substations raise the voltage for standard long-distance
transmission.
Communication and control System: The communications subsystem allows the wind
turbines to monitor themselves and report performance to a control station. Data collection
equipment and fiber optic cables allow the turbine to monitor and report performance. A
control station consolidates data and routes information to the local utility it includes the
following: control cable, data collection, and wind farm control station

2.9.10 Scales of Wind Turbines

Utility-scale turbines range in size from 100 kilowatts to as large as several megawatts. Larger
turbines are grouped together into wind farms, which provide bulk power to the electrical
grid.
Single small turbines, below 100 kilowatts, are used for homes, telecommunications dishes, or
water pumping. Small turbines are sometimes used in connection with diesel generators,
batteries, and photovoltaic systems. These systems are called hybrid wind systems and are
typically used in remote, off-grid locations, where a connection to the utility grid is not
available.
 CHAPTER 3. PROJECT MANAGEMENT PRESPECTIVE

3.1 Introduction

Project management, as a subject, has been studied since 1950s.

3.2 Documents of a Project

There are three major documents for large projects, namely: Project charter, Scope of Work
(S.O.W.) statement and Project management plan.

3.2.1 Project charter

Project charter is the documents issued by the client that officially authorizes beginning of a
project. It provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resource to
project activities.
It consists of a mission statement, including background, purpose, and benefits, a goal,
objectives, scope, assumptions and constraints and it clearly documents project definition in
order to bring a project team into necessary agreement.
In another work project charter is a formal document that summarizes the business,
management and financial aspects of a project. It includes scope, objectives, benefits, costs,
risks and plans. It is the basis of project change control and serves as a 'contract' between the
Project Manager and Project Sponsor.
The objective of this activity is to secure management approval and to provide the Project
Manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities. The charter
becomes a source of reference for the project team.
Project manager should be assigned before developing a project plan while project charter is
being created.
3.2.2 Scope of Work (S.O.W.) statement

It is the definition of what the project is supposed to accomplish and the budget (of time and
money) that has been created to achieve these objectives. Any change in project scope has a
change at least in cost, time or other resources.
It can also be said that Scope of Work document or Scope Statement is a document that
describes the totality of the work to be performed. The Scope Statement must include all the
items and jobs to be performed and only the necessary ones.
Defining scope of work is one the most important tasks to be performed by the client of any
project. Scope of work shows the totality of the work to be done in the project and includes all
the project deliverables. It is required to ensure that project includes all the work required, and
only the work required, to complete the project successfully.
Project scope management is primarily concerned with defining and controlling what is and is
not included in the project.

3.2.3 Scope Of Work for an Offshore Wind Farm

During Project Planning of an Offshore Wind farm, the Project Manager, through regular
communication with the Customer representatives, refines the Project Scope to clearly define
the content of the deliverables to be produced during Project Execution. This definition
includes a clear description of what will and will not be included in each deliverable.
In case of off-shore wind farm the following issues must be included in scope statement:
• Project description
• Capacity of the project
• Type of the turbines
• Number of wind turbines and their capacities
• Type of foundation
• Grid connection cables
• Subsea export cables
• Inter-array cables
• Off-shore substations and their electrical equipments
• Onshore-substations and their electrical equipments
 • Meteorological masts
• SCADA building and equipments
• Onshore operating and maintenance base
• Total estimated cost of the project
• Annual electricity output
• Site Area
• Site features: distance from the shore, wind speed, water depth, soil conditions
• Available nearby ports
• Wind farm layout
• Other wind farm features
• Location of the site or potential sites if not selected yet
• Summary of environmental impact report

3.2.4 Project management plan

The project management plan is a document that describes the project management system
used by a project team. The objective of a project management plan is to define the approach
to be used by the Project team to deliver the intended project management scope of the
project.
The project manager creates the project management plan following input from the project
team and key stakeholders.
The plan should be agreed and approved by at least the project team and its key stakeholders.
The project management plan typically covers topics used in the project execution system and
includes the following main aspects:
• Scope Management
• Schedule Management
• Financial Management
• Quality Management
• Resource Management
• Communications management
• Project Change Management
• Risk Management
• Procurement Management
It is good practice and mostly required by large consulting and professional project
management firms, to have a formally agreed and version controlled project management plan
approved in the early stages of the project, and applied throughout the project.

3.3 CHAPTER 4. Work Planning Process

3.3.1 Definition:

Work Planning Process is a systematic approach used by project managers to develop work
plans. A work plan is a document created by the project management team, which provides a
listing of all tasks to be performed, the date on which they are scheduled for their execution.
The Project Management Institute divides the Work Planning Process into three phases:
1. Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) Development,
2. Time and Cost estimation,
3. Schedule development.

3.3.2 Work Breakdown Structure

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is a hierarchical list of all the tasks necessary to be
performed in order to achieve objectives of the project stated in the SOW document. These
tasks include but are not limited to activities required to plan, perform feasibility study,
design, construct and commission the project.
The WBS acts as a check list for the work to be accomplished. It breaks down the large parts
or “phases” of the project into smaller achievable tasks that can easily be monitored. It also
facilitates the better planning for budget and schedule.
Related pieces of work in the WBS are grouped together and called a Work Package. Specific
resources must be allocated to each of these work packages so that that the subset tasks can be
achieved. As a rule each work package must of following criteria:
• Specific, clearly defined
• Measurable
 • Achievable, deliverable
• Resource, time and cost assignable
• Acceptable duration
• Independent task
The Work Breakdown Structure for offshore wind farm projects are rather extensive and
require careful considerations and must be developed by getting helped from experienced
staff.

3.3.3 Top-down approach

There are basically two approaches used to identify project activities top-down and bottom-up
approaches.
Top-down approach is initiated from the goals specified in the project charter. It breaks down
the goal into deliverables it then identifies activities that must be performed from the
beginning to the completion of the project.
The work is then successively decomposed into smaller, more manageable components until
the project planning team is satisfied that the work is defined at a sufficient level of detail that
allows estimating time, cost and resource requirements.

3.3.4 Bottom-up approach

In this approach the planning group makes a list the activities that need to be completed in
order to accomplish the first-level breakdown with using brain-storming and pervious project
documents. Then the team groups the activities that seem to be related to one another into
different work packages. This helps to include missing activities or take out unnecessary ones.
Once the team is satisfied it has completed the activity list for the first-level breakdown, the
members are finished. Each group then reports to the entire planning team the results of its
work. Final critiques are given, missing activities added, redundant activities removed.
At the stage is to make sure the activities listed cover all of the deliverables mentioned in the
scope of work.
The next stage is to confirm that the lower-level items are both necessary and sufficient for
accomplishment of the decomposed items.
At the final stage to each item is validated for clarity and completeness of definition.

3.4 Time and Cost estimation

After all task to be performed are listed it is necessary to allocate time duration and cost. Time
durations are according to expected amount of time that the tasks require. It is not possible to
predict all the durations accurately, but a best estimate must be assigned.

3.4.1 Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

PERT is way to make better decisions for time durations of different tasks. It provides a
formula by which the optimistic, pessimistic and most probable estimated durations can be
taken into account.
t = (a + m + b)/6 (1.1)
Where:
• a : optimistic time
• m : most likely time
• b : pessimistic time

3.4.2 Critical Path Method

Critical Path is a method by which critical tasks and their relationship to other tasks are
identified. Critical tasks are the activities that any delay in their completion date will have
negative effect on overall project duration. This then helps in planning and executing the
project.
As is sometime possible to remove certain activities from the critical path, by some kind of
change i.e. modifying procedures. This change often makes other activities “critical”. It is also
possible to have two or more critical paths.
3.4.3 Gantt Chart

Gantt Chart is one of the most popular tools of Project Management discipline that was
developed to manage complex projects. It is a form of bar chart that shows during certain
period of time what activities are to be performed, how long they should take and their
dependency on other task.
 CHAPTER 4. APPLICATION OF PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN OFFSHORE
WINDFARM PROJECTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Offshore wind farm projects are a very complex engineering and management endeavor. In
this chapter applied project management tools and principles are demonstrated and some
sample templates are given.

4.2 Explanation of Main WBS Items

A sample of WBS of an offshore wind farm up to level 3 is given in the appendices. In this
section explanation on main items are given for illustration purpose.

4.2.1 Project initiation

This work package includes the preliminary tasks to be under taken in order to initiate the
project. It is smaller work package of:
• Planning and Control
• Scope of the work definition
• Site Selection
• Project Definition
In this stage opportunities are identified, potential sites are investigates, overall scope of work
is defined, and plan for management of the whole project is created. During this work package
the project is given a Yes or No according to overall assessment. It also includes milestone of
initial plan complete.

4.2.2 Feasibility studies

If project is found of reasonable potential is given an initial green light on the last work
package then Feasibility work package starts. The main objective of the Feasibility study is to
ensure that enough wind power exists on the site, is it environmentally, legally, socially and
technically viable to build offshore wind farm at the selected location or not?
Offshore wind farm have extensive feasibility study plan that takes more than a year to
perform. The reason being is that wind profile and speed must be studied at least for a period
of one year before it can be accepted as a reliable source. And because accurate historical
wind data are almost never available for offshore wind farms projects, a mast must be erected
at the potential site and wind data to be collected for a period of at least one year.
Other site conditions must also be carefully surveyed, such as: Geotechnical, Geophysical,
Metocean.
Rigid environmental regulations are often applied to offshore projects. The Client must
provide a detailed environmental impact assessment report to legal authorizes and supervising
bodies. The study includes impact of the project on fishes, sea mamels, sea plant, fishery,
tourism and so on. Visual impacts and noise study are also among very important subjects of
environmental impact studies.
Feasibility study also includes technical issues such as proximity to nearby grid connections,
assessment of grid cables and turbine transport feasibility.

3
James Blyth - Britain's first modern wind power pioneer, by Trevor Price, 2003, Wind Engineering, vol 29 no. 3,
pp 191-200
4
http://www.metaefficient.com/news/new-record-worlds-largest-wind-turbine-7-megawatts.html
5
Kurger Paul, Alternative Energy Resources: the quest for sustainable energy, 2006
6
www.nwseed.org/publications/Guidebook/

7 Prepared by the Missouri Department of Natural Resources' Energy Center, Missouri Anemometer Loan
Project, Data collected at 20 meters above ground level, 2005
8
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_rose