Loss Control 587
Chapter 16
INTRODUCTION
Loss control is a component of service deliv-
ery that adds value to the only product the fire
service has to offer: service. Loss control is the
practice that promotes fire fighting as a craft.
Most fire events abound with loss control oppor-
tunities. It is common for fire officials to notice
better morale and efficiency among firefighters
who have significantly contributed to reducing
fire loss by successfully applying loss control
principles.
This chapter explains the philosophy of loss
control and gives details of two of the most effective
means of loss control: performing proper salvage
and overhaul. Planning, procedures, and equip-
ment are discussed.
PHILOSOPHY OF LOSS CONTROL
[NFPA 1001: 3-3.13; 3-3.13(a)]
The philosophy of loss control is to minimize
damage and provide customer service through ef-
fective mitigation and recovery efforts before, dur-
ing, and after an incident. Loss control is a major
part of customer service, which builds goodwill
within the community. A fire department often
receives words of appreciation and praise by the
news media and letters of thanks from citizens for
saving their property and cherished possessions.
This praise gives firefighters a feeling of accom-
plishment — particularly when the appreciation
comes from those people who have had their be-
longings saved.
Performing proper salvage and overhaul — two
aspects of loss control — are of significant impor-
tance to both firefighters and property owners/
occupants because they are the most effective means
Loss Control
of loss control. Properly applied suppression tech-
niques plus prompt and effective use of good sal-
vage and overhaul procedures will minimize the
total losses. Effective salvage procedures coordi-
nated with a thorough and systematic overhaul
will also facilitate prompt restoration of the prop-
erty to full use.
Salvage operations consist of those methods
and operating procedures associated with fire
fighting that aid in reducing primary and second-
ary damage during fire fighting operations. Pri-
mary damage is caused by the fire; secondary
damage is caused by the suppression activities.
Both can be minimized through salvage efforts.
Some of these damages cannot be avoided because
of the need to do forcible entry, apply water, vent
the building, and search for fires throughout a
structure. Salvage starts as soon as adequate per-
sonnel are available and may be done simulta-
neously with fire attack.
Overhaul operations consist of searching for
and extinguishing hidden or remaining fires.
Protecting the scene after the fire and preserving
evidence of the fire’s origin and cause are compo-
nents of overhaul. Overhaul operations are not
normally started until the fire is under control.
SALVAGE
[NFPA 1001: 3-3.13(a); 3-3.13(b); 3-5.3(a); 3-5.3(b)]
Proper salvage operations involve early plan-
ning, knowing the procedures necessary to do the
job, and being familiar with the various covers
and equipment used. Some improvising can be
done when equipment is limited. A final part of
salvage is protecting the property from the
weather.
588 ESSENTIALS
Planning
Efficient salvage operations require planning
and training for fire officers and firefighters (Fig-
ure 16.1). Standard operating procedures (SOPs)
should be developed to address early and well-
coordinated salvage operations. Special preplans
may be needed for buildings with high-value con-
tents that are especially susceptible to heat and
smoke damage.
In commercial occupancies, an awareness of
the value associated with contents vital to business
survival is important. The value of contents, par-
ticularly in commercial occupancies, can easily
exceed the replacement cost of structural materi-
als. Equipment such as computers and file cabinets
filled with records, computer disks, etc., are critical
to a business’s restoration.
Figure 16.1 Firefighters must train regularly in salvage and overhaul
techniques.
Fire organizations can facilitate salvage efforts
before a fire incident by working with the loss
control representatives of various local busi-
nesses. Identifying critical records and compo-
nents needed for business continuation and
suggesting implementation of continuous loss
control measures, such as stock protection,
benefits both the business firm and the fire
department.
Procedures
Salvage operations can often be started at the
same time as fire attack. For instance, the contents
of the room(s) immediately below the fire floor can
be covered while fire is being combated on the floor
above. Contents of a room can be gathered and
covered quickly before a ceiling is pulled. Catching
debris with a cover also saves time and effort in
cleanup as well as leaving a more professional
appearance.
When possible, building contents should be
arranged into close piles that can be covered with
a minimum of salvage covers. This allows more
contents to be protected than if the contents were
covered in their original position. When arranging
household furnishings, group the furniture in an
area of the room away from the wall (Figure 16.2).
If a reasonable degree of care is taken, one average-
sized cover will usually protect the contents of one
residential room. If the floor covering is a remov-
able rug, slip the rug out from under furniture as
each piece is moved, and roll the rug to make it
easier to move.
A dresser, chest, or high object may be placed at
the end of a bed. If there is a rolled rug, place it on
top to serve as a ridge pole, allowing water to run
off both sides of the covered furniture. Other furni-
ture can be grouped close by; pictures, curtains,
lamps, and clothing can be placed on the bed. It
may sometimes be necessary to place a salvage
cover into position before some articles are placed
on the bed. In this event, the bed and furniture will
be protected until other items are placed under the
cover.
Furniture sitting on wet carpet will absorb
water like a sponge, quickly ruining the items even
though they may be well covered. To prevent this
damage, raise the furniture off the wet floor with
 Loss Control 589
Figure 16.3 Precut plastic
foam blocks can be used to
raise furniture off a wet floor.

Figure 16.4 Some commercial occupancies, such as this department

store, have large quantities of stock to protect.

stacked too close to the ceiling also present a

salvage problem. Ideally, there should be enough
space between the stock and ceiling to allow
firefighters to easily apply salvage covers.
Stock should be stored on pallets, and a lack of
skids or pallets under stock susceptible to water
damage is a common obstacle to efficient salvage
operations (Figure 16.5). Some examples of con-
Figure 16.2 Gather furniture into the center of the room so that it can be
tents that have perishable characteristics are food
covered.

water-resistant materials. Precut plastic foam

blocks are ideal but canned goods from the kitchen
can also be used (Figure 16.3).
Commercial occupancies provide challenges for
firefighters who are trying to perform salvage func-
tions (Figure 16.4). The actual arranging of con-
tents to be covered may be limited when large
stocks and display features are involved. Display
shelves are frequently built to the ceiling and
directly against the wall. This construction feature
makes contents difficult to cover. When water
flows down a wall, it naturally comes into contact Figure 16.5 Placing boxes on skids provides protection from small
with shelving and wets the contents. Contents amounts of water on the floor.
590 ESSENTIALS
stuffs, materials in cardboard boxes, feed, paper,
and other dry goods. When the number of salvage
covers are limited, it is good practice to use avail-
able covers for water chutes and catchalls even
though the water must be routed to the floor and
cleaned up afterward (see Improvising With Sal-
vage Covers section).
Firefighters must be extremely cautious of high-
piled stock such as boxed materials or rolled paper
that has become wet at the bottom. The wetness
often causes the material to expand and push out
interior or exterior walls. Wetness also reduces the
strength of the material and may cause the piles to
collapse (Figure 16.6). Some rolls of paper can
weigh a ton (1.02 t) or more. If these rolls of paper
were to fall on firefighters, it could seriously injure
or kill them.
Large quantities of water may be removed by
locating and cleaning clogged drains, removing
toilet fixtures, creating scuppers, making use of
existing sanitary piping systems, or affixing chutes
made of salvage covers, plastic, or other available
materials. Water left on cabinets and other hori-
zontal surfaces may ruin finishes over a period of
hours. Cabinets and table tops can be wiped off
quickly and easily with disposable paper towels.
This simple service can save the building owner/
occupant a great deal of potential loss.
Figure 16.6 Rolled paper storage can be hazardous to firefighters. If the
bottom rolls become wet, the entire stack is likely to collapse. The rolls
in this picture each weigh in excess of 2,500 pounds (1 130 kg).
Salvage Covers and Equipment
Salvage covers are made of waterproof canvas
materials or vinyl and are found in various sizes.
These covers have reinforced corners and edge
hems into which grommets are placed for hanging
or draping. Synthetic covers are lightweight, easy
to handle, economical, and practical for both indoor
and outdoor use (Figure 16.7). Many departments
use disposable plastic covers. Suitable plastic ma-
terial is available on rolls, and covers can be cut
from the rolls in different sizes to serve various
cover needs. Firefighters must be familiar with the
salvage covers used in their departments.
NOTE: It is very difficult to adapt plastic covers
to traditional salvage cover folds (see Methods of
Folding/Rolling and Spreading Salvage Covers sec-
tion).
A variety of equipment is used along with
salvage covers. Every firefighter needs to know
how to use these pieces of equipment and how to
properly maintain salvage covers.
Figure 16.7 Synthetic salvage covers require less care than natural fiber
covers.
SALVAGE COVER MAINTENANCE
The proper cleaning, drying, and repairing of
reusable salvage covers increases their span of
service. Ordinarily, the only cleaning that is re-
quired for canvas salvage covers is wetting or
rinsing with a hose stream and scrubbing with a
broom. Covers that are extremely dirty and stained
may be scrubbed with a detergent solution and
then thoroughly rinsed (Figure 16.8). Permitting
canvas salvage covers to dry when dirty is not a
good practice. After carbon and ash stains have
dried, a chemical reaction takes place that rots the
canvas. Foreign materials are difficult to remove
when dry, even with a detergent. Canvas salvage
covers should be completely dry before they are
 Loss Control 591
folded and placed in service. This practice is essen-
tial to prevent mildew and rot. There is no particu-
lar objection to outdoor drying of salvage covers
except that the wind tends to blow and whip them
about.
Synthetic salvage covers do not require as much
maintenance as canvas ones. These covers may be
folded wet, but it is usually better to let them dry
first so they will not get a mildew smell (Figure
16.9).
After salvage covers are dry, they should be
examined for damage. Holes can be located by first
placing three or four firefighters side-by-side along
one end. Then have them pick up the end and pass
it back over their heads while walking toward the
other end, looking up at the underside of the cover
(Figure 16.10). Light will show through even the
Figure 16.10 Firefighters are
smallest holes. Holes should be marked with chalk examining a salvage cover for Figure 16.11 Any holes in the canvas
(Figure 16.11). The holes can be repaired by plac- damage. should be marked with chalk.

ing duct or mastic tape over them or by patching

with iron-on or sew-on patches, depending upon
the material.
Figure 16.8 Extremely dirty
salvage covers can be
scrubbed with a detergent
solution.
SALVAGE EQUIPMENT
For conducting salvage operations at a fire, it is
suggested that salvage equipment be located in a
readily accessible area on the apparatus. Indi-
vidual fire department SOPs dictate on which
apparatus the salvage equipment is carried and
who performs the primary salvage operations on
the fire scene. This avoids delay in beginning sal-
vage operations, although salvage and loss control
are everyone’s responsibilities.
Smaller tools and equipment should be kept in
a specially designated salvage toolbox or other
container to make them easier to carry. Loss con-
trol materials and supplies may be kept in a plastic
tub and brought into the structure early in the fire
event (Figure 16.12). The materials and supplies

Figure 16.9 Synthetic

salvage covers can be Figure 16.12 Salvage equipment stored in a plastic tub is easily carried.
rinsed clean. Courtesy of Phoenix (AZ) Fire Department.
592 ESSENTIALS

are then readily available for loss control activities. • Submersible pump and discharge hose
The tub itself provides a useful water-resistant • Sponges
container to protect items such as computers, pic-
tures, and other water-sensitive materials. • Chamois

The following is a list of typical salvage equip- • Paper towels

ment that should be carried on the apparatus. The • Assortment of rags
use of this equipment, however, is not limited to • 100-foot (30 m) length of electrical cable
salvage operations. Some of these items are dis- with locking-type connectors, 14-3 gauge or
cussed in the paragraphs that follow. heavier
• Electrician’s pliers • Pigtail ground adapters, 2 wire to 3 wire,
• Sidecutters 14-3 gauge or heavier with 12-inch (300
• Various chisels mm) minimum length
• Tin snips • An approved ground fault interruption de-
vice
• Tin roof cutter (can opener)
• Salvage covers
• Adjustable wrenches
• Floor runners
• Pipe wrenches
• Duct tape
• Hammer(s)
• Plastic bags
• Sledgehammer
• Cardboard boxes with tape dispenser
• Hacksaw
• Styrofoam blocks
• Crosscut handsaw
Automatic sprinkler kit. The tools found in a
• Heavy-duty stapler and staples
sprinkler kit are needed when fighting fires in
• Linoleum knife buildings protected by automatic sprinkler sys-
• Wrecking bar tems. These tools are used to stop the flow of water
• Padlock and hasp from an open sprinkler before it has had time to
completely drain after shutdown. A flow of water
• Hinges from an open sprinkler can do considerable dam-
• Screwdriver(s) age to merchandise on lower floors after a fire has
• Battery-operated power tools been controlled in a commercial building. Sprin-
kler tongs or a stopper and a sprinkler wedge are
• Hydraulic jack
suggested tools for a sprinkler kit. The SOPs of
• Assortment of nails some departments may require additional equip-
• Assortment of screws ment necessary to restore a system to service. Use
• Roofing or tar paper and roofing nails caution when replacing sprinklers; some types
require use of a special wrench to prevent damage
• Plastic sheeting
to the sprinkler.
• Wood lath
Carryalls (debris bags). Carryalls, some-
• Mops times referred to as debris bags or buckets, are used
• Squeegees to carry debris, catch falling debris, and provide a
• Water scoops water basin for immersing small burning objects
• Scoop shovels (Figure 16.13).
• Brooms Floor runners. Costly floor coverings can be
ruined by mud and grime tracked in by firefighters.
• Mop wringers with buckets
These floor coverings may be protected by using
• Automatic sprinkler kit floor runners. Floor runners can be unrolled from
• Water vacuum an entrance to almost any part of a building.
 Loss Control 593
Figure 16.14 Floor
runners are used to
protect carpets and
other floor coverings
from foot traffic.

Figure 16.15 Portable

pumps may be used to
remove water from a
structure.

with this equipment. The water vacuum appliance

consists of a tank (worn on the back or placed on
wheels) and a nozzle. Backpack-type tanks nor-
mally have a capacity of 4 to 5 gallons (15 L to 20
L) and can be emptied by simply pulling a lanyard
that empties the water through the nozzle or
Figure 16.13 A carryall can be used to haul debris from a building. through a separate drain hose (Figure 16.16). Floor
models on rollers may have capacities up to 20
Commercially prepared vinyl-laminated nylon floor gallons (80 L) (Figure 16.17).
runners are lightweight, flexible, tough, heat and
Figure 16.16 Some water
water resistant, and easy to maintain (Figure 16.14). vacuums are designed to be
worn on the back.
Dewatering devices. Dewatering devices are
used to remove water from basements, elevator
shafts, and sumps (Figure 16.15). Fire department
pumpers should not be used for this purpose be-
cause they are intricate and expensive machines
and are not intended to pump the dirty, gritty
water found in such places. Trash-type pumps are
best suited for salvage operations. A jet siphon
device may be used for the removal of excess water.
These devices can be moved to any point where a
line of hose can be placed and an outlet for water
can be provided.
Water vacuum. One of the easiest and fastest
ways to remove water is the use of a water vacuum
device. Dirt and small debris may also be removed
from carpet, tile, and other types of floor coverings Figure 16.17 A floor model water vacuum.
594 ESSENTIALS

Methods of Folding/Rolling and Spreading

Salvage Covers
One of the key factors in successful salvage
operations is the proper handling and deployment
of salvage covers. The following sections highlight
basic principles of salvage cover storage and de-
ployment by one or two firefighters.
ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A ROLLED SALVAGE
COVER
The principal advantage of the one-firefighter
salvage cover roll is that one person can quickly
unroll a cover across the top of an object and unfold
it (Figure 16.18). Skill Sheet 16-1 describes the Figure 16.19 A folded salvage cover.
procedure for preparing a salvage cover roll for a
one-firefighter spread. Folding the cover requires TWO-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A FOLDED SALVAGE
two firefighters. A salvage cover rolled for a one- COVER
firefighter spread may be carried on the shoulder or Large salvage covers cannot be easily handled
under the arm. Use the steps described in Skill by a single firefighter. Therefore, they must be
Sheet 16-2 for a one-firefighter spread with a rolled
folded for two-firefighter deployment. The proce-
salvage cover.
dure in Skill Sheet 16-5 can be used to make the
two-firefighter fold. The most convenient way to
carry this fold is on the shoulder with the open
edges next to the neck. It makes little difference
which end of the folded cover is placed in front of
the carrier because two open-end folds will be
exposed. The cover should be carried so that the
carrier can grab the lower pair of corners, and the
second firefighter can grab the uppermost pair
(Figure 16.20).
The balloon throw is the most common method
for two firefighters to deploy a large salvage cover.
The balloon throw gives better results when
Figure 16.18 A firefighter performing a one-firefighter salvage cover sufficient air is pocketed under the cover. This
spread.

ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A FOLDED SALVAGE

COVER
Some departments prefer to carry salvage cov-
ers folded, as opposed to rolled (Figure 16.19). The
procedures in Skill Sheet 16-3 highlight folding a
salvage cover for one-firefighter deployment. Two
firefighters are needed to make this fold, and they
will be performing the same functions simulta-
neously. This folded salvage cover may be carried
in any manner, however, carrying it on the shoul-
der is convenient. The steps described in Skill
Sheet 16-4 can be used when one firefighter spreads Figure 16.20 Proper method for carrying a folded cover for a two-
a folded salvage cover. firefighter spread.
 Loss Control 595
pocketed air gives the cover a parachute effect that
floats it in place over the article to be covered
(Figure 16.21). The steps described in Skill Sheet
16-6 are for making the balloon throw.

Figure 16.21 Firefighters performing a balloon throw.

Improvising With Salvage Covers
In addition to simply covering building con-
tents, salvage covers may also be used to catch and
route water from fire fighting operations. The fol-
lowing section details some of these special situa-
tions.
REMOVING WATER WITH CHUTES
Using a chute is one of the most practical
methods of removing water that comes through the
ceiling from upper floors. Water chutes may be
constructed on the floor below fire fighting opera-
tions to drain runoff through windows or doors
(Figure 16.22). Some fire departments carry pre-
pared chutes, approximately 10 feet (3 m) long, as
regular equipment, but it may be more practical to
make chutes using one or more covers. Effective
water diversion is limited only to the imagination
of the fire personnel. Plastic sheeting, a hammer-
type stapler, and duct tape allow quick and easy
construction of water diversion chutes. Skill Sheets
16-7 and 16-8 describe the procedures for con-
structing water chutes.
CONSTRUCTING A CATCHALL
A catchall is constructed from a salvage cover
that has been placed on the floor to hold small
amounts of water (Figure 16.23). The catchall may
also be used as a temporary means to control large
amounts of water until chutes can be constructed
to route the water to the outside. Properly con-
structed catchalls will hold several hundred gal-
Figure 16.22 Ladders and tarps can be used to create water chutes that
will channel excess water from the building.
lons (liters) of water and often save considerable
time during salvage operations. The cover should
be placed into position as soon as possible, even
before the sides of the cover are rolled. Two people
are usually required to prepare a catchall to make
more uniform rolls on all sides. The steps required
to make a catchall are shown in Skill Sheet 16-9.
Figure 16.23 A completed catchall.
Covering Openings
One of the final parts of salvage operations is
the covering of openings to prevent further damage
to the property by weather. Cover any doors or
windows that have been broken or removed with
plywood, heavy plastic, or some similar materials
to keep out rain (Figure 16.24). Plywood, hinges, a
hasp, and a padlock can be used to fashion a
temporary door. Cover openings in roofs with ply-
wood, roofing paper, heavy plastic sheeting, or tar
paper. Use appropriate roofing nails if roofing, tar
paper, or plastic is used. Tack down the edges with
laths between the nails and the material.
596 ESSENTIALS
Figure 16.24 Window openings may be covered with plastic to temporarily
keep out the elements.
OVERHAUL
[NFPA 1001: 3-3.7(b); 3-3.12; 3-3.12(a); 3-3.12(b); 4-
3.2(a)]
Overhaul is the practice of searching a fire
scene to detect hidden fires or sparks that may
rekindle and to identify the possible point of origin
and cause of fire (Figure 16.25). Afterwards, the
building, its contents, and the fire area are placed
in as safe and habitable a condition as possible and
protected from the elements. Any possible incendi-
ary evidence of arson is preserved. Salvage opera-
Figure 16.25 Proper
overhaul reduces the
chance of a rekindled
fire.
tions performed during fire fighting will directly
affect any overhaul work that may be needed later.
Many of the tools and equipment used for overhaul
are the same as those used for other fire fighting
operations. Some of the tools and equipment used
specifically for overhaul, along with their uses,
may include the following:
• Pike poles and plaster hooks — Open ceil-
ings to check on fire extension.
• Axes — Open walls and floors.
• Battery-powered saws, drills, and screw-
drivers — Make small, neat openings and
square up larger holes made with larger
tools. These tools are also useful for build-
ing “packaging” tasks such as constructing
temporary doors and window coverings.
• Carryall, buckets, and tubs — Carry debris
or provide a basin for immersing smolder-
ing material.
• Shovels, bale hooks, and pitchforks — Move
baled or loose materials.
It is essential for firefighters to wear proper
protective clothing including self-contained breath-
ing apparatus (SCBA) while performing overhaul
and extinguishing hidden fires unless the atmo-
sphere has been proven safe for a lower level of
protection by reliable testing methods. Overhaul
operations should be visually directed by a super-
visor/officer not directly engaged in overhaul tasks.
If a fire investigator is on the scene, he should be
involved in planning and supervising the overhaul
activities.
Charged hoselines should always be available
for the extinguishment of hidden fires; however,
the same size lines used to bring the fire under
control are not always necessary. Fire department
pumpers can often be disconnected from hydrants;
however, local policies may dictate that at least one
supply line be left in place as a precaution. Typi-
cally, 1¹⁄₂-inch (38 mm) or 1³⁄₄-inch (45 mm) attack
lines are used for overhaul. During minor overhaul
operations, water fire extinguishers or booster hoses
may be used to extinguish small fires. However, at
least one attack line should still be available in the
event it is needed. Regardless of the type of hose
being used, the nozzle should be placed so that it
 Loss Control 597
will not cause additional water damage. Leaking
couplings should be tightened or repaired. Don’t
allow water damage from leaking hoselines. Using
a 100-foot (30 m) length of hose as the first section
on attack lines would greatly lower the probability
that any couplings other than those at the nozzle
would even be inside a building.
Before starting a search for hidden fires, it is
important to evaluate the condition of the area to
be searched. The intensity of the fire and the
amount of water used for its control are two impor-
tant factors that affect the condition of the build-
ing. The intensity of the fire determines the extent
to which structural members have been weakened, Figure 16.26 A firefighter checking for hidden fire with an infrared heat
and the amount of water used determines the detector.
additional weight placed on floors and walls due to
the absorbent qualities of the building contents. • Touch — Feel walls and floors for heat with
Consideration should be given to these factors for the back of the hand (Figure 16.27).
the protection of personnel during overhaul. • Sound
The firefighters should also be aware of other — Popping or cracking of fire burning
dangerous building conditions such as the follow-
ing: — Hissing of steam
• Weakened floors due to floor joists being • Electronic Sensors
burned away — Thermal (heat) signature detection
• Concrete that has spalled due to heat — Infrared signature detection
• Weakened steel roof members (tensile Typically, overhaul begins in the area of actual
strength is affected at about 500°F (260°C)
fire involvement. The process of looking for exten-
• Walls offset because of elongation of steel sion should begin as soon as possible after the fire
roof supports has been declared under control. The overhaul
• Weakened roof trusses due to burn-through plan can then be systematically carried out. If it is
of key members found that the fire extended to other areas,
• Mortar in wall joints opened due to exces-
sive heat
• Wall ties holding veneer walls melted from
heat
The firefighter can often detect hidden fires by
sight, touch, sound, or electronic sensors (Figure
16.26). The following are some of the indicators for
each:
• Sight
— Discoloration of materials
— Peeling paint
— Smoke emissions from cracks
— Cracked plaster
— Rippled wallpaper
— Burned areas Figure 16.27 A firefighter using the back of his hand to feel for heat.
598 ESSENTIALS
firefighters must determine through what medium
it traveled. When floor beams have burned at their
ends where they enter a party wall, fire personnel
overhaul the ends by flushing the voids in the wall
with water. The far side of the wall should also be
checked to see whether the fire or water has come
through. Insulation materials should be thoroughly
checked because they can harbor hidden fires for a
prolonged period. Usually, it is necessary to re-
move the material in order to properly check it or
extinguish fire in it.
An understanding of basic building construc-
tion will assist the firefighter in searching for
hidden fires. When the fire has burned around
windows or doors, there is a possibility that there
is fire remaining within the frames or casings.
These areas should be opened to ensure complete
extinguishment. These areas can be opened by
simply pulling off the molding to expose the inner
parts of the frame or casing (Figure 16.28). When
fire has burned around a combustible roof or cor-
nice, it is advisable to open the cornice and inspect
for hidden fires.
When concealed spaces below floors, above ceil-
ings, or within walls and partitions must be opened
during the search for hidden fires, the furnishings
of the room should be moved to locations where
they will not be damaged. Only enough wall, ceil-
ing, or floor covering should be removed to ensure
complete extinguishment. Weight-bearing mem-
bers should not be disturbed.
Figure 16.28 A firefighter pulling molding to look for hidden fire.
When opening concealed spaces, consideration
should also be given to the restoration of the area.
During fire fighting, openings should be made in
construction to check for extension and allow ex-
tinguishment. However, when conditions allow,
firefighters should make neat, planned openings to
assure extinguishment, demonstrating workman-
like professionalism for future restoration.
If it is not appropriate to use small inspection
openings due to obvious fire involvement, ceilings
are opened from below using an appropriate over-
haul tool. To open a plaster ceiling, a firefighter
must first break the plaster and then pull off the
lath. Metal or composition ceilings may be pulled
from the joist in a like manner. When pulling, the
firefighter should not stand under the space to be
opened. The firefighter should always be posi-
tioned between the area being pulled and the
doorway to keep the exit route from being blocked
with falling debris (Figure 16.29). The pull should
be down and away to prevent the ceiling from
dropping on the firefighter’s head. No firefighter
should attempt to pull a ceiling without wearing
full protective clothing, including eye and respira-
tory protection.
Figure 16.29 Pull ceilings to check for fire extension.

Quite frequently, small burning objects are
uncovered during overhaul. Because of their size
and condition, it is better to submerge entire ob-
jects in containers of water than to try drenching
them with streams of water. Bathtubs, sinks, lava-
tories, and wash tubs are all useful for this pur-
pose. Larger furnishings, such as mattresses,
stuffed furniture, and bed linens, should be re-
moved to the outside where they can be easily and
thoroughly extinguished. Firefighters should re-
member that all scorched or partially burned ar-
Loss Control 599
ticles may prove helpful to an investigator in pre-
paring an inventory or determining the cause of
the fire.
The use of wetting agents is of considerable
value when extinguishing hidden fires. The pen-
etrating qualities of wetting agents usually permit
complete extinguishment in cotton, upholstery,
and baled goods. The only way to assure fires in
bales, rags, cotton, hay, alfalfa, etc., is to break them
apart. Special care should be taken to eliminate indi-
scriminate use and direction of hose streams.
600 ESSENTIALS

SKILL SHEET 16-1 PREPARING A SALVAGE COVER ROLL FOR

A ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD

NOTE: Two firefighters must make initial folds to reduce

the width of the cover to form this roll. Steps 1 through
8 are performed simultaneously by both firefighters on
opposite sides of the cover. Steps 9 through 12 may be
performed by both firefighters who are stationed at the
same end of the roll.

Step 1: Grasp the cover with the outside hand midway

between the center and the edge to be folded.

Step 2: Place the other hand on the cover as a pivot

midway between the outside hand and the center.

Step 3: Bring the fold over to the center of the cover. This
creates an inside fold (center) and an outside fold.

Step 4: Grasp the cover corner with the outside hand.

Step 5: Place the other hand as a pivot on the cover over

the outside fold.

Step 6: Bring this outside edge over to the center, and place
it on top of and in line with the previously placed first fold.
 Loss Control 601

Step 7: Fold the other half of the cover in the same manner
by using Steps 1 through 6.

Step 8: Straighten the folds if they are not straight.

Step 9: Fold over about 12 inches (300 mm) at each end of

the cover to make clean, even ends for the completed roll.

Step 10: Start the roll by rolling and compressing one end
into a tight compact roll; roll toward the opposite end.

Step 11: Tuck in any wrinkles that form ahead of the roll as
the roll progresses.

Step 12: Secure the completed roll with inner tube bands
or Velcro® straps or tie with cords.
602 ESSENTIALS

SKILL SHEET 16-2 ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A ROLLED

SALVAGE COVER

Step 1: Start at one end of the object to be covered.

Step 2: Unroll a sufficient amount to cover the end.

Step 3: Continue to unroll toward the opposite end.

Step 4: Let the rest of the roll fall into place at the other end.
 Loss Control 603

Step 5: Stand at one end.

Step 6: Grasp the open edges where convenient, one edge

in each hand.

Step 7: Open the sides of the cover over the object by

snapping both hands up and out.

Step 8: Open the other end of the cover over the object in
the same manner.

Step 9: Tuck in all loose edges at the bottom.

NOTE: In addition to covering stacks of objects, the

rolled cover may be used as a floor runner. Just unroll
the cover and spread it out as wide as necessary.
604 ESSENTIALS

SKILL SHEET 16-3 PREPARING A FOLDED SALVAGE COVER FOR A

ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD

NOTE: Two firefighters must make initial folds to reduce

the width of the cover. Steps 1 through 8 are performed
simultaneously by both firefighters on opposite sides
of the cover. Steps 9 through 13 may be performed by
both firefighters who are stationed at the same end of
the fold.

Step 1: Grasp the cover with the outside hand midway

between the center and the edge to be folded.

Step 2: Place the other hand on the cover as a pivot midway

between the outside hand and the center.

Step 3: Bring the fold over to the center of the cover. This
will create an inside fold (center) and an outside fold.

Step 4: Grasp the cover corner with the outside hand.

Step 5: Place the other hand as a pivot on the cover over

the outside fold.

Step 6: Bring this outside edge over to the center, and place
it on top of and in line with the previously placed first fold.
 Loss Control 605

Step 7: Fold the other half of the cover in the same manner
by using Steps 1 through 6.

Step 8: Straighten the folds if they are not straight.

Step 9: Grasp the same end of the cover, with the cover
folded to reduce width.

Step 10: Bring this end to a point just short of the center.

Step 11: Use one hand as a pivot, and bring the folded end
over and place on top of the first fold.
606 ESSENTIALS

Step 12: Fold the other end of the cover toward the center,
leaving about 4 inches (100 mm) between the two folds.

Step 13: Place one fold on top of the other for the completed
fold; the space between the folds now serves as a hinge.
 Loss Control 607

SKILL SHEET 16-4 ONE-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A

FOLDED SALVAGE COVER

Step 1: Lay the folded cover on top of and near the center
of the object(s) to be covered.

Step 2: Separate the cover at the first fold.

Step 3: Select either end, and continue to unfold the

salvage cover by separating the next fold.

Step 4: Continue to unfold this same end toward the end of

the object(s) to be covered.

Step 5: Grasp the end of the cover near the center with both
hands to prevent the corners from falling outward.

Step 6: Bring the end of the cover into position over the end
of the object(s) being covered.
608 ESSENTIALS

Step 7: Unfold the other end of the cover in the same

manner over the object(s).

Step 8: Stand at one end.

Step 9: Grasp the open edges where convenient, one edge

in each hand.

Step 10: Open the sides of the cover over the object(s) by
snapping both hands up and out.

Step 11: Open the other end of the cover over the object(s)
in the same manner.

Step 12: Tuck in all loose edges at the bottom.

 Loss Control 609

SKILL SHEET 16-5 PREPARING A FOLDED SALVAGE COVER FOR A

TWO-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD

NOTE: Two firefighters must make initial folds to reduce

the width of the cover. Steps 1 through 11 are performed
simultaneously by both firefighters. Steps 12 through
19 are performed by the respective firefighters. Steps
20 through 24 are performed simultaneously by both
firefighters.

Step 1: Grasp opposite ends of the cover at the center

grommet with the cover stretched lengthwise.

Step 2: Pull the cover tightly between each firefighter.

Step 3: Raise this center fold high above the ground.

Step 4: Shake out the wrinkles to form the first half-fold.

Step 5: Spread the half-fold upon the ground.

Step 6: Smooth the half-fold flat to remove the wrinkles.

Step 7: Stand at each end of the half-fold and face the

cover.

Step 8: Grasp the open-edge corners with the hand

nearest to these corners.

Step 9: Place the corresponding foot at the center of the

half-fold, thus making a pivot for the next fold.
610 ESSENTIALS

Step 10: Stretch that part of the cover being folded tightly
between each firefighter.

Step 11: Make the quarter-fold by folding the open edges

over the folded edge.

1
Step 12: Firefighter #1: Stand on one end of the quarter-
fold.

Step 13: Firefighter #2: Grasp the opposite end and shake
out all the wrinkles.
2

Step 14: Firefighter #2: Carry this end to the opposite end,
maintaining alignment of outside edges.

Step 15: Both Firefighters: Place the carried end on the

opposite end, aligning all edges.

Step 16: Both Firefighters: Position at opposite ends.

Step 17: Firefighter #2: Stand on the folded end of the

cover.

Step 18: Firefighter #1: Shake out all wrinkles.

Step 19: Firefighter #1: Align all edges.

 Loss Control 611

Step 20: Grasp the open ends, and use the inside foot as
a pivot for the next fold.

Step 21: Bring these open ends over, and place them just
short of the folded center fold.

Step 22: Continue this folding process by bringing the open

ends over and just short of the folded end.
NOTE: During this fold, the free hand may be used as a
pivot to hold the cover straight.

Step 23: Complete the operation by making one more fold

in the same manner.

Step 24: Bring the open ends over and to the folded end
using the free hand as a pivot during the fold.
612 ESSENTIALS

SKILL SHEET 16-6 TWO-FIREFIGHTER SPREAD WITH A

FOLDED SALVAGE COVER
Balloon Throw

Step 1: Stretch the cover along one side of the object(s) to

be covered.

Step 2: Separate the last half-fold by grasping each side of

the cover near the ends.

Step 3: Lay the side of the cover closest to the object(s) on

the ground.

Step 4: Make several accordion folds in the inside hand.

Step 5: Place the outside hand about midway down the end
hem.

Step 6: Place the inside foot on the corner of the cover to

hold it in place.

Step 7: Pull the cover tightly between each firefighter.

 Loss Control 613

Step 8: Swing the folded part down, up, and out in one
sweeping movement in order to pocket as much air as
possible.

Step 9: Pitch or carry the accordion folds across the

object(s) when the cover is as high as each firefighter can
reach. This action causes the cover to float over the
object(s).

Step 10: Guide the cover into position as it floats over the
object(s).

Step 11: Straighten the sides for better water runoff.

614 ESSENTIALS

SKILL SHEET 16-7 CONSTRUCTING A WATER CHUTE

Without Pike Poles

Step 1: Open the salvage cover.

Step 2: Lay the cover flat at the desired location.

Step 3: Roll the opposite edges of the salvage cover toward

the middle until there is a 3-foot (1 m) width between the
rolls.

Step 4: Turn the cover over.

Step 5: Adjust the chute to collect and channel water by

elevating one end.

Step 6: Extend the other end out a door or window.

 Loss Control 615

SKILL SHEET 16-8 CONSTRUCTING A WATER CHUTE

With Pike Poles

Step 1: Open the salvage cover.

Step 2: Lay the cover flat at the desired location.

Step 3: Place pike poles at opposite edges of the

salvage cover with the pike extending off the end of the
cover.

Step 4: Roll the edges over the pike poles toward the
middle until there is a 3-foot (1 m) width between the rolls.

Step 5: Turn the cover over, keeping the folds in place.

616 ESSENTIALS

Step 6: Place the chute to collect and channel water.

NOTE: This can be done by hooking the pike poles over a
ladder rung or similar object.

Step 7: Extend the other end out a door or window.

NOTE: A completed water chute is shown.

 Loss Control 617

SKILL SHEET 16-9 CONSTRUCTING A CATCHALL

Step 1: Open the salvage cover.

Step 2: Lay the cover flat at the desired location.

Step 3: Roll the sides inward approximately 3 feet (1 m).

Step 4: Lay the ends of the side rolls over at a 90-degree

angle to form the corners of the basin.

Step 5: Roll one end into a tight roll on top of the side roll
and form a projected flap.
618 ESSENTIALS

Step 6: Lift the edge roll.

Step 7: Tuck the end roll to lock the corners.

Step 8: Roll the other end in a like manner.

Step 9: Lock the corners. A completed catchall is shown.