Refresher Topic : GRAPHING TECHNIQUES

CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES
¾ Use of a graphic calculator to graph a given function
x2 y 2 ax + b ax 2 + bx + c
¾ Relating the following equations with their graphs ± = 1 , y = , y =
a 2 b2 cx + d dx + e
¾ Characteristics of graphs such as symmetry, intersections with the axes, turning points and asymptotes
¾ Determining the equations of asymptotes, axes of symmetry, and restrictions on the possible values of x and/or y
¾ Effect of transformations on the graph of y = f ( x) as represented by y = af ( x) , y = f ( x) + a , y = f ( x + a) ,
y = f (ax) , and combinations of these transformations eg . y = f (ax + b)
1
¾ Relating graphs of y = f ( x ) , y = f ( x ) , y = and y 2 = f ( x) and y = f ′( x) to the graph of y = f ( x)
f ( x)
¾ Simple parametric equations and their graphs

GRAPHS OF PARABOLA

Parabolas given by the equation y 2 = kx (k > 0) are symmetrical about the x-axis and those given by x2 = ky
(k > 0) are symmetrical about the y-axis. y
y 2 = kx
x 2 = ky
x

GRAPHS OF ELLIPSES
Graphs of the form ( x − h ) + ( y − k ) = 1 are ellipses with coordinates of centre (h, k).
2 2

a2 b2
These ellipses are symmetrical about the lines x = h and y = k . y
b
y a
b a (h, k)
(h, k)
x a<b x
Special case: a = b a>b
Circles are special cases of ellipses, just as squares are special cases of rectangles.
When a = b = r, equation of the ellipse becomes ( x − h )2 + ( y − k )2 = r 2 which is the equation of a circle centered
at (h, k) with radius r. Alternatively, it can be given in the form x 2 + y 2 + 2 cx + 2 dy + e = 0 .

GRAPHS OF HYPERBOLAS [refer eg 1]

2 2 2 2
Graphs of the form x − y = 1 or y − x = 1 are hyperbolas. These hyperbolas are symmetrical about both
c2 d 2 d 2 c2
axes and the lines y = ± d x are the asymptotes of the graphs.
y 2 x2
c x2 y 2 d − =1
− =1 y = x d 2 c2
c2 d 2 c d
y= x
c
d
−c c d
d y=− x
y=− x −d c
c

Axis/Point of
Graphically Algebraically
Symmetry
If (x, y) is a point on the graph of Equation of the curve remains unchanged when x is
y-axis y = f(x) then (−x, y) is also a point on the same graph. replaced by –x. eg. y = x4
If (x, y) is a point on the graph of Equation of the curve remains unchanged when y is
x-axis y = f(x) then (x, −y) is also a point on the same graph. replaced by −y. eg. y2 = x
If (x, y) is a point on the graph of y = f(x) then Equation of the curve remains unchanged when x is
origin (−x, −y) is also a point on the same graph. replaced by –x and y by –y. eg. y = x 3 , y = 1
x

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 Transformation
y = f ( x ) → y = −f ( x )
y = f ( x) → y = f (− x)
y = f ( x) → y = f ( x) + a
y = f ( x) → y = f ( x) − a
y = f ( x) → y = f ( x + a )
y = f ( x) → y = f ( x − a )
y = f ( x) → y = af ( x)
y = f ( x) → y = f (ax)
Description of transformation Geometrically
The graph of y = −f ( x) is the reflection of the graph of ( x , y) → ( x , − y)
y = f ( x) in the x-axis.
The graph of y = f ( − x ) is the reflection of the graph of ( x , y) → (−x , y)
y = f ( x) in the y-axis.
The graph of y = f ( x) + a is the translation of the graph of ( x , y) → ( x , y + a)
y = f ( x) by a units in the positive y-direction.
The graph of y = f ( x) − a is the translation of the graph of ( x , y) → ( x , y − a)
y = f ( x) by a units in the negative y-direction.
The graph of y = f ( x + a) is the translation of the graph of ( x , y) → ( x − a , y)
y = f ( x) by a units in the negative x-direction.
The graph of y = f ( x − a ) is the translation of the graph of ( x , y) → ( x + a , y)
y = f ( x) by a units in the positive x-direction.
The graph of y = af ( x) is the scaling of the graph of ( x , y ) → ( x , ay )
y = f ( x) by factor a parallel to the y-axis.
The graph of y = f (ax ) is the scaling of the graph of y = f ( x)
( x , y ) → ⎛⎜ ⎞
x
, y⎟
by factor 1 parallel to the x-axis. ⎝a ⎠
a

⎧ f ( x) , f ( x) ≥ 0 ⎧ f ( x) , x ≥ 0
Modulus: | f ( x ) |= ⎨ f (| x |) = ⎨
⎩ −f ( x ) , f ( x ) < 0 ⎩f ( − x ) , x < 0
Composition of Two transformations: [refer to eg 6]
• y = f (kx + a) is a composition of y = f ( x + a) followed by y = f (kx) ;
or a composition of y = f (kx) followed by y = f ( x + ak ) .
• y = mf ( x) + b is a composition of y = mf ( x) followed by y = f ( x ) + b .

SYSTEMATIC CURVE SKETCHING

(1) Intercepts on Coordinate Axes
(2) Linear Asymptotes : Vertical / Horizontal & Oblique Asymptotes
(3) Stationary Points

• First Derivative Test

Given dy = 0 at point where x = a. We test the value of dy at points around x = a.

dx dx
x a− a a+ x a− a a+
dy dy
+ 0 − − 0 +
dx dx
Shape Shape

( a, f ( a ) ) is a maximum point. ( a, f ( a ) ) is a minimum point.

x a− a a+ x a− a a+
dy dy
+ 0 + − 0 −
dx dx
Shape Shape

( a, f ( a ) ) is a stationary point of inflexion.

Note: If dy > 0, then f is strictly increasing, i.e., y increases as x increases.
dx
If dy < 0, then f is strictly decreasing, i.e., y decreases as x increases.
dx

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 • Second Derivative Test

d2y
> 0, then ( a, f ( a ) ) is a minimum point.
dy
If =0 at x = a and
dx dx 2
d2y
Or < 0, then ( a, f ( a ) ) is a maximum point.
dx 2
d2y
Or = 0, no conclusion can be drawn, so use 1st derivative test
dx 2

ax + b ax 2 + bx + c
GRAPHS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS y = and y = , a≠0
cx + d dx + e
R (x)
Given a rational function f ( x ) = P ( x ) , we express f ( x) as a proper fraction, i.e., f (x) = g(x) + ,
Q (x) Q (x)
where degree of R(x) < degree of Q(x). Then, the horizontal/oblique asymptote is y = g ( x) , and the vertical asymptotes are
values of x where Q(x) = 0 and R( x) ≠ 0 .

GRAPH OF y 2 = f ( x) ⇒ y = ± f ( x) [refer Eg 6 for y 2 = f ( x) and y 2 = −f ( x) ]

Graph y = f ( x) can be obtained from y = f ( x) , by considering the following features:

The graph is defined only for values of x on the graph of y = f ( x) where f ( x) ≥ 0 .
Graph of y = f ( x) Graph of y = f ( x)

f ( x) increases. f ( x) increases.

f ( x) decreases. f ( x) decreases.

let b > 0: ( a, b ) is a maximum point on y = f ( x) . ( a, b ) is a maximum point on y = f ( x) .

( a, b ) is a minimum point on y = f ( x) . ( a , b ) is a minimum point on y = f ( x) .

let b > 0 : y = f ( x) has a horizontal asymptote at y = b. y = f ( x) has a horizontal asymptote at y = b .
y = f ( x) has a vertical asymptote at x = a. y = f ( x) has a vertical asymptote at x = a.
Note: y 2 = f ( x) ⇒ y = ± f ( x) . Hence the curve y 2 = f ( x) is symmetrical about the x-axis.

GRAPH OF y = 1
f(x)

Graph of y = f ( x) Graph of y = 1
f(x)
f ( x) increases. 1 decreases.
f(x)
f ( x) decreases. 1 increases.
f(x)
let b ≠ 0: ( a, b ) is a maximum point. ( a, b1 ) is a minimum point.
( a, b ) is a minimum point. ( a, b1 ) is a maximum point.
y = f ( x) has an x-intercept at x = a. y= 1 has a vertical asymptote at x = a.
f(x)
y = f ( x) has a vertical asymptote at x = a. y= 1 has an x-intercept at x = a.
f(x)

CURVES DEFINED BY PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS

At times it is more convenient to describe a curve using a parameter. The pair of equations for x and y given in terms of a
parameter t are called parametric equations of the curve, i.e., we may write x = g(t ) and y = h(t ) instead of y = f ( x) .
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Eg 1. Sketch ( x − 1) 2 ( y + 1) 2 and find the equations of the asymptotes.
− =1
22 2
2

Eg 2. 2008 J1 Term Exam Q10

π
A curve has parametric equations x = cos3 2t , y = sin 3 2t , for 0 ≤ t ≤ . (i) Sketch the curve. [1]
4
π
(ii) Find the equations of the tangent and the normal to the curve at the point P ( cos 3
2θ ,sin 3 2θ ) , where 0 ≤ θ ≤
4
.[4]

(iii) The tangent at the point P meets the x- and y-axes at S and T respectively. Show that distance ST is a constant. [3]

Eg 3. SAJC07/I/7

The curve C has equation y =

a x 2 + 2 where x ≠ 1 and a is a non-zero constant .
x − 1
* (i) Show that if C has no stationary points, then −2 < a < 0 . [3]

(ii) It is given that the line y = – x – 1 is an asymptote of C. Find the value of a. [2]

(iii) Sketch C, showing clearly asymptotes & coordinates of any intersections with the axes. [3]

Eg 4 SRJC2007/I/10 modified

The curve C has equation y =

ax 2 + bx + c . It is known that C, that has asymptotes x = 3 and y = x − 1 , cuts the
x+d
y-axis at –2.
(i) Find the values of a, b, c and d. [a = 1 , b = - 4 , c = 6 , d = - 3] [4]
(ii) * Sketch the curve C, stating clearly the turning points, asymptotes and any intercepts with the axes. Hence deduce the
2
range of values of k such that the equation ax + (b − k ) x + c − kd = 0 has two distinct real roots. [5]

(iii) Sketch graph of y =

ax 2 + b x + c stating clearly turning points, asymptotes and any intercepts with axes [3]
x +d

2
Eg 5. The curve has equation f ( x ) = ( x − 9 ) . Sketch the curve if (i) C = 0 (ii) C < 0 (iii) C > 0 and state the equations of all the
2
x +c
asymptotes of C and the coordinates of where C cuts the axes.

Eg 6 YJC 2007/I/9 (modified)

The curve shown in the diagram has equation y = f (x ) . It intersects the axes at x = 3, x = 4, y = 3
⎛ 1⎞ y
and has a maximum point at ⎜ 3.5, ⎟ .
⎝ 9⎠

3
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ 3 .5 ,
⎝ 9
⎟
⎠
y=2

0 3 4 x

On separate diagrams, sketch the graphs of:

x=2 x=5
1
(i) y = f ( 2 x − 1) , (ii) y = f ( x)
2
(iii) y = − f (x ) ,
2
(iv) y= .
f ( x)
1
What should you do if you need to sketch y= ?
f ( x + 1)
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Eg 7 NJC2007 /I/6 y
y = f ( x)

−3 −1
x
−2

−1
A (2, −2)
Sketch, on separate diagrams, the following graphs, indicating clearly any asymptotes, axial intercepts and turning
points, where possible. (i) y = −f ( x ) − 1 ; *(ii) y = f (− x ) ; *(iii) y = f '( x) . [6]

Self Practice
TPJC 2007/I/8 (modified)
On separate diagrams sketch the following graphs showing the axial intercepts, stationary point and equations of asymptotes.
x (3 x − 10) x (3 x − 10) x (3x − 10)
a) y= b) y= c) y2 = [6]
( x − 3) 2
( x − 3) 2
( x − 3) 2

CJC 2007/I/12 (modified)

( x − 9) 2 Q R
The curve C has equation f ( x) = . Express f(x) in the form P + + , and state the
( x − 3)( x + 3) x −3 x +3
equations of all the asymptotes of C and the coordinates of where C cuts the axes. [6]
1
Sketch on separate diagrams, (a) y = f ( x) , (b) y= , (c) y = − f (2 x − 1) [9]
f ( x)
making clear the main relevant features of each curve.

x 2 + ax + 4
HCI 07/I/13 The curve C has equation y= .
x+b
It is given that C has a vertical asymptote x = −1 and a stationary point at x = 2.
(i) Determine the values of a and b. [3]
(ii) Find the equation of the other asymptote of C. [1]
(iii) Prove, using an algebraic method, that C cannot lie between two values (to be determined). [4]
(iv) Draw a sketch of C, showing clearly any axial intercepts, asymptotes and stationary points. [3]
(v) Deduce the number of real roots of the equation

( 4 − x ) ( x + 1) = ( x )
2 2
2 2
− 4x + 4 . [2]

ans: 1) y + 1 = ±0.707( x − 1) 3) a = – 1 4) k > 5.46 or k < −1.46

( )
2) y − sin 3 2θ = − tan 2θ x − cos3 2θ ; y − sin 3 2θ = cot 2θ x − cos3 2θ ; ST = 1 ( )
5) (ii) asym : x = ± c , y= 1 (iii) asym y= 1
6) (i) (0.5,3) (2.25, 0.111) (2,0) (2.5,0) y = 2, x = 1.5 , x = 3
(ii) (3.5,0.333) (0, 0.111) (0,1.73) (0, -1.73) y = 1.41, y = -1.41, x = 2 , x = 5
(iii) (3,0) (4,0) x = 2 , x = 5 (iv) (0,0.333) (2,0) (5,0) (3.5,9) x = 3, x =4 , y = 0.5
7) (i) x = -2 , y = 0 , A(2,1) (ii) (-3,0) (-1,0)(1,0)(3,0) (0,-1) x = -2, x= 2, y = -1
(iii) x = -2, y = 0, (2,0)
HCI : a = -4 , y = x -5, C cannot lie between -12 and 0; (0,4) (2,0) (-4,-12) y=x-5, x =-1; 2 roots
TP: (a) y=3, x=3, (0,10/3),(0,0) (b) y=3, x=3, (0,10/3),(0,0) (c) y = ± 3 , x=3, (3.75,±2.89)(0,0)
6 24
CJ: = 1 + − , x = 3 , x = -3, y = 1 min(9,0) max (1,-8) ; (-3,0) (3,0) x =9,y=1, min(1, -1/8)
( x − 3) ( x + 3)
min(1.45, 8.065), max(5,0), y = -1, x = -1, x=2

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 Refresher Topic: FUNCTIONS
CURRICULUM OBJECTIVES
¾ Concept of function, domain and range
¾ Use of notations such as f ( x) = x 2 + 5, f : x 6 x 2 + 5, f −1 ( x), fg( x) and f 2 ( x)
¾ Finding inverse functions and composite functions
¾ Conditions for the existence of inverse functions and composite functions
¾ Domain restriction to obtain an inverse function
¾ Relationship between a function and its inverse as reflection in the line y = x

1. ONE-ONE FUNCTIONS
A function f is one to one if no two elements in its domain have the same image.
We can prove that a function is one-one analytically or graphically.
Analytical Method:
If we can prove that for any x1 , x2 ∈ Df : x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) ≠ f ( x2 )

or equivalently, f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2

Graphical Method (Horizontal line test):

The horizontal line y = k , for all k ∈ Rf , cuts the graph of y = f ( x ) once and only once, then f is

a one-one function.[Note: The graph of y = f ( x ) must be sketched when using horizontal line test.]

2. INVERSE FUNCTIONS
The inverse of function f is such that if y = f ( x ) , then x = f −1 ( y ) .
The inverse function of f (denoted by f −1 ) exists if and only if f is one-one.
Notes:
• Domain of inverse function f −1 , Df -1 = Rf , Range of function f.
• Range of inverse function f −1 , Rf -1 = Df , Domain of function f.
• Graphically, the graphs of y = f ( x) and y = f −1 ( x ) are reflections of each other
in the line y = x.
3. COMPOSITE FUNCTIONS
Df Dg Rg
Let f and g be functions. gf is defined as gf ( x ) = g ⎡⎣ f ( x ) ⎤⎦ .

Important Notes: f g
Rf Rg f
1. Dgf = Df . Similarly, Dfg = Dg .
2. gf may or may not be a function.
gf is a composite function if and only if Rf ⊆ Dg. gf
Similarly, fg is a composite function if and only if Rg ⊆ Df.
3. To find the range of the function gf we can either
• sketch the graph of gf and read off its range or
• if the graphs of g and f are available (and especially if the graph of gf is very difficult to
sketch), then we can use the range of f as the restricted domain of g and read off the
corresponding range to find Rgf . i.e. Rgf = Set of images of Rf under g .
4. gf ≠ fg in general, i.e. composition of functions is not commutative.

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 4
f :x→ , x ∈ \, x ≠ −3, x ≠ 1
HCI 07/I/12 The functions f and g are defined by ( x + 3)( x − 1)
− 3− x
g:x →e , x∈\
(i) Sketch, on separate clearly labelled diagrams, the graphs of y = f ( x ) and y = g ( x ) .
Hence, or otherwise, show that the inverse function of g does not exist. [3]

(ii) The function h is defined by h : x → g ( x ) , x ∈ A , where A is the maximal subset of the

interval ( 0, ∞ ) such that the inverse function h −1 exists.
State the set A and give the rule and domain of h −1 . [4]

(iii) Determine which of the following is a function: a) f g b) f h -1

In each case, if the function exists, give its domain and range. [3]
f : x 6 ( x − 2) 2 − 3, x ∈ R, x ≤ 2
NJC 07/I/7 The functions f and g are given by
g : x 6 a − e− x , x ∈ R

(i) Show that f −1 exists and express f −1 in similar form, stating the domain clearly. [3]
(ii) Determine the largest integer value a such that fg exists. [2]
(iii) For the largest value of a obtained in part (ii), determine the domain and range of fg. [2]

Self Practice
Term Exam J1 2008 Q6
The functions f and g are defined by f : x → ln( x + 1) , x > −1
2
g : x → ex , x ∈ \−
(i) The function gf is defined if the domain of f is restricted. State the largest possible set of
values of x for which gf is defined. [2]
(ii) Using the restricted domain of f, define gf and state its range. [3]

PJC 07/I/10
The functions f and g are defined by
f : x → x2 + 6x − 9 , x ∈ \− ,
1
g:x → 2 , a > 0, x ≠ a, x ∈ \ ,
a − x2
h : x → 2 − 3x − 1, x > k .
(i) Sketch, on separate diagrams, the graphs of y = f ( x ) and y = g ( x ) . [2]
(ii) State the maximal domain of g for which its inverse function exists. [1]
(iii) Find the range of values of a for which the equation h(x) – g(x) = 0 has two real roots, giving your
answer in exact form. [3]
(iv) Find the least value of k for which the function fh exists. [3]
4
HCI: [3, ∞) , h −1 ( x) = 3 − ln x, x ∈ (0,1] , f h -1 ( x) = , x ∈ (0,1] , range 1/3
(6 − ln x)(2 − ln x)
NJ: f −1 : x 6 2 − x + 3, x ∈ R, x ≥ −3 , a = 2, Dfg = Dg = \ , Rfg = ( −3, ∞ )

11 5
PJ: (−∞, 0] or [0, ∞) , a > , k=
18 3

Term Exam: (-1,0) gf ( x) = e[ln( x +1)] , x ∈ (−1, 0) , Rg f = (1, ∞ )

2

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