Radioactive Decay & Nuclear Reactions

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 1

 Preflight - Gamma Ray Emission
Gamma rays are emitted due to electrons making
transitions to nuclear energy levels.
– true
– false

No, gamma rays are high energy photons

emitted when nucleons make transitions
between their allowed quantum states.

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 2

 Preflight - Alpha Particles
Alpha particles are:
– Electrons
– Protons.
– Nuclei of Helium atoms
– Nuclei of Argon atoms

Some nuclei have lots of protons and many more

neutrons. Lowest energy bound-states require about
equal numbers of protons and neutrons. Those nuclei
emit most tightly bound nuclear matter, i.e., Helium
nuclei with two protons and two neutrons.
5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 3
 Alpha Decay Details
• When a nucleus emits an alpha particle it loses two protons and
two neutrons
– N decreases by 2, Z decreases by 2, A decreases by 4
• Symbolically
– X is called the parent nucleus A A"4 4
– Y is called the daughter nucleus Z X! Z"2 Y + He
2
• Example: Decay of 226 Ra
226 222 4
88 Ra ! 86 Rn + He2

• Half life is 1600 years

• Excess mass is converted
into kinetic energy
• Momentum of two particles
is equal and opposite
5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 4
 Preflight - Nuclear Beta Decay
Beta rays are produced when the atom spontaneously repels all its
electrons from its orbits.
– true
– false

Beta particles are electrons. However, the atom does not emit
its atomic electrons.
Beta electrons are emitted by a nucleus along with a neutral
weakly interacting particle called the neutrino when one of the
neutrons in the nucleus decays.
Free neutrons are unstable - they decay.
+ - Sometimes in atoms with large numbers of
n ! p e " neutrons, one of its neutrons may be loosely
bound - spontaneous decay!
5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 5
 Preflight - Positrons
Beta particles are:
– Always negatively charged.
– Always positively charged.
– Some beta decays could produce positively charged
particles with properties similar to those of
electrons.

Some radioactive elements emit a positively charged

particle which is in all other respects similar to an
electron! Anti-matter!! Positrons!!!

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 6

 Beta Decay Details
• During beta decay, the daughter nucleus has the
same number of nucleons as the parent, but the
atomic number is changed by one:
A A " A A +
Z X! Z+1Y + e or X ! Z Y+ e
Z"1

• The emission of the electron is from the nucleus

– The nucleus contains protons and neutrons
– The process occurs when a neutron is transformed
into a proton and an electron
– Energy must be conserved

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 7

 Beta Decay – Electron Energy:
should almost all go to kinetic energy The Neutrino
• Energy released in the decay process
of the electron (KEmax)
• Experiments showed that few
electrons had this amount of kinetic
energy
• To account for this “missing” energy,
in 1930 Pauli proposed the existence
of another particle
• Enrico Fermi later named this particle
the neutrino
• Properties of the neutrino
– Zero electrical charge
– Mass much smaller than the
electron, probably not zero
– Spin of ½
– Very weak interaction with matter
5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 8
 Beta Decay – Completed
• Symbolically A A "
Z X! Z+1 Y+ e + #
A A +
Z X! Z"1 Y+ e + #
– ν is the symbol for the neutrino
– is the symbol for the antineutrino
• To summarize:
In beta decay, one of the following pairs of particles
are emitted:
– An electron and an antineutrino
– A positron and a neutrino

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 9

 Decay Rules
1) Nucleon Number is conserved.
2) Atomic Number (charge) is conserved.
3) Energy and momentum are conserved.

α: example 238 234

92U! 90Th + " recall 42He = !
1) 238 = 234 + 4 Nucleon number conserved
2) 92 = 90 + 2 Charge conserved
1
β: example 0 n "11 p + !10e ! + 00!
Needed to conserve
γ: example A *
P " P+ ! A 0 momentum.
Z Z 0

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 10

 Decay Preflight
234
The nucleus 90Th undergoes ! " decay.

Which of the following is true?

1. The number of protons in the daughter
nucleus increases by one.
2. The number of neutrons in the daughter
nucleus increases by one.
! " decay is accompanied by the emission of an
electron: creation of a charge -e.
234
90Th "???
234
??
91 X
Pa++ 0 0# # 0 0
1 e++
#1#e 0!0!

In fact, n ! p + e " + #e inside the nucleus, and the electron and

neutrino “escape.”
5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 11
 Decay Question?

Which of the following decays is NOT allowed?

238 = 234 + 4
238 234
1 92U! 90Th + " 92 = 90 + 2

214 210 4
214 = 210 + 4
2 84 Po! Pb + He
82 2 84 = 82 + 2

14 14 14 = 14+0
3 6 C" N + !
7 6 <> 7+0

40
4 19 K "40
20 p + 0 # 0
#1 e + 0 !
40 = 40+0+0
19 = 20-1+0

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 12

 Units of Radioactivity
• The unit of activity, R, is the Curie, Ci
– 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 decays/second
• The SI unit of activity is the Becquerel, Bq
– 1 Bq = 1 decay / second
• Therefore, 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq
• The most commonly used units of activity are
the mCi and the µCi

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 13

 Radioactivity Preflight
No. of nuclei
Decays per second, !N present
or “activity” = "#N
!t
decay constant

If the number of radioactive nuclei present is cut in half,

how does the activity change?

1 It remains the same

2 It is cut in half
3 It doubles

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 14

 Radioactivity Question
No. of nuclei
Decays per second, !N present
or “activity” = "#N
!t
decay constant

Start with 16 14C atoms.

After 6000 years, there are only 8 left.

How many will be left after another 6000 years?

1) 0 2) 4 3) 8
Every 6000 years half the atoms that were started with
decay
5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 15
 t
!
T1/2
N(t)= N0e !"t = N0 #2

5/2/07
time
U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 16
 Radioactivity Quantitatively
No. of nuclei
Decays per second, !N present
or “activity” = "#N
!t
decay constant
Survival: N(t)= N0e !"t

No. of nuclei present No. we started

at time t with at t=0
Instead of base e we can use base 2:
t
!
T1/2 0.693
e !"t
=2 where T1/2 =
!
Half life t
!
T1/2
Then we can write N(t)= N0e !"t = N0 #2
5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 17
 You are radioactive!
One in 8.3x1011 carbon atoms is 14C which β decays
with a half life of 5730 years. Determine # of
decays/gram of Carbon.

& 1.0 mole # 23 & 1 # 10 atoms

N14 = $ !(6.02 ' 10 )$ 11 !
= 6 ! 10
% 12 g " % 8.3 ' 10 " g

.693 .693 !12 -1

!= = = 3.83 " 10 s
T1/ 2 5730 " 365 " 24 " 60 " 60
!N
= "#N = 0.23 decays/s
!t
5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 18
 Carbon Dating Example
We just determined that living organisms
should have a decay rate of about 0.23
events/ gram of carbon.

The bones of an ice man are found to

have a decay rate of 0.23/ 2 events/gram.
We can estimate he died about 6000
years ago.

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 19

 Nuclear Reactions
• Structure of nuclei can be changed by
bombarding them with energetic
particles
– The changes are called nuclear reactions
• As with nuclear decays, the atomic
numbers and mass numbers must
balance on both sides of the equation

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 20

 Nuclear Reactions – Example
• Alpha particle colliding with nitrogen:
4
2
He + 147N ! X + 11H
• Balancing the equation allows for the
identification of X
17 17
X ! 8
X ! O 8
• So the reaction is
4 14 17 1
2
He + N ! O + H
7 8 1

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 21

 Q Values
• Energy must also be conserved in nuclear reactions
• The energy required to balance a nuclear reaction is
called the Q value of the reaction
– An exothermic reaction
• There is a mass “loss” in the reaction
• There is a release of energy
• Q is positive
– An endothermic reaction
• There is a “gain” of mass in the reaction
• Energy is needed, in the form of kinetic energy of the incoming
particles
• Q is negative

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 22

 Threshold Energy
• To conserve both momentum and energy, incoming
particles must have a minimum amount of kinetic
energy, called the threshold energy
! m$
KE min = ##1 + && Q
" M%
– m is the mass of the incoming particle
– M is the mass of the target particle
• If the energy is less than this amount, the reaction
cannot occur

5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 23

 Summary

• Decays
– Half-Life is time for half the atoms to decay

Survival: N(t)= N0e !"t 0.693

T1/2 =
!
• Nuclear Reactions
– Nucleon number conserved
– Charge conserved
– Energy/Momentum conserved
– Threshold Energy: ! m$
KE min = ##1 + && Q
" M%
5/2/07 U.Wisconsin, Physics 104, Spring 2007 24