Appendix 1

Characteristics of Solid Particles

A particle may be defined as a small object having a precise physical boundary in all directions.
The particle is characterized by its volume and interfacial surface in contact with the environment.

A1.1 SOLID PARTICLES

Solid particles are rigid and have a definite shape. A sphere is a natural choice to define a particle,
though most natural particles are not spherical. Hence, natural particles are characterized by their
degree of deviation from spherical shape, sphericity, and an equivalent diameter.

A1.1.1 EQUIVALENT D IAMETERS

Let us take a nonspherical particle having a surface area S, and a volume V. Several types of
equivalent diameter of the particle can be defined to describe the particle, as shown in Figure A1.1.
Four more frequently used definitions are:

A1.1.1.1 Volume Diameter (dv)

Volume diameter is the diameter of a sphere that has the same volume as the particle:
   1   1
6 3 6V 3
dv ¼ £ volume of particle ¼ ðA1:1Þ
p p

A1.1.1.2 Surface Diameter (ds)

Surface diameter is the diameter of a sphere that has the same external surface area as the particle.
Thus,
 1  1
surface area of particle 2 S 2
ds ¼ ¼ : ðA1:2Þ
p p

A1.1.1.3 Sieve Size (dp)

Sieve size is the width of the minimum square aperture of the sieve through which the particle will
pass.

A1.1.1.4 Surface-Volume Diameter (dsv)

Surface-volume diameter is the diameter of a sphere having the same surface to volume ratio as that
of the particle:
2
6pdsv S
3
¼
pdsv V ðA1:3Þ
V
dsv ¼ 6
S

439

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

440 Combustion and Gasification in Fluidized Beds

ds dsv

Equivalent sphere with same Equivalent sphere with same

external surface area as the ratio of surface to volume as
original particle the original particle

Original Particle Equivalent sphere passing

through same aperture as
does the original particle

Equivalent sphere with same

volume as the original particle

dp dp
dv
Screen
Aperture

FIGURE A1.1 Different representations of a nonregular shaped particle.

A1.1.2 SPHERICITY ( f )
Sphericity describes the departure of the particle from a spherical shape. For example, a spherical
particle has a sphericity of 1.0:

Surface area of a sphere with the volume same as the particle pdv2
Sphericity ðfÞ ¼ ¼ : ðA1:4Þ
Actual surface area of the particle S

Eliminating S and V from Equation A1.1, Equation A1.3, and Equation A1.4, one gets:

dsv ¼ fdv : ðA1:5Þ

The relationship between the above sizes and the sieve size dp can be derived through
experiments for irregular particles and through calculations for geometrically shaped particles.
An approximate relation for crushed quartz of sphericity 0.8 was given as (Abrahamsen and
Geldart, 1980):
dv < 1:13 dp ; dsv < 0:773 dv ; dsv < 0:87 dp ; ds < 1:28 dp
The sphericity is usually measured. Typical values of some commonly used particles are given
in Table A1.1. Biomass particles often have very low sphericity. Characteristics of some typical
particles are shown in Table A1.2.

A1.1.3 MEAN PARTICLE S IZE AND I TS M EASUREMENT

Millions of small particles are simultaneously handled in an industry for the purposes of reactions,
heat and mass transfer, or homogeneity. In such a particulate mass, generally particles are not
uniform in size and are characterized by particle size distribution.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Appendix 1: Characteristics of Solid Particles 441

TABLE A1.1
Sphericity of Some Granular Solids
Particle Sphericity

Sand (Ottawa) 0.95

Sand (flint, jagged) 0.65
Sand (average of all types) 0.75
Limestone 0.45
Gypsum 0.40
Coal (crushed) 0.65
Coal (pulverized) 0.73
Alumina 0.3–0.8
Catalysts 0.4–0.9
Crushed glass 0.65
FCC catalyst 0.58

Source: Coal Conversion System Data Handbook. Table IVB10.1, DOE/FE/

05157-2, 1982.

There are several characteristic properties that define a particulate mass:

† Number of particles
† Total surface area
† Total volume

It is difficult to provide individual attention to these properties, and hence it is necessary to define
some average properties. Therefore, one finds it convenient to imagine an equivalent particulate
mass of particles of uniform size that matches the properties of the actual particulate mass. However,
it is possible to match only two properties between the actual and the equivalent. In fluidization and
in most chemical engineering applications, total volume and surface area are the two chosen
properties. These represent the material content and interfacial area across which transfer processes
occur. For a pressure drop through the bed, the surface area is most important. The mean particle size
is thus defined in such a way that it equals the average surface area of particles of sizes in the bed.

TABLE A1.2
Sphericity and Density of Some Biomass Fuels and Ash Produced from
Them
Voidage at Minimum
Particle Particle Density (kg/m3) Fluidization Sphericity

Biomass
Saw dust 430 0.586 0.95
Rice husk 500 0.795 0.65
Ash
Saw dust ash 380 0.603 0.75
Rice hull ash 410 0.678 0.45

Source: Chen et al., Circulating Fluidized Bed Technology V, Kefa, C. ed., International Academic
Publishers, Beijing, p. 508, 2005.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

442 Combustion and Gasification in Fluidized Beds

Sieving is the most commonly used technique for the measurement of the surface area of
granular solid particles. Particles of size greater than 44 microns are measured by using a set of
standard test sieves with square aperture openings. The test sieves are stacked with the one with the
largest aperture on the top. The lower sieves are selected such that the apertures are smaller. After
vibrating and shaking the stack using a sieve shaker for a period of 20 to 30 minutes, the particles
collected on each sieve are weighed and assigned a size by taking the arithmetical average of the
aperture size of the sieve through which the material just passed and the sieve on which it is
retained:
1
dm ¼ P   ; ðA1:6Þ
xi
di

where di is the arithmetic mean of the aperture (opening) of two adjacent sieves, and xi is the weight
fraction of samples collected between these two sieves. The above equation will match the surface/
volume ratio of the actual poly-size particles. For nonspherical particles, all having the same
sphericity, f, the mean size dm, would then be fdm. Equation A1.6 is, however, not valid for a
discontinuous particle size.
In industries the particle size distribution is sometimes described by d50, which is a size below
which lies 50% of the sample by weight. The relative size range R, is another characteristic used to
describe the spread of the size distribution. It is defined as

d84 2 d16
R¼ : ðA1:7Þ
2dm

where d84 and d16 are the diameter corresponding to size below which particles constitute 84% and
16%, respectively, by weight.

A1.2 PACKING CHARACTERISTICS

In a particulate mass, particles rest on each other due to the force of gravity to form a packed bed.
Depending on the shape of particles and packing characteristics, a certain volume of space in
between the particles remains unoccupied. Such space is called a void volume and is specified as
voidage or porosity, defined as

void volume
Voidage; 1 ¼ porosity ¼ : ðA1:8Þ
volume of ðparticles þ voidsÞ

The measurement of particle volume is simple, but the precise measurement of its surface area
is very difficult. This problem compounds when one attempts to define the sphericity of a mass of a
large number of dissimilar particles. The packing characteristics of particles are important
parameters that depend on the particle’s shape and mode of packing. In some special situations,
such as in the vicinity of a sphere or a plane wall, the distribution of local voidage becomes
important. Unlike bulk voidage, it is not uniform or monotonically varying. It follows a damped
oscillatory pattern.

A1.3 PARTICLE CLASSIFICATION

In the light of fluidization experience, Geldart (1972) classified solids broadly under four groups, A,
B, C, and D as shown in Figure A1.2. The particle’s classification is plotted against the density
difference between the solid and the fluidizing gas. This classification is important in understanding
the fluidization behaviour of solid particles, because under similar operating conditions particles of
different groups may behave entirely differently.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Appendix 1: Characteristics of Solid Particles 443

7
6
5
4
B D
3
Sand-Like Spoutable
2 A
rp – rf (g/cm3) Aeratable
1

0.5 C
Cohesive

20 50 100 200 500

Dp (mm)

FIGURE A1.2 Powder classification developed by Geldart.

A1.3.1 GROUP C
These particles are very fine and are typically smaller than 30 mm (rp ¼ 2500 kg/m3). The inter-
particle forces are comparable to the gravitational force on these particles. So, these particles are
very difficult to fluidize. An attempt at fluidization often results in channelling. Special techniques
are required to fluidize these particles.

A1.3.2 GROUP A
These particles are typically in the range of 30 to 100 mm (rr ¼ 2500 kg/m3). These particles
fluidize well, but expand considerably after exceeding the minimum fluidization velocity and
before bubbles start appearing. Many circulating fluidized bed systems use Group A particles.

TABLE A1.3
Distinguishing Feature of Four Groups of Particles
Group C A B D

Particle size for ,20 mm 20–90 mm 90 –650 mm .650 mm

rr ¼ 2500 kg/m3
Channeling Severe Little Negligible Negligible
Spoutability None None Shallow bed Readily
Expansion Low High Medium Medium
Minimum bubbling No bubble .Umf ¼ Umf ¼ Umf
velocity, Umb
Bubble shape Only channel Flat base Rounded with Rounded
spherical cap small indentation
Solid mixing Very low High Medium Low
Gas back-mixing Very low High Medium Low
Slugging mode Flat raining plugs Axisymmetric Mostly axisymmetric Mostly wall slugs
Effect of particle size Unknown Appreciable Minor Unknown
on hydrodynamics

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

444 Combustion and Gasification in Fluidized Beds

A1.3.3 GROUP B
These particles are normally in the range of 100 to 500 mm (if rp ¼ 2500 kg/m3) size. They fluidize
well, and bubbles appear as soon as the minimum fluidization velocity is exceeded. The majority of
the fluidized bed boilers use this group of particles.

A1.3.4 GROUP D
These are the coarsest of all particles (. 500 mm) (for rp ¼ 2500 kg/m3). They require a much
higher velocity to fluidize these solids. Spouted beds and some bubbling fluidized bed boilers
generally operate on this size of solids.
A comparison of properties of particles of different groups is given in Table A1.3.

NOMENCLATURE
a, b: constants in Equation A1.9
CD: coefficient of drag in a particle
di: mean opening of successive sieves, (dpi þ d piþ1)/2
d m: mean diameter of a particulate mass with varying sizes, m
d p: sieve size (diameter), m
ds : surface diameter, m
d v: volume diameter, m
dsv: surface volume diameter, m
d84, 50, 16: diameters corresponding to cumulative weights of 84%, 50%, and 16%, respectively
FD : drag force in a particle, N
m p: mass of particle, kg
R: relative size range defined in Equation A1.6
S: actual surface of the particle, m2
U m: minimum fluidization velocity, m/sec
U: superficial gas velocity, m/sec
V: actual volume of the particle, m3
xi: weight fraction of particles collected between sieve i and i þ 1
f: sphericity
e: voidage
r g: density of gas, kg/m3
r p: density of solids, kg/m3
m: viscosity of gas, kg/sq.m
Ar: Archimedes number, ðgd 3p(rp2rg))/m2
Re: Reynolds number, ðUd vrg)/m

REFERENCES
Abrahamsen, A. R. and Geldart, D., Powder Technol., 26, p. 35, 1980.
Chen et al., Circulating Fluidized Bed Technology V, Kefa C., ed., International Academic Publishers, Beijing,
p. 508, 2005.
Geldart, D., The effect of particle size and size distribution on the behaviour of gas-fluidized beds, Powder
Technol., 6, 201– 215, 1972.
Institute of Gas Technology, Coal Conversion System Data Handbook, DOE/FE/05157-2, Table IVB 10.1, 1982.

q 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC