Piping Support and Flexibility

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Piping Layout, Support, And Flexibility
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
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or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Piping & Valves For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: MEX10107 K.S. Chu on 8732648 or R. Hingoraney on 873-2649
Engineering Encyclopedia Piping & Valves
Piping Layout Support & Flexibility
CONTENTS PAGE
IDENTIFYING OPERATIONAL, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PIPE LAYOUT ............................................................1
Operations Requirements...............................................................................................1
Clearances Above and Below Piping.............................................................................1
Location of Shutoff and Control Valves, Sample Points, Vessel Flanges .....................2
Economy........................................................................................................................4
Corrosion .......................................................................................................................4
Maximum Use of Existing Pipeways and Supports.......................................................5
Pump and Compressor Piping .......................................................................................5
Thermal Expansion Clearances .....................................................................................6
Facilitate Support and Restraint.....................................................................................6
Maintenance Requirements ...........................................................................................7
Access Clearance For Maintenance Equipment and Vehicles.......................................7
Removal of Equipment Requiring Maintenance............................................................7
Heat Exchanger Bundle Removal..................................................................................7
Safety Considerations ....................................................................................................8
Access Clearance for Firefighting Equipment ...............................................................8
Locating Pipeways to Prevent Injuries to Personnel......................................................8
Separating Hazardous Piping From Piping Vital to Safety............................................8
THE FUNCTION OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUPPORTS
AND RESTRAINTS USED IN PLANT AND TRANSPORTATION PIPING................9
Supports and Restraints ...............................................................................................10
Rigid Supports .............................................................................................................10
Hangers........................................................................................................................12
Flexible or Resilient Supports......................................................................................13
Restraints .....................................................................................................................15
Guides..........................................................................................................................15

Anchors........................................................................................................................17
Sample Problem 1........................................................................................................18
Solution........................................................................................................................20
DETERMINING THE MAXIMUM SUPPORT SPACING BASED
ON WEIGHT AND DEFLECTION CRITERIA AND DESIGN LOADS......................21
Piping Weight Stress and Deflection Criteria ..............................................................22
Stress Criteria...............................................................................................................22
Deflection Criteria .......................................................................................................22
Determining the Maximum Allowable Span ...............................................................23
Maximum Span Tables ................................................................................................24
Sample Problem 2........................................................................................................24
Solution........................................................................................................................24
Loads on Supports .......................................................................................................26
Requirements for Pads and Saddles.............................................................................27
Prevention of Wind-Induced Vibration .......................................................................27
DETERMINING THE NEED FOR A PIPING THERMAL FLEXIBILITY
WEIGHT ANALYSIS.....................................................................................................29
Rationale and Approaches for Piping Flexibility and Support Design ........................30
Approaches ..................................................................................................................32
Guidelines for Whether to Perform a Thermal Flexibility and Weight Analysis.........33
Saudi Aramco Flexibility Requirements......................................................................36
DETERMINING THE REQUIRED DESIGN CONDITIONS
FOR A THERMAL FLEXIBILITY/WEIGHT ANALYSIS ...........................................37
Design Conditions .......................................................................................................37
Saudi Aramco Requirements .......................................................................................38
Piping Flexibility Temperature....................................................................................41
Number of Cycles to be Considered ............................................................................43
Load Limitations On Equipment .................................................................................44
Analysis Considerations for Rotating Equipment........................................................45

Considerations for Stationary Equipment....................................................................46

Extent of Analysis........................................................................................................47
Providing Additional Thermal Flexibility....................................................................48
Sample Problem 3........................................................................................................49
Solution........................................................................................................................49
USE OF ANCHORS FOR BURIED PIPING SYSTEMS AND DESIGN TOOLS........51
Pipeline Forces to Be Resisted.....................................................................................51
Types of Anchors.........................................................................................................53
Forces Available to Resist Anchor Movement ............................................................54
WORK AID 1: CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING MAXIMUM
SUPPORT SPACING......................................................................................................55
GLOSSARY ....................................................................................................................57

IDENTIFYING OPERATIONAL, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY FACTORS THAT

INFLUENCE PIPE LAYOUT
Operational, maintenance, and safety considerations are the primary factors that influence the
layout of a piping system. The Saudi Aramco engineer must recognize these factors when
designing the layout and spacing of piping and equipment. This section discusses how these
factors influence piping layout.
Operations Requirements
Operating and control points such as valves, flanges, instruments, sample points, drains, and
vents should be located so that these components can be used safely and easily. For example,
when specifying the location of valves, the engineer must ensure that the valves can be
reached.
Clearances Above and Below Piping
There must be enough clearance above and below the pipe to perform some basic operations
on valves and flanges. Pipe needs to be elevated above grade because:
• Flanges extend from the pipe.
• Contact with the ground causes corrosion.
Clearances above the pipe are necessary:
• For opening and closing valves.
• To manually operate and/or replace equipment.
SAES-L-011, Flexibility, Support, and Anchoring of Piping, Paragraph 3.1, specifies

clearance requirements as follows:
• Above-grade piping shall be supported to provide a clearance between the bottom of

pipe and the finished grade not less than the following:
- In plant areas and where the grade under the pipe is a hard surface: 300 mm (12
in.).
- Outside of plants without nearby unstabilized sand dunes: 450 mm (18 in.).
- In areas with moving sand dunes: 0.9 m (3 ft.).
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

The minimum clearance between buried pipelines at crossings, and between a pipe, flange, or
valve and any structure not used to support the piping, shall be 0.3 m (1 ft) over a length up to
three pipe diameters, or a minimum of 0.6 m (2 ft) if the length is longer. Clearances between
aboveground piping and structures shall provide reasonable access for inspection and freedom
of interference in case of pipe movement.
Location of Shutoff and Control Valves, Sample Points, Vessel Flanges
There must be enough space to access valves, sample points, vessel flanges, and other
equipment that may require manual operation.
• SAES-L-020, Design of Transportation Piping Systems, Paragraphs 6.1 to 6.3, specify

spacing requirements for the following system components: mainline valves, check
valves, vents and drains.
Mainline Valves – Based on Sections 434.15 of ASME/ANSI B31.4 and Section 846 of
ASME/ANSI B31.8, the maximum spacing between mainline block valves shall be as
follows:
a) For all fluid services in Class 1 locations (SAES-B-064), 32 km (20 miles);

b) For pipelines of 750 mm (30 in.) NPS or larger, in any liquid service in Class 1 or 2
locations, valves shall be provided such that not more than 14,300 m3 (90,000 barrels)
of liquid can gravitate from any section between two closed block valves;
c) For all hydrocarbon and chemical fluid services in Class 2 locations, 24 km (15 miles);
d) For gas, multiphase crude and liquids with an absolute vapor pressure above 450 kPa
(65 psia) in Class 3 locations, 12 km (7.5 miles);
e) For hydrocarbon and chemical fluids other than in d) in Class 3 and 4 locations, 16 km
(10 miles); and
f) For fluids as in d) in Class 4 locations, 8 km (5 miles).
g) For sour water, seawater, brine, and other contaminated or chemically treated waters in
Class 2 locations, 24 km (15 miles): in Class 3 and 4 locations, 16 km (10 miles).
h) For water services other than in g) in all locations, 32 km (20 miles).
In the event that the length of a location class is less than the maximum spacing of block
valves, the maximum section length shall be the weighted average of the distances that are
specified for the classes involved, provided that the pipe in the entire section meets the
requirements for the higher class. (Refer to ADP-L-020.)

Check Valves – A check valve shall be installed in each branch near the intersection point,
and near the upstream end of pipelines that are in hazardous service. The check valve will
prevent backflow in case of an upstream line rupture or an emergency in the plant that feeds
the pipeline. If the pipeline is designed for bidirectional flow service, a check valve and a
parallel block valve shall be installed. If a check valve was installed on an existing outgoing
pipeline which will be converted to bidirectional flow, the block valve is left on the main line.
For the design of a new pipeline in bidirectional flow, the check valve shall be installed on the
bypass line.
Vents and Drains – Permanent vents and drains with plugged or blinded valves, and provision
for blow-down of pipeline sections at selected locations, shall be installed only as required by
the operating department for emergency conditions. Temporary vent valves, if required
during the initial filling of the connection, are plugged and seal welded after the test.
Layout of Piping Associated with Scraper Traps
A scraper trap is a device that is used for internal cleaning, gauging, inspection, or batching of
a piping system. Operators need enough space around the scraper trap to remove and reinsert
scrapers. Saudi Aramco Standard Drawing AC-036541 shows the layout for a typical scraper
trap. SAES-L-045, Paragraph 6.4, also specifies the following with regard to scraper traps for
pipelines:
• A suitable work floor shall be provided with sufficient room around the traps for loading
and unloading scrapers and for access with automotive equipment. The clearance between
the bottom of the trap and finished grade in onshore plants shall be approximately 1 m (40
in.). A surface drainage system shall be provided to collect any spill from the trap and
wash water.

Economy
Piping should follow the most economical route, subject to design and safety requirements.
For example, some designers provide too much flexibility, which results in higher material
and fabrication costs.
• SAES-L-012, Design of Piping Systems Inside Plant Areas, Paragraph 5.1, specifies
requirements for hydraulic considerations.
• The pipe size, layout and supports shall be designed such that all hydraulic requirements
are met and any problems such as may be caused by erosion, cavitation, surges,
vibration, noise, slugs in two-phase flow, or undesirable flow patterns shall be avoided
as much as possible.
Corrosion
Areas in which corrosion is likely need corrosion monitoring fittings and/or drop-out spools.
• SAES-L-012, Design of Piping Systems Inside Plant Areas, Paragraph 5.2 , specifies
requirements for corrosion considerations.
• Carbon steel piping that is in potentially corrosive fluid service shall be provided with
corrosion monitoring fittings and/or drop-out spools subject to the approval of the
assigned specialist in the Engineering Services Organization for Project Proposals and/or
final design. The piping layout shall contain no sections or branches longer than three
pipe diameters which are normally or frequently stagnant (dead ends). Corrosive water
or other deposits can collect at the bottom in such nonself-draining sections and cause
accelerated corrosion unless there is adequate internal corrosion protection.

Maximum Use of Existing Pipeways and Supports
When feasible, piping should utilize existing supports to minimize support costs. SAES-L-
012, Design of Piping Systems Inside Plant Areas, Paragraph 5.3, specifies requirements for
pipeways.
Pipeways – Above-grade plant piping between various items of plant equipment or between
separate units within a plant area shall be projected within pipeway boundaries that are
indicated on Plot Plans and Piping Plans, which are laid out so as to provide the necessary
access to all areas for operations and maintenance. The elevations of intersecting pipeways
shall normally be at different levels to allow for the installation of additional piping in the
future. The minimum spacing of lines that are supported on sleepers or pipe racks shall be as
shown on Standard Drawing AC-036207.
Pump and Compressor Piping
There must be enough space to operate pumps and compressors. SAES-L-014, Design of
Pump and Compressor Station Piping, Paragraphs 3 and 4, specify requirements for suction
and discharge piping.
Suction Piping – The suction piping shall be sized to provide the net positive suction head
(NPSH) as required by the pump at maximum flow rate to prevent cavitation. The suction
pipe shall be laid out to provide a balanced flow at the entry of the pump, in particular to
horizontal, double suction and double volute-type pumps. Piping to pumps that operate in
parallel shall be laid out in a symmetrical manner to ensure equal distribution of the flow to
each pump.
Suction piping to all pumps shall have a straight length of pipe of at least five times the
suction nozzle diameter immediately upstream of the nozzle.
Long taper reducers shall be used. The top of pump suction piping shall be such that gas
cannot collect in pockets between the top of the suction header pipe and the inlet nozzle.
Eccentric reducers with the flat side on top shall be located upstream of the straight pipe
length immediately upstream of the suction nozzle of the pump.
A suction screen shall be provided during the initial operation until no more debris is
collected on the screen.

Discharge Piping – Discharge piping immediately downstream of the discharge nozzle shall
have a straight length of at least two and one-half times the discharge nozzle diameter.
The discharge piping, including any flow control station and minimum flow bypass piping,
shall be designed so as to avoid excessive noise, vibration or erosion. This shall be
accomplished by proper sizing, suitable flow pattern, use of long taper reducers, dampening
anchors, etc.
Thermal Expansion Clearances
When the pipe heats up or cools down, thermal expansion or contraction of the pipe will
occur. Sufficient clearance should be provided between adjacent lines and between lines and
structures to allow for free thermal expansion of the piping without interference.
Facilitate Support and Restraint
Supports and restraints are discussed in greater detail in a later section of this module. The
following considerations affect routing of the piping for favorable support.
• Piping system should support itself as much as possible.
• Piping with excessive flexibility may require restraints to avoid excessive movement or
vibration.
• Piping that is prone to vibration, such as compressor suction and discharge piping,
should be supported independently.
• Piping in structures should be routed beneath platforms near major structural members,
at points that are favorable for added loading, to avoid increasing the size of structural
members.

Maintenance Requirements
The piping system must be laid out so that its components can be inspected, repaired, or
replaced with minimum difficulty.
Access Clearance For Maintenance Equipment and Vehicles
There must be ample clearance for maintenance equipment, such as cranes, and for vehicles,
such as trucks. Access must be provided so supports can be maintained.
Removal of Equipment Requiring Maintenance
There must be enough space to access and remove large pieces of equipment if they require
maintenance.
• Access near rotating equipment is important because cranes must reach the equipment
when removal or realignment is required.
• Heat exchanger bundles need to be pulled out for cleaning.
• Large valves must be removed to repair or replace their seats.
• Rotating equipment requires frequent monitoring and maintenance.
Heat Exchanger Bundle Removal
Clearance must be provided at the end of shell-and-tube heat exchangers to permit the
removal of tube bundles for cleaning and alignment. These tube bundles are over 6.1 m (20
ft.) long and require removal by crane. Piping layout must provide the required clearances.

Safety Considerations
Piping layout must consider the safety of personnel near the pipe. This specifically includes
access for firefighting equipment and fire prevention.
Access Clearance for Firefighting Equipment
Firefighting equipment needs clearance to access major pieces of equipment, such as heat
exchangers, vessels, and tankage. Pipeways must be routed and designed to provide the
necessary clearances.
Locating Pipeways to Prevent Injuries to Personnel
There must be enough space beneath pipeways for people to walk and work. Typically, 2 m
(6 ft.) of clearance beneath a pipeway is sufficient.
Separating Hazardous Piping From Piping Vital to Safety
Firewater piping must be routed so that it would not be damaged by piping containing
hazardous fluids that could rupture.
Saudi Aramco Standards SAES-B-007A and SAES-B-007C contain the operational and
design requirements for firewater piping.

THE FUNCTION OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUPPORTS AND RESTRAINTS

USED IN PLANT AND TRANSPORTATION PIPING
A piping system may be supported or restrained in several different ways. The Saudi Aramco
Engineer must know the different types of support and restraint in order to properly design a
piping system or evaluate a design made by others. The following describes the different
types of support and restraint and their functions.
A piping system needs supports and restraints because of the various loads that are imposed
upon it. Supports and restraints are often needed to permit the piping system to function
under normal operating conditions without failure in the pipe itself or associated equipment.
Supports are commonly needed to absorb system weight loads in order to keep the sustained
longitudinal stress in the pipe within allowable limits, or to limit pipe sag to avoid process
flow problems. Restraints are used to control or direct the thermal movement of a piping
system. The control of thermal movement may be necessary either to keep pipe thermal
expansion stresses within allowable limits, or to limit the loads that are imposed on connected
equipment. Restraints also may be necessary to absorb other loads imposed on a piping
system and thus to limit pipe deflection and the resultant stresses. Examples of such loads to
consider are wind, earthquake, slug flow, water hammer, and other dynamic loads.
There are various classes of supports and restraints that are suitable for a particular
application. Within these classes, there are many different types, such as shoes, saddles, and
vertical guides.
Selection of a particular type of support or restraint to use in a particular situation depends on

such factors as:
• Weight load to be supported or restraint load to be absorbed.
• Clearance available for attachment to the pipe.
• Availability of nearby structural steel that is already there for other purposes.
• The direction of loads to be absorbed or movement to be restrained.
• Design temperature.
• The need to permit vertical thermal movement at a support.
Selection of specific support and restraint designs will generally require some degree of
detailed engineering which is beyond the scope of this course. The following discusses the
major classes of supports and restraints and several specific types within each class.

Supports and Restraints
Supports sustain a portion of the piping weight and any superimposed vertical loads. The
weight comes from the pipe itself, its contents, insulation or lining (if any), and other piping
components such as valves, flanges, etc. Restraints are devices which prevent, resist, or limit
the free thermal movement of piping, or absorb other applied loads so that they do not have a
detrimental impact on the pipe or connected equipment. Depending on the particular
situation, a combination of support and restraint types may be installed at one location.
There are two general classes of supports: rigid supports and flexible or resilient supports.
Rigid Supports
Rigid supports are used in situations where weight support is needed and no provision to
permit vertical thermal expansion is required. A rigid support always will prevent vertical
movement downward, also will prevent vertical thermal movement upward sometimes, and
will permit lateral movement and rotation. A rigid support is the more common of the two
support classes.
Figure 1 provides some samples of rigid supports. The use of any particular type available
depends primarily on the magnitude of the load to be carried, the point of attachment to the
pipe (i.e., horizontal or vertical run, elbow, etc.), and the distance to available support
structure, or grade. For example:
• Two different shoe support concepts are shown. The choice between the two depends
on the pipe diameter and the load to be carried. The design with the single vertical
member would be used with small diameter, lightly loaded pipe. The design with two
vertical members spreads the applied load over a larger portion of the pipe wall, reduces
the local stress in the pipe wall, and would be used for larger pipe diameters and greater
loads.
• Designs that employ a trunnion arrangement must also consider the bending moment
that is imposed on the pipe resulting from the weight load being supported and applied
at the end of the moment arm. Because of this, the trunnion length must be kept as short
as possible to minimize the bending moment that must be designed for.
• Pipe supports are often made using sections of pipe to provide support, rather than
structural members. This type is called a "dummy" support, indicating that there is no
flow in the pipe section that is providing the support.
• A saddle-type support uses a reinforcing plate that is first welded to the underside of the
pipe. This reinforcing plate will normally have an included angle of 90° to 120°, along
the pipe circumference, that distributes the weight load over a wider portion of the pipe
and reduces the local pipe stress.

RIGID SUPPORTS
Shoe Saddle
Base Adjustable Support Dummy Support
Trunnion
Source: Piping Stress Handbook, Second Edition by Victor Helguero M. Copyright ©1986 by Gulf Publishing
Company, Houston, Texas. Used with permission. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 1

Hangers
Hangers support pipe from structural steel or other facilities that are located above the pipe
and carry piping weight loads in tension. Pipe hangers, as shown in Figure 2, are typically
one or more structural steel rods bolted to a pipe attachment and to the overhead member. A
hanger rod is designed to move freely both parallel and perpendicular to the pipe axis, and not
to restrict thermal expansion in these directions. A hanger will prevent movement both down
and up, and therefore cannot be used to provide support at locations where any vertical
thermal movement will occur. Many types and sizes of pipe supports can be found in a
typical vendor's pipe hanger catalog.
HANGERS
FIGURE 2

Flexible or Resilient Supports
Flexible or resilient supports allow the piping system to move in all three directions while still
supporting the required weight load. Weight is supported in this application by use of a coil
spring having an appropriate stiffness to carry the applied weight load. Since the spring is
resilient, it will permit vertical thermal movement while still carrying the weight. This type of
support is used in situations where support must be provided at a particular location, and
vertical thermal expansion must also be permitted. There are two basic types of flexible
supports: variable load and constant-load-type.
• In the variable-load-type flexible support, the load exerted by the spring on the pipe
changes as a result of the pipe thermal movement imparted to the spring. The amount of
this load change equals the amount of thermal moment multiplied by the spring constant
for the spring. The spring is selected such that it provides the correct amount of
supporting load to the pipe while considering the thermal movement to be absorbed.
This is the more commonly used of the two resilient-support-types.
• In the constant-load type flexible support, the load exerted by the support on the pipe
remains constant throughout the entire moment range of the support. This is
accomplished by using a pivoting, lever arm mechanism. This type of support is used in
situations where the load variation in a variable-load-type spring is too large to be
accommodated by the piping system, or where the thermal movement is over 75 mm (3
in.).
Each type of resilient support is selected from standard available models based on design
load, required movement, and installation geometry considerations. Their attachments to the
pipe and support members are made similarly to other rigid supports and hangers, and may be
located under, over, or to the side of the pipe.
Figure 3 illustrates various flexible supports.

FLEXIBLE SUPPORTS
Source: Piping Stress Handbook, Second Edition by Victor Helguero M. Copyright © 1986 by Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. Used with permission. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 3

Restraints
Restraints have two primary purposes in a piping system.
1. Control the unrestricted thermal movement (expansion or contraction) of the pipe by

directing or limiting it.
A piping system is generally considered to be totally restrained at its end connection

points to equipment. Restraints control, limit, or redirect the thermal movement to either
reduce the thermal stress in the pipe or the loads exerted on equipment connections due
to thermal movement.
2. Absorb loads imposed on the pipe by other conditions.
This includes wind, earthquake, slug flow, water hammer, or flow-induced vibration
which could result in excessive pipe stress, equipment reaction loads, or flange leakage.
There are several different types of restraints that may be used. The selection of which type
to use and its specific design details depends primarily on the direction of pipe movement that
must be restrained, the location of the restraint point, and the magnitude of the load that must
be absorbed. It is also possible to restrain more than one direction at one location in a piping
system, or to combine a restraint with a support. Figure 4 provides several examples of
restraints.
Guides
A guide is a particular type of restraint. It is used in situations where movement along the
pipe axis must be permitted while movement perpendicular to the pipe axis in one or both
directions must be prevented. Depending on the particular guide details employed, pipe
rotation may or may not be restricted. Common situations where guides are used are in long
pipe runs on a pipe rack to control thermal movement and prevent buckling, and in straight
pipe runs down the side of a tower to prevent wind-induced movement and control thermal
expansion. Figure 4 provides several examples of guides.

RESTRAINTS/GUIDES
Guide Guide Guide
Vertical Guide Stop W/ Shoe Section A-A
FIGURE 4

Anchors
An anchor is a special type of restraint that stops movement in all three directions. Anchors
provide full fixation of the pipe, permitting very limited, if any, translation or rotation. An
anchor is used in situations where it is necessary to totally isolate one section of a piping
system from another from the standpoint of load and deflection. A total anchor that
eliminates all translation and rotation at one location is not used as commonly as one or more
restraints that act at a single location. A directional anchor is used more commonly in plant
piping, which restrains the line only in its axial direction. Figure 5 provides several examples
of anchors.
RESTRAINTS/ANCHORS
FIGURE 5

Sample Problem 1
Figure 6 illustrates an approximate layout of a pump suction piping system. Pumps P-101
A/B take suction from Tower T-101. The pipe diameter is 300 mm (12 in.), the design
pressure is 1,034 kPa (150 psig), and the design temperature is 260°C (500°F). It is carbon
steel, welded A53, Gr. B material and standard wall thickness. There are two existing
structural members at Locations 3 and 4. It is necessary to determine the general types of
supports and restraints required for this system in order to estimate the general needs for
additional structural steel.
The following additional information is also available:
• It is unlikely that the pump nozzles can tolerate the load resulting from thermal
expansion of the 46 m (150 ft.) long North/South horizontal run from T-101.
• There is a 15.9 mm (0.625 in.) upward thermal expansion at Locations 1 and 2.
• There is a 46 mm (1.8 in.) downward thermal expansion at Location 6.
• The T-101 nozzle cannot support the weight load and bending moment from the vertical
run without being overstressed.
• The vertical run up to the T-101 nozzle is exposed to wind loading.
The following is to be determined:
a. What type of support should be used at Locations 1 and 2?
b. What type of support should be used at Location 6?
c. What type of restraint should be used to absorb the wind loading in the vertical run to T-
101 at Location 7?
d. What type of restraint should be used to prevent thermal expansion from the 46 m (150
ft.) long run from imposing high loads on the pump nozzles, and where might be a good
place to try placing it?

SCHEMATIC FOR SAMPLE PROBLEMS
FIGURE 6

Solution
a. Note that, since Locations 1 and 2 are at the top of vertical runs directly over the pump
nozzles and there is a 15.9 mm (0.625 in.) thermal movement upward at each location,
spring-type supports must be used. If a rigid support located under the pipe was used,
the pipe would lift off the support due to the thermal expansion and the support would
not carry any weight. A hanger-rod-type support would be even less effective, since it
would restrain the upward thermal movement and result in a large compressive load
being imposed on the pump nozzles.
b. A spring support should be used at Location 6 also, for similar reasons as for Locations
1 and 2. Note that if a rigid support was used at Location 6, it would stop the vertical
movement downward and cause a very high force and bending movement on the T-101
nozzle.
c. A North/South and East/West lateral guide should be used in the vertical run at Location
7. The guide will absorb the wind load while still permitting free vertical thermal
expansion. The exact location of this guide in the vertical run, or whether there should
be more than one, would still need to be determined. Since the guide will stop
North/South movement, it is also acting against thermal expansion in the 46 m (150 ft.)
run. Therefore, its location affects the pipe thermal stresses in this portion of the system.
It is a good choice to locate the guide 3 m to 4.6 m (10 ft. to 15 ft.) below the tower
nozzle.
d. A North/South restraint (i.e., a stop) must be used to prevent thermal expansion in the 46
m (150 ft.) long run from imposing large thermal loads on the pump nozzles. The
objective is to direct this thermal expansion away from the pumps and into the rest of the
system. For this purpose, the stop should be located relatively near the pumps.
Location 4 would be a good first choice, since locating the stop there will isolate both
pumps from the effects of the large, North/South thermal movement.

DETERMINING THE MAXIMUM SUPPORT SPACING BASED ON WEIGHT AND

DEFLECTION CRITERIA AND DESIGN LOADS
This section discusses criteria to determine how many supports are needed in a pipe section to
ensure that it does not get overstressed or sag too much. This is based on the weight of the
pipe and components, type of fluid service, design pressure and temperature, pipe material,
and diameter and wall thickness. Once the maximum span is determined, the engineer can
determine the number of supports that are needed and where they are needed. This will allow
him to calculate the load on each support, and therefore permit doing the detailed design of
each support. For example, if the load is high, the support must be designed to spread it out
over a larger area on the pipe to reduce localized pipe stresses. Depending on the complexity
of the piping layout, additional weight loads to be applied, the nature of the fluid service and
operations, the applied loads at support points and the required support spacing may be
determined by hand calculations, available tables, or by a detailed analysis using a piping
flexibility computer program.
The discussion here will be confined to supports in straight horizontal sections of single-
diameter pipe without other weight loads imposed. More complex systems must be evaluated
by using other equations to account for differences in pipe geometry or loading, or a piping
flexibility analysis computer program. Discussion of other hand-calculation techniques is
beyond the scope of this course. The general requirements for a computer analysis are
discussed later in this module. With the general availability and ease of use of computer
programs, use of hand calculations and table solutions are generally confined to relatively
simple systems (i.e., piperack runs or offsite piping systems), or initial screening studies.
Determining the maximum spacing between two supports consists of:
• Establishing stress and deflection criteria.
• Identifying and using the applicable Saudi Aramco or industry table to determine the
maximum permitted span.
• If the situation is beyond the limitations of the tables, calculating the maximum
permitted span given stress and deflection criteria, using either hand calculations or a
computer program, as appropriate.

Piping Weight Stress and Deflection Criteria
Support spacing for horizontal pipes in open areas is governed by the strength of the pipe.
Support spacing for pipes in process plants is determined more by the spacing of conveniently
located structural steel. Spacing of the supports in a pipe rack is usually based on supporting
the weakest pipe, although larger spans are acceptable if sagging and pockets in smaller lines
is not objectionable. Small lines can be supported off larger lines, bundled with other small
lines, or increased in size to be self-supporting.
Allowable spans for horizontal lines are influenced by limits on longitudinal stress or
deflection to avoid interference with the nearby pipe or structure, or to avoid excessive
sagging that could be detrimental to fluid flow. The span may also be chosen to change the
pipe's natural frequency to avoid a resonant-vibration condition.
Stress Criteria
Stress criteria for a particular situation is a function of material, pressure, and temperature.
The value for the allowable longitudinal stress is obtained by using the applicable
ASME/ANSI B31 Code equation and table. The sum of the longitudinal stresses due to
weight and pressure must be limited to the pipe material allowable stress.
MEX 101.03 discussed calculation of the required pipewall thickness based on design
pressure considerations, and this is based on limiting the pipe circumferential stress to the
allowable stress. The longitudinal stress in a pipe due to internal pressure is half the
circumferential stress. Thus, if the pipewall thickness is exactly the value that is required for
internal pressure, then half the allowable stress is still available as a limit for longitudinal
weight stress.
Deflection Criteria
Deflection under weight effects is generally of secondary importance in piping just as it is in

structures. In most process units, however, the deflection should be kept within reasonable
limits to minimize pocketing of liquids at low points. Appearance may also be a factor. The
maximum deflection is typically limited to the smaller of 25 mm (1 in.) or half the normal
pipe diameter, unless a smaller deflection is required due to pocketing concerns.

Determining the Maximum Allowable Span
The maximum span between two supports is based on the allowable stress and deflection
criteria. This is determined through two calculations:
• A calculation based on stress limits:
0. 8 Z f s
L ≤
W
• A calculation based on deflection limits:
4 EI ∆
L =
13.5 W
where: L = Length of span, ft.
fs = 1/2 x allowable stress at design temperature per applicable ASME/ANSI

B31 Code. Note that this assumes that the pipewall thickness exactly
matches that required for internal pressure. The longitudinal pressure stress
thus also equals half the ASME/ANSI B31 Code allowable stress. This is a
simplified assumption, but is conservative for most situations.
∆ = Maximum deflection, in.
W = Weight of pipe, including commodity lining, and insulation if any, lb/ft.
E = Hot modulus of elasticity of pipe at design temperature, psi.
I = Moment of inertia of the pipe, in.4
Z = Section modulus of the pipe, in.3
The values for the weight of the pipe, W, and the section modulus, Z, are obtained from the
Pipe Properties Table discussed in MEX 101.03. The weight of the pipe must include
consideration of the pipe material, contained fluid, external insulation, and internal lining, in
lb/ft. Determining the weight of insulation and lining is beyond the scope of this course. The
equations used are based on a mean between a uniformly loaded beam simply supported at
both ends and one with both ends fixed.
The maximum allowable span is the lower value that results from the two calculations.

Maximum Span Tables
Saudi Aramco Standard Drawing AC-036697 also provides maximum allowable spans for
unrestrained pipelines based on pipe sizes from 350 mm to 1,500 mm (14 in. to 60 in.) of
specified thicknesses, maximum allowable internal pressure, and specified wear pad or saddle
details to distribute the load or saddles. This is included in Work Aid 1, and may be used as a
convenience for pipelines that are within its limitations.
Sample Problem 2
Refer again to Figure 6 of Sample Problem 1. It is now necessary to determine if the 10.7 m
(35 ft.) support span between Locations 3 and 4 is excessive, and estimate the number of
supports required in the 45.7 m (150 ft.) North/South run. For this work, assume the
following:
• The specific gravity of the liquid in the system is equal to that of water.
• The allowable stress for the pipe material based on ASME/ANSI B31.3 requirements is
130.3 MPa (18,900 psi.).
• The Modulus of elasticity at 260°C (500°F) is 188.2 x 103 MPa (27.3 x 106 psi.).
• There is 75 mm (3 in.) of calcium silicate insulation on the pipe. Its weight may be
assumed to be 18.9 kg/m (12.7 lb/ft.).
Solution
This problem will be solved using Work Aid 1.
From the Pipe Properties Table in MEX 101.03, obtain the following information:
Weight of pipe = 49.6 lb/ft.

Weight of fluid = 49.0 lb/ft.
I = 279 in4.
Z = 43.8 in3.
Then W = 49.6 + 49.0 + 12.7

= 111.3 lb/ft.
fs = 0.5 x 18,900 = 9,450 psi.

Stress limit calculation:
0.8Z f s
L ≤ = 0.8 x 43.8 x 9450
W 111.3
L ≤ 54.5 ft
Deflection limit calculation:
EI ∆ 10 6 x 279 x 1
4 4
L ≤ = 27.3 x
13.5W 13.5 x 111.3
L ≤ 47.4 ft
Thus, the maximum allowable span is 14.5 m (47.4 ft.). Therefore, in the 45.7 m (150 ft.)
run:
150 = 3.16 spans, rounding up to 4.

47.4
Therefore, five supports are needed.

Loads on Supports
The loads imposed on supports must be considered in the detailed support design to ensure
that they are not overstressed, and that they do not overstress the pipe, locally. The loads on
the supports will, in turn, be transmitted to other structural members and foundations which
also must be designed considering the applied loads. The design of these elements must
ensure that the support will perform its intended function in the piping system. For example,
if the structure under a support is not rigid enough, it will deflect excessively under the
applied load which will let the piping system deflect as well.
The details that are used to attach the support to the pipe must consider the local stresses in
the pipe wall resulting from the applied load. In the extreme, high-weight loads at support
points could cause the pipe wall to locally deform. Therefore, the support attachment detail
must spread the load enough along and around the pipe wall to keep the local stresses in the
pipe wall within reasonable limits.
These detailed support design considerations may, in some cases, require the support span to
be reduced even if the overall pipe stress and deflection criteria are met. This would occur if
the support load is so high that the detailed design becomes impractical, or is more expensive
than adding an additional support location to reduce the load.
The following loads should be considered in the design of supports:

• Weight of pipe and insulation, and internal lining (if any). The weight of other piping
components such as valves and fittings, must also be accounted for.
• Weight of the line contents based on water or the operating fluid, whichever is larger. If
the line is not hydrostatically tested, the weight of the line contents is sufficient. Spring
hangers are normally designed for the weight of the line contents, so additional support
may be needed during hydrostatic tests to avoid overstress if the line contents is a gas.
• Lateral loads due to wind. Since a support acts only in the vertical direction, wind load
must be considered to the extent that it influences the structure to which the support is
attached. Structural movement deflects the support and, in turn, moves the pipe.
• Lateral loads due to movement of the pipe. Pipe movement causes a frictional load to be
applied to the support that acts opposite to the direction of pipe motion. The support and
associated structure must be designed for this frictional load.
Support loads can be calculated using the equations of statics once all support locations are
determined. However, it is much simpler, and more accurate, to use a piping flexibility
computer program to find the support loads as discussed later in this module.

Requirements for Pads and Saddles
Loads that act on or in the pipe create stresses in the pipe wall as previously discussed. The
magnitude of these stresses determines whether or not the load needs to be distributed over a
wider area. If the load needs to be distributed, then reinforcement pads, saddles or wider pipe
shoes are typically used.
Saudi Aramco Standard Drawings AD-036253, AD-036252, and AD-036999 provide
standard details for pipe shoes, pads and saddles. Note that these details are based on pipe
diameter. More load spreading is required as the diameter increases since the pipe wall
becomes more flexible and less able to absorb and transmit loads without being overstressed.
Prevention of Wind-Induced Vibration
• All external loads must be considered in support and flexibility design. Preventing wind-
induced vibration is particularly important in support design because it can have a
profound impact, as indicated on the next page by the requirements of SAES-L-002 and
SAES-L-011. Vortex shedding induced vibration caused by wind may become a problem
with piping that is more than about 10 m (30 ft.) long. This generally occurs with piping
that runs up along the length of a vertical tower, or for long horizontal runs in exposed
locations such as a section of aboveground pipeline.
• When wind flows past a circular pipe section, the air behind the pipe is no longer smooth.
There is a region of pressure instability where vortices are shed in a regular pattern,
alternating from one side of the pipe to the other. These vortices cause an alternating
force to act perpendicular to the wind direction and can make the pipe vibrate. If the
frequency of vortex shedding corresponds to a mechanical natural frequency of the piping
system, resonant vibration could cause pipe fatigue failure. Analyzing and solving vortex
shedding vibration problems is best handled by applying certain principles that include
dimensionless parameters and experimental data, which often requires using computer
programs. Further discussion regarding vortex shedding is beyond the scope of this
course.

SAES-L-002, Paragraph 6.2, specifies:
• Exposed piping systems shall be designed for wind loading based on 35 m/s (78 mph)
fastest mile wind speed and shall take into account the effects of wind-induced vibration
where applicable.
• The wind speed causes a uniform lateral load to be exerted on the pipe. This lateral load
is resisted by friction that acts at support points, as long as they are not hanger-type
supports which will allow the pipe to be moved by the wind. Thus, even though
supports are installed to carry weight load, their presence may also provide sufficient
resistance to wind loads in many cases so that additional restraint is not required.
• The location of supports influences the mechanical natural frequency of the piping
system. Thus, they will affect any evaluation of wind-induced vibration since the
vibration forcing frequency must be compared to the piping system mechanical natural
frequency to determine if a problem exists.
SAES-L-011, Paragraph 3.3 specifies requirements for support spacing due to vibration:
When aboveground, cross-country pipelines with diameters larger than 450 mm (18 in.)
are supported at regular intervals, every seventh span length shall be reduced by 20% to
mitigate wind-induced resonant vibration of the pipelines. The basic support spacing
shall be selected so that the natural frequency of the pipeline in the operating condition
is outside the range of wind-induced frequencies, plus or minus 10%, for any wind
speed above 9 m/s (20 mph) which will cause vortex shedding.

DETERMINING THE NEED FOR A PIPING THERMAL FLEXIBILITY / WEIGHT

ANALYSIS
Piping must have sufficient flexibility to accommodate thermal expansion (or contraction)
effects. Piping systems must be designed to ensure that they do not fail because of thermal
stresses or produce excessive forces and moments at connected equipment. If a system does
not provide adequate flexibility, the results can be leaky flanges, fatigue failure of the pipe,
excessive maintenance, operations problems, and damaged equipment.
A thermal flexibility analysis calculates the thermal movements of the pipe. These result in
stresses in the pipe, and in reaction forces and moments on end points, supports, restraints,
and connected equipment. The analysis examines the interaction among pipe, equipment,
piping components, and restraints.
A structure that is subject to a change in temperature will change in dimensions. If these

thermal movements are allowed to occur without any restraint whatsoever, no pipe stresses or
reaction loads result. However, in real systems, stresses are developed in the pipe and
moments and forces are imposed on the connected equipment and at supports and restraints
installed in the system. The basic problem is to determine the internal pipe stresses and the
external loads, and then decide if they are acceptable. A thermal flexibility analysis is done to
ensure that the piping system is laid out, supported, and restrained such that the thermal
stresses in the pipe and the loads on the end points are within allowable limits.
A thermal flexibility analysis using a computer is not required for every piping system design
problem. Determining when a detailed analysis is needed depends on the complexity of the
system and the design conditions of each individual situation. There is no single definition of
whether to perform an analysis or not that applies to every situation. The following are some
guidelines to help the engineer determine when a thermal flexibility analysis is required.
Generally speaking, if a detailed analysis is required based on temperature considerations, a
weight analysis will be done at the same time.

Rationale and Approaches for Piping Flexibility and Support Design
Support and flexibility design is a combination of art and science with multiple factors to
consider and usually more than one way to design the system. It requires knowledge of how
the operating and design conditions of a piping system influence its overall design, and the
supports and restraints required for the system.
Consider the scenario shown in Figure 7. The supports and restraints exist in this situation for
the following reasons:
• To control movement of the pipe to reduce stress that may cause fatigue failure and
loads that could damage connected equipment.
• To absorb some of the loads created by the operating or design conditions.
A piping system can be described as an irregular structural frame in space because of its
relatively slender proportions when compared to structural steel systems. Elevated design
temperatures or various operating scenarios may cause sufficient pipe thermal stress or reduce
material strength such that supplementary structural assistance to support the piping system is
required. It is also often necessary to limit the pipe movement at specific locations in order to
protect sensitive equipment, control vibration, or to resist external forces such as wind,
earthquake, or shock loading.
• Careful attention must also be paid to pipe support/restraint design details to ensure that
localized stresses in the pipe wall are kept within allowable limits. This is especially
relevant in large-diameter piping systems with relatively thin walls (i.e., outside
diameter/thickness ratio over about 95) or in very high-temperature systems. In such
cases, support/restraint design details that spread the local loads over larger areas of the
pipe wall are typically used to reduce local stresses.
• Planning for pipe supports and restraints should be done simultaneously with
establishing possible layout configurations to achieve the most cost effective design.
The location and type of supports and restraints used must also consider the sometimes
conflicting requirements of providing support or restraint while still permitting thermal
expansion. For example, too little support may result in high loads that must be
considered in the detailed design of the support and associated structure, even if the pipe
stress itself is acceptable. Too much support is not cost effective, and may provide
excessive restraint of pipe thermal movement.

TYPICAL SCHEMATIC OF PUMP SUCTION MANIFOLD
FIGURE 7

Approaches
Because of the complexity of the piping flexibility and support design process, there is no
single procedure or design method applicable for all situations. Considering this, the engineer
can approach support and flexibility design in many ways. The following is a basic way of
approaching the problem.
• Examine the layout and operation of the piping system to identify:

- Layout geometry.
- Pipe diameter and thickness, and locations of any changes.
- Piping component design details such as branch connection details and type of
elbows (long radius or short radius).
- Design temperature and pressure.
- Fluid service, including its potential danger.
- End-point movements.
- Type of connected equipment, rotating or fixed.
- Locations of existing structural steel.
- Relevant operating scenarios.
- Special design considerations, such as wind, vibration-prone services, orientation

of loads.
• Determine the potential effects of those conditions, such as thermal movements, loads,
and stresses.
• Determine the types of support or restraint required and their approximate locations.
• Determine if the situation warrants a detailed thermal flexibility analysis.
• If required, identify which conditions are applicable for the analysis and utilize an
appropriate computer program to perform the analysis.
• Interpret the results of the analysis.

Guidelines for Whether to Perform a Thermal Flexibility and Weight Analysis
The determination of whether or not to perform a thermal flexibility analysis depends on the
complexity of the system and the design conditions, and must be evaluated for each situation.
Generally, the need for an analysis is determined by visual examination of the layout, design
temperature, the type of equipment connected to the system, and the complexity of the
process operations. There are no standard guidelines that will provide the engineer with
specific rules on whether or not to perform an analysis that are valid in all cases. However,
the basic approach to the problem as outlined above and the parameters established by the
applicable ASME/ANSI B31 Code for allowable stresses provide guidelines that help
determine if an analysis is needed.
Determining the need for a thermal flexibility/weight analysis requires:
• Referring to SAES-L-011 and other applicable standards and code requirements.
• Identifying design conditions, including pipe size, temperature, and layout.
• Identifying load limitations on connected equipment, particularly load-sensitive rotating

equipment.
Guidelines contained in ASME/ANSI B31.3 may be used as an initial screening tool to

determine whether a flexibility analysis is required. Piping layouts can be compared to ones
which have adequate flexibility, can be judged by using relatively simple hand calculation or
chart methods, or can be extensively analyzed used a piping flexibility analysis computer
program. To save time and money, the engineer can identify lines that do not require further
analysis by using the following criteria:
• The piping duplicates a successfully operating system.
• The piping is judged to be adequate by comparison with previously analyzed systems.

• The piping is of uniform size, has no more than two points of fixation, has no
intermediate restraints, and meets the limit in the following empirical equation:
Dy
≤ K 1
(L - U )2
where: D = Pipe outside diameter, in.
y = Resultant of total displacements to be absorbed by the piping system, in.
(∆x)2 +(∆y ) + (∆z)2 , where ∆x, ∆y, and ∆z are the net thermal
2
=
movements to be absorbed by the piping system in the three coordinate
directions, considering any end-point movements as well.
L = Developed length of piping between anchors, ft.
U = Straight line distance between anchors, ft.
K1 = 0.03.
This formula should not be used for abnormal configurations such as unequal-leg U-bends
with L/U over 2.5 or saw-tooth patterns, for large-diameter thin-walled pipe, nor for systems
having large end movements not along the direction that connects anchor points.
Systems that do not meet these criteria should be analyzed using simplified calculations or
computer methods, as applicable, to confirm adequate flexibility.
• Where load-sensitive equipment is involved, an accurate flexibility analysis is usually

advisable since approximate approaches are apt to be particularly unreliable in
calculating reaction loads.
• Accurate calculations are also advisable when the fluid service is hazardous and the pipe
material strength is significantly reduced due to high temperature.
• Accurate analyses should also be considered for unusually stiff systems due to size,
thickness, or configuration; for economic use of expensive material; for cyclic services;
or when approximate analyses indicate overstress.

Because it is hard to determine when a particular system must be analyzed, the following
guidelines may be used to help determine when a detailed analysis is needed.
MAXIMUM
TYPE OF PIPING PIPE SIZE DIFFERENTIAL
FLEXIBILITY TEMP.
mm in.
General Piping ≥ 100 ≥ 4 ≥ 222°C (400°F)
≥ 200 ≥ 8 ≥ 167°C (300°F)
≥ 300 ≥ 12 ≥ 111°C (200°F)
≥ 500 ≥ 20 any
For rotating equipment ≥ 75 ≥ 3 any
For air-fin heat exchangers ≥ 100 ≥ 4 any
For tankage ≥ 300 ≥ 12 any
Note that when an "accurate" flexibility analysis is required, it should generally be done using
a recognized computer program for all but the simplest systems that are not connected to
load-sensitive equipment. For aboveground, unrestrained piping systems, the maximum
differential flexibility temperature is normally the difference between the design temperature
and a base temperature of no higher than 21°C (70°F). For underground, fully restrained
pipelines, the maximum differential flexibility temperature is taken as the difference between
design temperature and tie-in temperature.

Saudi Aramco Flexibility Requirements
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-L-011, Flexibility, Support, and Anchoring of

Piping, Paragraphs 2.1 through 2.3, contain specific requirements for the flexibility analysis.
• Formal analysis shall be made to calculate the significant stresses due to thermal
expansion and movements in all piping to show compliance with the design criteria of
the Code (i.e., allowable stresses). The exception is for aboveground plant piping
without substantial axial restraint that can be readily judged to have adequate flexibility
by comparison with successfully operating existing systems.
• This requirement establishes the need for a detailed (formal) analysis, unless it can be
readily established that the piping system has adequate flexibility. The guidelines
discussed previously may be used to help establish the need for this formal analysis.
• The formal analysis shall be recorded as part of the design package specified in SAES-
L-012 for piping systems which require a safety instruction sheet, per SAES-A-005
(discussed in MEX 101.10).
• This emphasizes the importance of the formal analysis by requiring that it be made part
of the permanent record for piping systems that require a safety instruction sheet. Thus,
the analysis results are available for future reference should there be problems with the
system or if changes to it are needed in the future.
• The formal analysis shall include computer calculations using a generally accepted
computer program for piping flexibility analysis, except when the system is considered
fully restrained. A sufficient number of calculations shall be made to establish the most
severe combinations of load conditions which result in the highest combined piping
stresses at various locations, and the highest loads on anchors, connected equipment,
guides, and stops.
This establishes the requirement that when a formal analysis is necessary, it must be done
using a computer program. Thus, hand calculations and/or chart form solutions are not
acceptable for such systems. It also indicates that multiple calculations may be needed to
determine the operating scenario that will govern the system design. For example, take the
case of a piping system with two pumps, one of which is a spare. Either pump may be
operating while the other is down, and both will be running for a short period while they are
being switched. Except for a perfectly symmetric piping system layout, it is usually necessary
to perform calculations for all three operating scenarios to establish the one case that governs
the design. This is because different portions of the system will be hot while others are cold
in each case.

DETERMINING THE REQUIRED DESIGN CONDITIONS FOR A THERMAL

FLEXIBILITY/WEIGHT ANALYSIS
If a detailed piping flexibility analysis is required, it will normally be done using a recognized
computer program such as Caesar II, Simflex, or Triflex. Saudi Aramco engineers will
typically use the Simflex program. Such a program has the capability to consider any
combination of pipe geometry, support, restraint, and load conditions that must be considered.
When such an analysis is required, the engineer must determine:
• The applicable design conditions and operating scenarios for the piping system.
• The allowable stresses from the applicable ASME/ANSI B31 Code.
• The load limitations, if any, on connected equipment.
• The extent of the analysis required to identify the most severe case.
This information is necessary to perform the analysis.
Design Conditions
The design conditions that must be considered for a thermal flexibility analysis are listed
below. Anything that influences the thermal flexibility of the piping system can be an
applicable design condition that is needed for the analysis.
• Layout specifications.
- Distances that completely describe the overall piping system geometry.
- Location of connected equipment and other piping components.
- Curves, such as long- or short-radius elbows, bends.
- Branch connections, such as fabricated reinforced or unreinforced tee, forged tee,
integrally-reinforced fitting.
• Pipe diameter and wall thickness.
• Design temperature and pressure.
• Fluid service, including whether it is dangerous.
• End-point movements.
• Type of connected equipment, rotating or fixed.
• Structural steel located in the vicinity.

• Special design considerations and load cases. (Also discussed in MEX 101.03).
- Thermal analysis, to confirm that the pipe thermal stress is within allowable limits.
- Weight analysis, to confirm that the pipe longitudinal stress (including the
longitudinal pressure stress) is within allowable limits.
- Thermal-plus-weight analysis to confirm that operating loads imposed on connected
equipment are acceptable.
- Wind.
- Vibration-prone services.
- Orientation of externally applied loads, slug forces.
- Alternate operating scenarios that result in different portions of the system being hot
while others are cold.
- Extent of analysis. For example, must an entire piping system be modeled, or may
portions of the system be deleted without affecting accuracy?
The thermal, weight, and thermal-plus-weight cases will apply to every system that is
analyzed. The applicability and impact of the other considerations depend on the particular
situation.
For example, the system to be analyzed may include any common piping components:
straight runs, elbows, tees, valves, spring hangers, etc. These components may have any
orientation. Loads due to thermal expansion, wind, pipe weight, etc., may be considered.
Forces, moments, and deflections may be applied and/or evaluated. Further detailed
discussion of piping flexibility analysis is beyond the scope of this course.
Saudi Aramco Requirements
Saudi Aramco Engineering Standard SAES-L-011 contains additional detailed requirements

that must be considered in the detailed pipe-stress analysis.
• Paragraph 2.5 provides requirements for external lateral loads.
The stress calculation shall take into account the circumferential bending stress in the
pipe wall due to any loads from supports, anchors, and/or soil pressure or other external
force, except when transmitted through a full encirclement sleeve welded
circumferentially to the pipe.
This requirement forces consideration of the detailed design that is used for attachments
made to the pipe for supports and restraints. Locating a support or restraint at a
particular location may satisfy the limitations on overall pipe stress and end-point
reaction loads. However, the local reaction load at the support or restraint may be
sufficient to damage the pipe. This must be considered and appropriate design details
utilized.

• Paragraph 2.9 specifies requirements related to friction.
Friction forces from supports and guides shall be considered as external loads acting in
the direction opposite to the expected displacements, where such friction would tend to
reduce the piping flexibility significantly.
Displacement calculated by the computer program must agree with the assumed
direction of the friction force. In the absence of experimental or reliable vendor's data,
the following friction factors shall be used for the flexibility calculation:
FRICTION
MATERIALS FACTOR
Steel to steel 0.40
Teflon to steel 0.20
Teflon to Teflon 0.10
Sand to pipewrap 0.25
Sand to plastic coating 0.20
Sand to concrete 0.40
• Friction forces will develop whenever a pipe slides across support or restraint points.
These friction forces are to be considered in all cases since they would tend to reduce
the flexibility of the pipe and increase reaction loads. Friction forces must be included
in the design of any associated structural members as an additional applied load.
• The extent that friction loads must be considered in any formal flexibility analysis
depends on the particular circumstances. In most cases, the magnitudes of the friction
forces are much smaller than the thermal loads developed in the system and can be
safely ignored. However, in situations where the friction loads are relatively high, they
should be directly included in the flexibility analysis to accurately evaluate their impact.
Computer programs that are available today easily permit this by allowing a friction
factor to be specified at support or restraint points.

• Two typical situations where friction should be considered are:

- Large-diameter, long pipe runs such as on pipe racks or in the offsite area, where
support-point loads are relatively high. In these cases, the friction forces can
become high enough to restrict the thermal expansion of the pipe.
- Systems that are connected to load-sensitive equipment where there are large
reaction loads at supports or restraints located near the equipment nozzle. In these
cases, the friction loads can be transmitted back to the equipment and overload it.
One method of overcoming problems that are caused by high-friction loads is to use
sliding surfaces with lower friction factors. Note in the previous table that using Teflon-
on-Teflon bearing surfaces reduces the friction load by 75% when compared to steel-on-
steel.
• Paragraph 3.5 specifies requirements for welded attachments.
If the piping is designed to operate at a hoop stress in excess of 45% of the specified
minimum yield stress (SMYS) of the pipe material, all structural attachments which
transfer loads to the pipe through welds shall be welded to full-encirclement sleeves or
saddle pads of at least 90° with rounded corners, unless a comprehensive stress analysis
is made to prove the adequacy of the design. ASME/ANSI B31.4
Paragraph 421.1(d) and ASME/ANSI B21.8 Paragraph B34.5(B), if applicable, may not
be waived. All welds to the pipe shall be continuous.
This requirement ensures that the applied external load will be distributed around the
complete circumference of the pipe, unless a stress analysis indicates that this is not
necessary. This reduces the local stresses in the pipe wall in situations where it is
already highly stressed due to pressure, and eliminates the risk of local pipe buckling.
• Paragraph 3.6 specifies requirements for dummy supports.
The dummy supports shall not create excessive stresses at the attachment welds to the
run pipe. This can be accomplished by minimizing the length of the supports and/or
increasing the size of the supports.
This requirement recognizes that a dummy support will result in an additional bending
moment being applied to the pipe at the attachment point, and this bending moment
must be considered in its design. Minimizing the support length reduces the magnitude
of the moment to be considered. Increasing the support size, i.e. its diameter, increases
the strength of the support itself and spreads the applied moment over a larger area of
the pipe. Spreading the applied moment over a larger area on the pipe wall reduces the
local pipe stress that is caused by the moment.

Piping Flexibility Temperature
Flexibility analysis should be made for the largest temperature difference that may be
imposed on the pipe by normal and abnormal operating conditions. This results in the largest
pipe stress to be considered in fatigue failure evaluation, and the largest reaction loads
imposed on equipment end connections, supports, and restraints. The following table
provides guidelines to determine the temperatures to consider in a flexibility analysis. Note
that more than one of these items might require consideration in a particular system and lead
to the need for multiple computer calculations to identify the case that governs the system
design.
NORMAL TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS TO CONSIDER
Stable Operation Gives the temperature range expected for most of the
time a plant is in operation. Some margin above
equipment operating temperature, i.e., use of the design
temperature, allows for process flexibility.
Startup and Shutdown Must be examined to determine if the heating or cooling

cycles pose flexibility problems. For example, if a
tower is heated while some attached piping remains
cold, the piping flexibility should be checked.
Regeneration and Must be designed for normal operation, regeneration, or

Decoking Piping decoking, and switching from one service to the other.
An example is the decoking of furnaces.
Spared Equipment Requires multiple piping flexibility analyses to

determine if the piping is adequate for the expected
variations of temperature, for no flow in some of the
piping, and for switching from one piece of equipment
to another. A common example is the piping for two or
more pumps with one or more spares.

ABNORMAL CONDITIONS
Loss of Cooling Temperature changes due to a loss of cooling medium
Medium Flow flow should be considered. This includes pipe that is
normally at ambient temperature but can be blocked in,
while subject to solar radiation.
Steamout for Air or Most on-site equipment and lines and many off-site
Gas Freeing lines are freed of gas or air by the use of steam. For 862
kPa (125 psi.) steam, 149°C (300°F) is used for the
metal temperature. Piping connected to equipment
which will be steamed out, especially piping connected
to upper parts of towers, should be checked for the
tower at 149°C (300°F) and the piping at ambient plus
28°C (50°F). This situation may govern the flexibility
of lines connected to towers that operate at less than
149°C (300°F) or have a smaller temperature variation
from top to bottom.
No Process Flow While If process flow can be stopped while heat is still being
Heating Continues applied, the piping flexibility should be checked for the
maximum metal temperature. Such situations can occur
with steam tracing and steam jacketing.
Metal temperatures that govern the flexibility design of a piping system are not necessarily
the ones associated with the most severe coincident pressure and temperature which govern
the wall thickness of the pipe. Piping flexibility depends only on the temperature. Therefore,
a condition of high temperature and low pressure may govern the piping flexibility design
while the wall thickness is based on a higher pressure but a lower temperature. However,
note that the design pressure is considered with the pipe weight when calculating the total
longitudinal stress in the pipe during a weight analysis.
For restrained pipelines, SAES-L-011, Paragraph 2.4, specifies the following:

• A tie-in temperature range shall be established for the design and construction of all
buried and aboveground fully-restrained pipelines. The design shall be based on the
expected temperature rise during operation as well as the maximum anticipated decrease
in temperature after tie-in.
• This requirement results in the use of the maximum expected temperature range in the
design of a fully-restrained pipeline. This then yields the maximum possible thermal
stress in the pipe, and the largest loads that must be considered in the design of
associated anchors.

Number of Cycles to be Considered
The number of times that a line experiences the combination of temperature and end
movement influences piping flexibility design because the flexibility stress basis is based on
fatigue failure. ASME/ANSI B31.3 includes a factor "f" in the equation for the allowable
stress range to account for the number of cycles as shown below. A plant life of 20 years
should be used to estimate the number of cycles. One cycle a day for 20 years is about 7,000
cycles. If the number of cycles exceeds 7,000, the number of cycles should be indicated in
the design specification for the affected lines.
SA = f (1.25 Sc + 0.25 Sh)
where: SA = Allowable displacement stress range, psi.
Sc = Basic allowable stress at minimum metal temperature expected during the

displacement cycle under analysis, psi.
Sh = Basic allowable stress at maximum metal temperature expected during the

displacement cycle under analysis, psi.
NUMBER OF CYCLES f
7,000 or less 1.0
Over 7,000 to 14,000 0.9
Over 14,000 to 22,000 0.8
Over 22,000 to 45,000 0.7
Over 45,000 to 100,000 0.6
Over 100,000 to 200,000 0.5
Over 200,000 to 700,000 0.4
Over 700,000 to 2,000,000 0.3
Note that the allowable stress range for thermal flexibility stresses does not use the
longitudinal weld-joint efficiency factor for any type of pipe. Therefore, the cold and hot
stresses in the equation will be the same for seamless and welded pipes.

Load Limitations On Equipment
A poorly designed piping system that is connected to rotating equipment can cause damage to
the equipment. For example, an excessive load on a pump can cause high vibration or
bearing and seal wear problems that will lead to excessive maintenance requirements. In an
extreme case, the single application of an excessive load can result in immediate damage and
require a shutdown.
Rotating equipment, i.e., pumps, turbines, and compressors, are the most sensitive type with
respect to imposed piping loads due to the moving parts and small clearances involved in their
design. However, pipe loads that are imposed on stationary equipment items must not be
allowed to become excessive either. This will be discussed further below.
Loads that are imposed by the piping system on connected equipment are determined from
the results of the piping flexibility analysis. These loads are then compared to allowable
values based on industry standards for particular types of equipment to determine if they are
acceptable. For some equipment items, the allowable loads may just be read directly from
tables that are contained in the applicable industry standard. In other cases, the allowable
loads must be calculated based on criteria contained in an industry standard. In still other
cases, the stresses that result from the imposed loads must be calculated, and the stresses then
compared to allowable values. Equipment vendors will sometimes also have allowable load
criteria that must be considered.
SAES-L-014, Design of Pump and Compressor Station Piping, also requires that the
additional loads caused by slight misalignment between pipe and equipment flanges be
considered. Flanges must be aligned to within relatively small tolerances to ensure that pipe
installation and flange boltup do not impose excessive loads on equipment nozzles.
Discussion of the actual allowable equipment loads is beyond the scope of this course.
However, the following table summarizes the industry standards that apply to equipment
nozzle load evaluations, and the parameters that are used to determine the allowable loads.

PARAMETERS USED
EQUIPMENT ITEM INDUSTRY CODE TO DETERMINE
ACCEPTABLE LOADS
Centrifugal Pumps API 610 Nozzle size.
Centrifugal Compressors API 617, 1.85 times NEMA Nozzle size, material.
SM-23 allowable
Air-Cooled Heat API 661 Nozzle size.
Exchangers
Pressure Vessels, Shell- ASME Code Section VIII, Nozzle size, thickness,
and-Tube, and Heat WRC 107, WRC 297 reinforcement details,
Exchanger Nozzles vessel/exchanger diameter,
and wall thickness.
Tank Nozzles API 650 Nozzle size, tank diameter,
height, shell thickness,
nozzle elevation.
Steam Turbines NEMA SM-23 Nozzle size.
Analysis Considerations for Rotating Equipment
Rotating equipment piping represents one of the more difficult systems to design for thermal
flexibility. The difficulty increases as the design temperature and pipe diameter increase. Use
pump piping systems as an example. The loads on the pump nozzles must be within
acceptable limits for all possible spare pump operating conditions. The overall design of
piping systems connected to rotating equipment is generally governed by the load limitations
on the equipment rather than the thermal expansion stresses in the pipe. If the equipment load
criteria are met, the thermal expansion stresses will generally be well within their acceptance
limits. The allowable loads for rotating equipment are based on nozzle diameter, and are
either read from a table or calculated from simple equations that are contained in the
appropriate industry standard.
The analysis should consider all pertinent branch runs that are connected to common
manifolds. For a pump system, one set of operating conditions is all pumps operating. The
effect of each pump being used as a spare or being blocked off for maintenance must also be
checked. For pumps that are on standby, unless they have warmup lines, the entire dead leg
from the manifold branch connection to the pump is assumed to be at ambient temperature.
Nozzle load limits must be satisfied for combined thermal, weight, and friction loads. Spring
supports are often needed near the pump nozzles to effectively reduce the weight load on the
pumps while free pipe thermal expansion is still allowed to take place.

Considerations for Stationary Equipment
Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers – The most common configuration for air-cooled heat exchanger
piping uses short, stiff, straight sections of pipe to connect the pipe manifold to the exchanger
nozzles. The manifold is located directly above or below the exchanger header box. The heat
exchanger tube bundle is allowed to move laterally to accommodate the thermal expansion of
the pipe manifold. The flexibility analysis should include the restraining effect of friction
from movement of the exchanger bundle, which will resist lateral movement of the bundle.
The reaction loads at the exchanger nozzles that are obtained from the results of the flexibility
analysis are compared to the allowable loads contained in a table in API 661 based on nozzle
diameter.
Pressure Vessels and Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers – The need to evaluate the loads that
are imposed on pressure vessel or shell-and-tube heat exchanger nozzles is not as obvious as
for rotating equipment or air-cooled heat exchangers. The comparison basis to employ is not
as simple either. These equipment items are not as "load sensitive" as the other two
categories. There is also no readily available industry standard that simply relates nozzle size
to allowable load.
Evaluation of nozzle loads that are imposed on these items requires calculating the local
stresses in the nozzle and vessel or exchanger shell resulting from these loads, combining
these with the stress due to design pressure, and limiting these combined stresses to allowable
limits. Performing this analysis requires consideration of the nozzle design details at the
vessel shell and the strength and stiffness of the vessel shell itself. Accepted procedures to
perform this evaluation are contained in Welding Research Council Bulletins WRC-107 and
WRC-297. Discussion of these procedures is beyond the scope of this course.
Fortunately, it is normally not necessary to perform such nozzle-load evaluations. In the

majority of cases, as long as the vessel nozzle details have been adequately designed for
pressure, and the piping system thermal expansion stresses are within allowable limits, the
loads on the vessel nozzles will normally be acceptable and do not require separate
verification. Unfortunately, there are no specific guidelines to indicate exactly when loads on
these equipment items should be checked. Evaluating nozzle loads should be considered in
situations where the pipe is of relatively large diameter [over about 600 mm (24 in.)],
especially if it is connected to a large-diameter/relatively thin-walled vessel (such as an
atmospheric or vacuum pipestill tower).

Tank Nozzles – The loads that are transmitted from piping to the shell nozzles of large-
diameter storage tanks are a major concern of tank designers. The loads are a result of shell
radial movement and nozzle rotation while filling and emptying a tank, thermal expansion of
piping, differential settlement between the tank and the piping supports, and the weight of
piping, valves, and other system components. As with pressure-vessel nozzles, determining
the allowable loads on tank nozzles is not a simple "table lookup" procedure based only on
nozzle diameter. It involves considering nozzle and tank geometry, nozzle location on the
tank shell, multiple equations and graphs, and a graphical solution. Discussion of this
procedure is beyond the scope of this course.
Extent of Analysis
The extent of a piping system flexibility and weight analysis depends on the situation.
Because the overall purpose of the analysis is to provide enough flexibility for the system, the
engineer must analyze the right combination of operating conditions to determine where, and
if, additional flexibility is needed to reduce pipe stresses or loads at end points. The engineer
must also decide if it is desirable and acceptable to not include portions of a large, complex
system in the analysis in order to simplify the modeling. For example, including a 100 mm
(4 in.) diameter branch run in the model of an extensive, 600 mm (24 in.) diameter main
system may not be necessary. Judicious installation of anchors or other restraints in a large
system could also help simplify the modeling.
The following steps are involved to confirm the acceptability of the planned piping design:
• Define line size, wall thickness, material, number of temperature cycles, layout,
maximum differential temperature, and any alternative operating scenarios.
• Determine conditions of end restraint and anchor movements, including deflections of

vessel shells and equipment casings.
• Locate intermediate points of restraint and define any limitations that they impose on
piping movement. This includes spring hangers and counterweights that are installed for
sustained weight loads.
• Select a suitable analysis method and calculate the loads and stresses.
• Compare the results with the allowable stress range for thermal expansion stresses, the
allowable stress at design temperature for weight-plus-pressure stresses, and the
applicable load criteria for connected equipment.

Providing Additional Thermal Flexibility
The initial piping system layout may not be satisfactory for thermal flexibility stresses or
loads on connected equipment. The following guidelines may help the situation.
• Provide more offsets or bends, or use more expansion loops within the same space.
These make the system more flexible and reduce the thermal stresses.
• Install expansion joints. However, SAES-L-011, Paragraph 2.8, makes this the
exception by imposing the following restrictions:
- The use of corrugated metal pipe sections or creased bends to reduce the stiffness
is prohibited for all pressure services. Swivel joints, expansion joints, flexible pipe
or hose, or similar devices shall be used only when approved by the Chief
Engineer through the waiver process.
- Expansion joints represent a "weak link" in a piping system. They may affect the
life of the system since they are more susceptible to damage, and can create
maintenance and operational problems. Thus, the use of expansion joints should
only be considered as a last resort, and only through the waiver process.
• Make use of cold spring to prestress a piping system so that loads and moments are
minimized when the piping is hot. However, cold spring does not affect piping
flexibility stresses because the stress range from cold to hot must be considered. Cold
spring should be avoided for piping that is connected to rotating equipment since it is
difficult to control accurately.
• Strategically locate restraints such as guides, directional anchors, and limit stops, to
minimize thermal and friction loads at equipment. Restraints could also be used to
direct pipe thermal expansion into a section of the system that has more inherent
flexibility to absorb it.
• Use spring supports if large vertical thermal movements are expected, or if thermal
expansion causes pipe to lift off fixed supports. Avoid fixed supports that result in large
thermal stresses.
• Use Teflon bearing pads at supports for large-diameter pipe or other large weight loads
if friction loads are excessive. Friction loads can accumulate along the line and create
unacceptable loads at equipment connections, or create the need for stronger structural
members.

Sample Problem 3
Refer again to Figure 6 and the information that was provided in Sample Problems 1 and 2.
For the system illustrated, either P-101A or P-101B is required to be in operation for the
process application. Assume that all the supports and restraints discussed in Sample Problems
1 and 2 will be installed. There are no similar systems to this in operation. It is now necessary
to answer the following questions:
a. Is a formal piping flexibility analysis required for this system?
b. What design conditions and operating variations should be considered?
c. Specify whether equipment nozzle loads must be considered and if so, the basis to be
used for this evaluation and the loads that must be considered.
d. Assuming the thermal loads imposed on the pump nozzles are found to be too high,
what design concepts might be worth considering to try to reduce them to acceptable
limits?
Solution
a. The simple criteria from ASME/ANSI B31.3 to exempt systems from formal analysis
cannot be used since this system has more than two fixed points and is connected to
load-sensitive equipment. Referring to the table in Work Aid 1, this system far exceeds
the diameter guideline for when a formal analysis should be done for pump piping.
Therefore, formal flexibility analysis is required.
b. Note that the following additional information must be obtained before a formal analysis
can be done.
• Some layout dimensions are missing.

• The type of elbows must be determined.
• The type of branch connection South of Location 4 must be specified.
• The thermal movements at the pump nozzles must be determined. These will
depend on the location of the nozzle with respect to the fixed point on the pump
casing.
• The thermal movements at the T-101 nozzle must be determined. This will depend
on the elevation of the nozzle with respect to the tower support and the radius of
the tower.

A thermal analysis, a weight analysis, and a combined thermal-plus-weight analysis

would definitely be required to design the system. A wind analysis could be considered
for completeness. However, windloads on the pipe are not likely to govern the design,
especially with the guiding assumed in the vertical run at Location 6.
Three different scenarios must be analyzed to account for the pump operating cases: P-
101A operating with P-101B spared; the opposite case; and both pumps operating,
corresponding to the period of time when the pumps are being switched. The portion of
pipe between the branch connection and the nonoperating pump is considered to be at
ambient temperature for the first two cases, while the rest of the system is at design
temperature.
c. Nozzle loads at P-101 A/B must be evaluated using API 610 based on the 300 mm (12
in.) nozzle diameter. To be precise, the nozzle loads at T-101 could be evaluated as
well, but in this situation should not be necessary. The pipe diameter is not that large,
and the pump nozzles are much more sensitive than the vessel nozzle. Thus, any piping
system design that achieves acceptable pump-nozzle loads will result in very low piping
stresses, and it is unlikely that the vessel-nozzle loads will be high. Should a vessel-
nozzle load evaluation be considered necessary, additional information regarding vessel
and nozzle details would be required.
d. If thermal loads on the pump are still too high, the two most likely possible actions to
consider are to add more restraint(s), or provide additional flexibility by adding more
offsets or an expansion loop. The first approach is the more attractive if it works since it
would be much less expensive and not require additional plot space.
In this situation, it is necessary to identify the direction in which the high force or
bending moment is acting. This is easily found from the results of the flexibility
analysis. Then try to determine what might be causing it, and then make a design
change to counteract it. For example, if East/West deflections at Locations 1 and 2
cause high bending moments at the nozzles, adding East/West stops at these locations
might solve the problem.

USE OF ANCHORS FOR BURIED PIPING SYSTEMS AND DESIGN TOOLS
Pipeline Forces to Be Resisted
In buried piping applications, such as pipelines, the piping system is continuously supported
by the soil, and anchors are used to absorb the thrust loads that result from restrained thermal
expansion and limit pipe end movements. There are special considerations for anchoring
underground piping that the engineer must consider in pipeline applications. Specifically, the
resistance of the anchor to movement (discussed below), and external loads at roads and
railroad crossings, must be considered.
Thermal expansion calculations are needed for buried lines if large temperature changes are
expected. Anchors are needed to limit movement at the ends of the pipeline, at changes in
direction, and at changes in pipe size. Excessive movement of a buried pipeline can cause
shifting of the soil that supports the pipe, subsidence of the cover, or damage the external pipe
coating (if one is installed). In extreme cases, excessive movement can eventually lead to
overstress in the pipe and/or inadequate cover depth, or external pipe corrosion.
For buried, restrained pipelines, the net longitudinal compressive stress in the pipe due to
temperature rise and pressure is calculated as follows, in accordance with ASME/ANSI
B31.4:
SL = Eα ( T 2 − T1 ) − ν Sh
where: SL = Longitudinal compressive stress, psi.
Sh = Hoop stress due to pressure, psi.
T1 = Temperature at time of installation, °F.
T2 = Maximum or minimum operating temperature, °F.
E = Modulus of elasticity, psi.
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion, in./in./°F.

ν = Poisson's ratio.

ASME/ANSI B31.4 limits SL to 90% of the pipe SMYS. The equation shows that it is
preferable to have the tie-in temperature as close as possible to the operating temperature to
minimize SL. Multiplying this calculated stress by the pipe cross-sectional area yields the
force that must be resisted by the anchor to limit pipeline movement during operation.
However, the maximum force for which the anchor must be designed occurs when there is no
pressure in the line (i.e., Sh is zero). This situation occurs when the line is empty, or is filled
with liquid but is not in operation.
ASME/ANSI B31.4 does not require that the bending stress in buried pipelines, Sb, be
included in the calculation of SL. However, SAES-L-003 requires that all sustained loads and
constraining forces also be included in the calculation of SL. These loads result in an
additional bending stress, and are typically caused by pipe misalignment during installation
and elastic bends in the pipe that are required to conform to the ground profile. Saudi
Aramco limits the maximum bending stress, Sb, as follows:
Sb ≤ 0.9 (SMYS) - 0.7 Sh - Eα (T2 - T1)
The maximum permitted bending stress can then be calculated based on the known values of
the other parameters. In some cases, it may be necessary to increase the pipewall thickness
beyond what is required for internal pressure alone. This thickness increase might be needed
to provide a high enough value of Sb to permit pipeline installation using practical limits on
misalignment tolerances and elastic bend requirements.
Saudi Aramco often uses computer programs to calculate SL, Sb and the resulting forces for
which the pipeline anchors must be designed because multiple parameters are involved. The
Consulting Services Department should be contacted when these calculations are required.

Types of Anchors
Before discussing the forces available to resist anchor movement which may result from Sb,
the following describes Saudi Aramco requirements for the primary types of anchors for
restrained end and intermediate anchors, as stated in SAES-L-011.
• Aboveground restrained pipelines shall be provided with end anchors that are designed
to withstand the full thrust and pull forces due to thermal expansion and contraction, and
due to internal fluid pressure considering Poissons ratio, with a maximum anchor
deflection of
6 mm (0.25 in.).
• The potential end movements of buried pipelines shall be conservatively estimated. If

these movements exceed 50 mm (2 in.), a full-thrust or drag anchor shall be provided
and be designed per SAES-L-044 to limit the end movement to less than 25 mm (1 in.).
• Differential-thrust anchors shall be provided on aboveground restrained pipelines where

there is a change in thrust, such as due to a change in pipe diameter or wall thickness,
except when the associated local axial movement of the line can be shown to be less
than 6 mm (0.25 in.).
• Any change in direction in the horizontal and/or vertical plane of aboveground

restrained pipelines requires one or more deflection anchors designed to resist the
resultant forces on each side of the deflection. Deflection anchors may be required on
buried pipelines if the passive soil restraint against the pipe alone is not sufficient to
fully restrain the line.
• Saudi Aramco Standard Drawing AB-036415 illustrates typical details for concrete-
thrust block anchors.

Forces Available to Resist Anchor Movement
The previous discussion described the pipeline forces that must be resisted, the anchor types
that may be used, and limitations on anchor movement. This section will conclude with
discussion of the forces that are available to resist movement of an anchor. A combination of
the soil cover depth, soil friction, and anchors are used to restrain thermal expansion.
The full-thrust anchor force, or differential anchor force, without any reduction on account of
soil friction due to assumed movement, shall be used for the design and stress calculations of
the anchor. This includes structural steel design, welding details, attachment to the pipe,
stability of the anchor against overturning, concrete stresses, and reinforcing bar selection.
Solely for sizing a concrete-block drag anchor, credit may be taken for the soil friction on the
length of pipe assumed to be a maximum of 25 mm (1 in.) at the drag anchor.
The forces that are available to resist anchor movement come from the direct bearing loads
between the anchor and the surrounding material, friction loads between the anchor and the
surrounding material, and friction between the soil and pipe. SAES-L-044, Anchors for
Cross-Country Pipelines, provides design criteria for sizing concrete anchors. These design
criteria consider the following factors:
• Whether the anchor is in a rock area or in granular, well-compacted soil that is above the
water table. This determines the bearing load and friction factors that are applicable at
the anchor.
• Anchor depth beneath the surface.
• Anchor size (height and width). This determines the effective anchor bearing load based
on specified values of bearing pressure.
• Friction on both sides of the anchor assuming a specified active soil pressure and
friction coefficient.
• Friction on the bottom of the anchor assuming a specified friction coefficient.
• The axial friction force that accumulates along the moving length of pipeline that is
adjacent to a drag anchor. This pipe friction reduces the load that must actually be
absorbed by the anchor.
• In order to maximize the stability of anchors, the resultant of all anchor forces shall have
a line of action that is close to the centerline of the pipeline. This will minimize the
tendency for the applied loads to rotate the anchor. Any resulting overturning moment
on buried anchors shall be resisted by the weight of the anchor times the distance from
the center of gravity to the leading face.
Participants should refer to SAES-L-044 and ADP-L-044 for additional details.

WORK AID 1: CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING MAXIMUM SUPPORT SPACING
The maximum spacing between two supports is based on the allowable stress and deflection
criteria. This is determined through two calculations.:
• A calculation based on stress limits:
0 . 8 Zf s
L ≤
W
• A calculation based on deflection limits:
EI ∆
L ≤ 4
13 . 5 W
where: L = Length of span, ft.

fs = (1/2) x allowable stress at maximum temperature per applicable
ASME/ANSI B31 Code, psi. Note that this assumes that the pipewall
thickness exactly matches that required for internal pressure. The
longitudinal pressure stress thus also equals half the ASME/ANSI
B31 Code allowable stress. This is a simplified assumption, but is
conservative for situations where excess wall thickness is actually
provided.
∆ = Maximum deflection, in., equal to the smaller of 25 mm (1 in.) or half
the nominal pipe diameter
W = Weight of pipe, including commodity and insulation if any, lb/ft.
E = Modulus of elasticity of pipe, psi.
I = Moment of inertia of the pipe, in.4
Z = Section modulus of the pipe, in.3
Check which loads should be considered in the design of supports:
[] Weight of pipe, insulation, and lining.
[] Weight of line contents based on water or the line contents, whichever is larger.
[] Lateral loads due to wind.
[] Lateral loads due to movement of lines and support.

MAXIMUM SPAN TABLES
FIGURE 9

GLOSSARY
anchor A rigid restraint providing substantially full fixation, ideally

not allowing translational or rotational displacement of the
pipe along any of the three reference axes. It is employed for
purposes of restraint but usually serves equally well as a
restraint, support, or brace.
brace A device primarily intended to resist piping displacement due

to the action of any forces other than those due to thermal
expansion or gravity.
cold spring The intentional stressing and elastic deformation of the piping
system during the erection cycle to permit the system to attain
more favorable reactions and stresses in the operating
condition.
constant-effort A support which is capable of applying a relatively constant

support force at any displacement within its useful operating range
(i.e., a counterweight or compensating spring device).
damping device A dashpot or other frictional device which increases the

resistance of a system to vibration. It offers high resistance
against rapid displacements caused by dynamic loads, while
permitting essentially free movement under gradually applied
displacement such as from thermal expansion.
expansion joint A flexible pressure-containing component of a piping system

which is designed to absorb thermal movement.
guide A device preventing rotation about one or more axes due to

bending moment or torsion. In common usage, a guide
normally permits translation along the pipe axis but prevents
translation perpendicular to the pipe axis.
hanger A support by which piping is suspended from a structure or

other fixed point located above it, and which functions by
carrying the piping load in tension.

limit stop A device which restricts translational movement to a limited

amount in one direction along any single axis. Paralleling the
various stops, there may also be: double-acting limit stops,
two-axis limit stops, etc.
resilient or A support which includes one or more largely elastic members

flexible support (i.e., a spring).
resting or A device for providing support from beneath the piping, but
sliding support offering no resistance other than frictional to horizontal
motion.
restraint Any device which prevents, resists, or limits the free thermal
movement of piping.
rigid (solid) A support providing stiffness in at least one direction that is

support comparable to that of the pipe.
stop A device which permits rotation but prevents translational

movement in at least one direction along any desired axis. If
translation is prevented in both directions along the same axis,
the term "doubling-acting stop" is preferably applied. In
common usage, a stop normally acts along the direction of the
pipe axis.
support A device used to sustain a portion of piping system weight

plus any superimposed vertical loadings.
two-axis stop A device which prevents translational movement in one

direction along each of two axes. A "two-axis double-acting
stop" prevents translational movement in the plane of the axes
while allowing such movement normal to the plane.

Piping Support and Flexibility

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Piping Layout, Support, And Flexibility

IDENTIFYING OPERATIONAL, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Considerations for Stationary Equipment....................................................................46

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

IDENTIFYING OPERATIONAL, MAINTENANCE, AND SAFETY FACTORS THAT

Clearances Above and Below Piping

• Flanges extend from the pipe.

• Contact with the ground causes corrosion.

Clearances above the pipe are necessary:

• For opening and closing valves.

• To manually operate and/or replace equipment.

SAES-L-011, Flexibility, Support, and Anchoring of Piping, Paragraph 3.1, specifies

• Above-grade piping shall be supported to provide a clearance between the bottom of

- In areas with moving sand dunes: 0.9 m (3 ft.).

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

Location of Shutoff and Control Valves, Sample Points, Vessel Flanges

• SAES-L-020, Design of Transportation Piping Systems, Paragraphs 6.1 to 6.3, specify

a) For all fluid services in Class 1 locations (SAES-B-064), 32 km (20 miles);

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Layout of Piping Associated with Scraper Traps

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Maximum Use of Existing Pipeways and Supports

Pump and Compressor Piping

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Thermal Expansion Clearances

Facilitate Support and Restraint

• Piping system should support itself as much as possible.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Access Clearance For Maintenance Equipment and Vehicles

Removal of Equipment Requiring Maintenance

• Heat exchanger bundles need to be pulled out for cleaning.

• Large valves must be removed to repair or replace their seats.

• Rotating equipment requires frequent monitoring and maintenance.

Heat Exchanger Bundle Removal

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Access Clearance for Firefighting Equipment

Locating Pipeways to Prevent Injuries to Personnel

Separating Hazardous Piping From Piping Vital to Safety

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

THE FUNCTION OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUPPORTS AND RESTRAINTS

Selection of a particular type of support or restraint to use in a particular situation depends on

• Weight load to be supported or restraint load to be absorbed.

• Clearance available for attachment to the pipe.

• The direction of loads to be absorbed or movement to be restrained.

• The need to permit vertical thermal movement at a support.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Supports and Restraints

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

Base Adjustable Support Dummy Support

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

Flexible or Resilient Supports

Figure 3 illustrates various flexible supports.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

Restraints have two primary purposes in a piping system.

1. Control the unrestricted thermal movement (expansion or contraction) of the pipe by

A piping system is generally considered to be totally restrained at its end connection