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Suction Stroke: Inlet valve is open. Piston moves from the Top Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom
Dead Centre (BDC). Air-fuel mix is sucked in by negative pressure in cylinder.
Compression Stroke: Inlet and outlet valves closed. Piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC.
Air-fuel mix is compressed.
Expansion/Power Stroke: Inlet and outlet remains closed here also. Piston moves down from
TDC to BDC. This happens as a result of ignition of the mixture inside the cylinder. Ignition is
started by spark plug or as a result of compression ignition.
Exhaust Stroke: Exhaust valve opens. Piston moves up from BDC to TDC. Exhaust gases are
pushed out of the cylinder.
Figure 2.1: Actual Valve timing diagram Figure 2.2: Ideal Valve timing diagram
The Actual Valve Timing Diagram has slight variations with respect to the Theoretical Valve
Timing Diagram. The variations are made in order to maximize the engine performance. Refer the
figures [2.1 & 2.2] given above and compare it with the Theoretical VTD to the see the difference.
after the piston reaches and leaves the BDC in the beginning of compression stroke. The reason for
doing this is to facilitate silent operation of the engine under high speeds.
The inlet valves are made to operate slowly to avoid noise and hence sufficient time
should be provided for the air-fuel mix to get into the cylinder. Thus valves are made to open before
the actual BDC. Since the inlet valve is a small opening sufficient mixture doesn’t enter the cylinder
in such short time, as the piston reaches BDC. Thus the inlet valve is kept open for some time period
of time after BDC, to facilitate sufficient flow of charge into the cylinder.
The main task of variable valve timing (VVT) diagram is setting the most advantageous
valve timing for the particular engine for the operating modes like idle, maximum power and
torque as well as exhaust gas recirculation.
First I discuss the various valve timing diagrams which are obtained for different
operating conditions of engine with the help of variable valve timing technology.
a) Idling case
b) Maimum Power
To achieve good power at high engine speeds, the exhaust valves are opened late. In this
way, the expansion of the burned gases can act against the pistons longer. The inlet valves open
after TDC and close well after BDC. In this way, the dynamic self-charging effect of the entering
air is used to increase power. Valve timing diagram shown in figure [2.4]
c) Torque
To achieve maximum torque, a high degree of volumetric efficiency must be attained. This
requires that the inlet valves be opened early. Because they open early, they close early as well,
which avoids pressing out the fresh gases. The exhaust camshaft closes just before TDC. Valve
timing diagram shown in figure [2.5]
Internal exhaust gas recirculation can be achieved by adjusting the inlet and exhaust
camshafts. In this process, exhaust gas flows from the exhaust port into the inlet port while the
valves overlap (inlet and exhaust valves are both
Open). The amount of overlap determines the amount of re-circulated exhaust gas. The inlet
camshaft is set so that it opens well before TDC and the exhaust camshaft does not close until
just before TDC. As a result, both valves are open and exhaust gas is re-circulated.
The advantage of internal exhaust gas recirculation over external exhaust gas
recirculation is the fast reaction of the system and very even distribution of the re-circulated
exhaust gases. Valve timing diagram shown in figure [2.6]
The fluted variator for adjusting the inlet camshaft is fitted directly on the inlet camshaft.
It adjusts the inlet camshaft according to signals from the engine control unit. The fluted variator
for adjusting the exhaust camshaft is fitted directly on the exhaust camshaft. It adjusts the
exhaust camshaft according to signals from the engine control unit. Both fluted variators are
hydraulically operated and are connected to the engine oil system via the control housing.
Engine control module (ECM) is a type of electronic control unit that determines the amount of
fuel, ignition timing and other parameters in an internal combustion engine needs to keep it
running efficiently at different conditions.
Valve-tronic varies the timing and the lift of the intake valves. This system has a
conventional intake cam, but it also uses a secondary eccentric shaft with a series of levers
and roller followers, activated by a stepper motor. Based on signals formerly taken
mechanically from the accelerator pedal, the stepper motor changes the phase of the
eccentric cam, modifying the action of the intake valves.
taking air from the partially closed intake manifold. The intake manifold between the throttle and
the combustion chamber has a partial vacuum, resisting the sucking and pumping action of the
pistons, wasting energy. Automotive engineers refer to this phenomenon as "pumping loss". The
slower the engine runs, the more the throttle
butterfly closes, and the more energy is lost.
Valve-Tronic minimizes pumping loss by
reducing valve lift and the amount of air
entering the combustion chambers.
b) Advantages
"flow impingement". The main advantage of choke valves is that they can be designed to be
totally linear in their flow rate.
A choke valve is sometimes installed in the carburetor of internal combustion engines. Its
purpose is to restrict the flow of air, thereby enriching the fuel-air mixture while starting the
engine. Depending on engine design and application, the valve can be activated manually by the
operator of the engine (via a lever or pull handle) or automatically by a temperature-sensitive
mechanism called an auto-choke.
Choke valves are important for carbureted gasoline engines because small droplets of
gasoline do not evaporate well within a cold engine. By restricting the flow of air into the throat
of the carburetor, the choke valve raises the level of vacuum inside the throat, which causes a
proportionally greater amount of fuel to be sucked out of the main jet and into the combustion
chamber during cold-running operation. Once the engine is warm (from combustion), opening
the choke valve restores the carburetor to normal operation, supplying fuel and air in the correct
stoichiometric ratio for clean, efficient combustion.
Chokes were nearly universal in automobiles until fuel injection replaced carburetion in
the late 1980s. Choke valves are still extremely common in other internal-combustion
applications, including most small portable engines, motorcycles, small prop-powered airplanes,
and carbureted marine engines.
a) Exhaust System
An exhaust system is usually tubing used to guide reaction exhaust gases away from a
controlled combustion inside an engine. The entire system conveys burnt gases from the engine
and includes one or more exhaust pipes. Depending on the overall system design, the exhaust gas
may flow through one or more of:
This reduces the under bonnet temperature and consequently lowers the intake manifold
temperature, increasing power. This also has positive side effect of preventing heat-sensitive
2007-MECH-130 ICE LAB Assignment # 02
components from being damaged. Furthermore, keeping the heat in the exhaust gases speeds
these up, therefore reducing back pressure as well. Back pressure is most commonly reduced by
replacing exhaust manifolds with headers, which have smoother bends and normally wider
pipe diameters.
Exhaust Heat Management
is the term that describes reducing
the amount of exhaust heat loss.
One dominant solution to
aftermarket up-graders is the use
of a ceramic coating applied via
thermal spraying. This not only
reduces heat loss and lessens back
pressure, but provides an effective
way to protect the exhaust system
from wear and tear, thermal
degradation and corrosion.
Figure 2.13: Exhaust pipe Design
b) Intake system
Air filter
Mass flow sensor
Throttle body
Some modern intake systems can be highly complex, and often include specially-designed
intake manifolds to optimally distribute air and air/fuel mixture to each cylinder. Many cars
today now include a silencer to minimize the noise entering the cabin. Silencers impede air flow
and create turbulence which reduces total power; so many performance enthusiasts often remove
them.
All the above is usually accomplished by flow testing
on a flow bench in the port design stage. Cars with
turbochargers or superchargers which provide
pressurized air to the engine usually have highly-refined
intake systems to improve performance dramatically.
Production cars have specific-length air intakes to
cause the air to vibrate at a specific frequency to assist air
flow into the combustion chamber. Aftermarket
companies for cars have introduced larger throttle bodies
and air filters to decrease restriction of flow at the cost of Figure 2.14: Inlet Manifold Design
changing the harmonics of the air intake for a small net increase in power or torque.
2007-MECH-130 ICE LAB Assignment # 02
Figure [2.16] below shows a conventional spark plug with its different parts.
The sequence of events which take place inside the engine cylinder is illustrated in Figure [2.17].
Several variables are plotted against crank angle through the entire four-stroke cycle. Crank angle is a
useful independent variable because engine processes occupy almost constant crank angle intervals over
a wide range of engine speeds. The figure shows the valve timing and volume relationship for a typical
automotive spark-ignition engine. To maintain high mixture flows at high engine speeds (and hence high
power outputs) the inlet valve, which opens before TC, closes substantially after BC. During intake, the
inducted fuel and air mix in the cylinder with the residual burned gases remaining from the previous
cycle. After the intake valve closes, the cylinder contents are compressed to above atmospheric pressure
and temperature as the cylinder volume is reduced. Some heat transfer to the piston, cylinder head, and
cylinder walls occurs but the effect on unburned gas properties is modest.
Between 10 and 40 crank angle degrees before TC an electrical discharge across the spark plug
starts the combustion process. A distributor, a rotating switch driven off the camshaft, interrupts the
current from the battery through the primary circuit of the ignition coil. The secondary winding of the
ignition coil, connected to the spark plug, produces a high voltage across the plug electrodes as the
magnetic field collapses. Traditionally, cam-operated breaker points have been used; in most automotive
engines, the switching is now done electronically. A turbulent flame develops from the spark discharge,
propagates across the mixture of air, fuel, and residual gas in the cylinder, and extinguishes at the
combustion chamber wall. The duration of this burning process varies with .engine design and
operation, but is typically 40 to 60 crank angle degrees.
2007-MECH-130 ICE LAB Assignment # 02
Figure 2.17: Pressure Diagram & V/Vmax curves w.r.t Crank Angle
As fuel-air mixture bums in the flame, the cylinder pressure as shown in Figure [2.17] by (solid
line) rises above the level due to compression alone (dashed line). This latter curve-called the motored
cylinder pressure (is the pressure trace obtained from a motored or non-firing engine). Note that due to
differences in the flow pattern and mixture composition between cylinders, and within each cylinder
cycle-by-cycle, the development of each combustion process differs somewhat. As a result, the shape of
the pressure versus crank angle curve in each cylinder, and cycle-by-cycle, is not exactly the same.
There is an optimum spark timing which, for a given mass of fuel and air inside the cylinder,
gives maximum torque. More advanced (earlier) timing or retarded (later) timing than this optimum
gives lower output, Called maximum brake-torque (MBT) timing, this optimum timing is an empirical
compromise between starting combustion too early in the compression stroke (when the work transfer is
to the cylinder gases) and completing combustion too late in the stroke (and so lowering peak expansion
stroke pressures).
About two-thirds of the way through the expansion stroke, the exhaust valve starts to open. The
cylinder pressure is greater than the exhaust manifold pressure and a blow down process occurs. The
burned gases flow through the valve into the exhaust port and manifold until the cylinder pressure and
exhaust pressure equilibrate. The duration of this process depends on the pressure level in the cylinder.
The piston then displaces the burned gases from the cylinder into the manifold during the exhaust stroke.
The exhaust valve opens before the end of the expansion stroke to ensure that the blow down process
does not last too far into the exhaust stroke.
The actual timing is a compromise which balances reduced work transfer to the piston before BC
against reduced work transfer to the cylinder contents after BC. The exhaust valve remains open until
2007-MECH-130 ICE LAB Assignment # 02
just after TC; the intake opens just before TC. The valves are opened and closed slowly to avoid noise
and excessive cam wear. To ensure the valves are fully open when piston velocities are at their highest,
the valve open periods often overlap. If the intake flow is throttled to below exhaust manifold pressure,
then backflow of burned gases into the intake manifold occurs when the intake valve is first opened.
2007-MECH-130 ICE LAB Assignment # 02
References
http://yanswerz.blogspot.com/2009/12/valve-timing-diagram-of-four-stroke.html
http://www.classle.net/bookpage/valve-timing-diagram
http://www.waybuilder.net/sweethaven/MechTech/Automotive01/default.asp?unNum=1
&lesNum=3&modNum=4
http://thecartech.com/subjects/engine/engine_testing3.htm
http://ispark.computersolutiontrio.com/how-it-works.html
http://moodle.student.cnwl.ac.uk/moodledata_shared/cdx%20etextbook/dswmedia/engine
s/comp/vlves/valvetimingdiagram.html
http://www.austincc.edu/wkibbe/vvt.htm (FOR VVT)
http://www.2dix.com/document-pdf/variable-valve-timing-diagram-pdf.php (FOR VVT)
http://www.2carpros.com/articles/how-camshaft-variable-valve-timing-works (VCT)
http://www.enginebuildermag.com/Article/39596/variable_valve_timing.aspx
http://www.2carpros.com/questions/toyota-other-variable-valve-timing-vvt (VVT-I)
http://www.wiringdiagrams21.com/2009/05/27/toyota-vvt-i-variable-valve-timing
intelligent-system-and-schematic-diagram
http://asia.vtec.net/spfeature/vtecimpl/vtec1.html (VTECH)
http://www.usautoparts.net/bmw/technology/valvetronic.htm (VALVE TRONIC)
http://www.freeautoanswers.com/choke.html (Choke operation)
http://teacher.buet.ac.bd/zahurul/ME401/ME401_combustion_SI.pdf (Self sustaining
flame)
Internal Combustion Engine by J.B Heywood (Book)