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I n the last few decades, the institution- since the mid-1970s, serving time in
al contours of American social inequal- prison has become a normal life event.
ity have been transformed by the rapid The influence of the penal system on
growth in the prison and jail population.1 social and economic disadvantage can
America’s prisons and jails have pro- be seen in the economic and family lives
duced a new social group, a group of of the formerly incarcerated. The social
social outcasts who are joined by the inequality produced by mass incarcer-
shared experience of incarceration, ation is sizable and enduring for three
crime, poverty, racial minority, and main reasons: it is invisible, it is cumu-
low education. As an outcast group, lative, and it is intergenerational. The
the men and women in our penal insti- inequality is invisible in the sense that
tutions have little access to the social institutionalized populations commonly
mobility available to the mainstream. lie outside our of½cial accounts of eco-
Social and economic disadvantage, nomic well-being. Prisoners, though
crystallizing in penal con½nement, drawn from the lowest rungs in society,
is sustained over the life course and appear in no measures of poverty or un-
transmitted from one generation to employment. As a result, the full extent
the next. This is a profound institu- of the disadvantage of groups with high
tionalized inequality that has renewed incarceration rates is underestimated.
race and class disadvantage. Yet the The inequality is cumulative because the
scale and empirical details tell a story social and economic penalties that flow
that is largely unknown. from incarceration are accrued by those
Though the rate of incarceration is who already have the weakest economic
historically high, perhaps the most im- opportunities. Mass incarceration thus
portant social fact is the inequality in deepens disadvantage and forecloses
penal con½nement. This inequality pro- mobility for the most marginal in socie-
duces extraordinary rates of incarcera- ty. Finally, carceral inequalities are inter-
tion among young African American generational, affecting not just those
men with no more than a high school who go to prison and jail but their fam-
education. For these young men, born ilies and children, too.
Source: Becky Pettit, Bryan Sykes, and Bruce Western, “Technical Report on Revised Population Estimates
and nlsy79 Analysis Tables for the Pew Public Safety and Mobility Project” (Harvard University, 2009).
cation, we see that incarceration rates Even among young white dropouts, the
today have barely increased since 1980. incarceration rate had grown remarkably,
Incarceration rates have increased among with around one in eight behind bars by
African Americans and whites who have 2008. The signi½cant growth of incarcer-
completed high school. Among young ation rates among the least educated re-
African American men with high school flects increasing class inequality in in-
diplomas, about one in ten is in prison carceration through the period of the
or jail. prison boom.
Most of the growth in incarceration These incarceration rates provide
rates is concentrated at the very bottom, only a snapshot at a point in time. We
among young men with very low lev- can also examine the lifetime chance
els of education. In 1980, around 10 per- of incarceration–that is, the chance
cent of young African American men that someone will go to prison at some
who dropped out of high school were in point in his or her life. This cumulative
prison or jail. By 2008, this incarceration risk of incarceration is important if serv-
rate had climbed to 37 percent, an aston- ing time in prison confers an enduring
ishing level of institutionalization given status that affects life chances after re-
that the average incarceration rate in the turning to free society. The lifetime risk
general population was 0.76 of 1 percent. of imprisonment describes how many
1945–1949 cohort
White 1.4 3.8 1.5 0.4
Black 10.4 14.7 11.0 5.3
Latino 2.8 4.1 2.9 1.1
1975–1979 cohort
White 5.4 28.0 6.2 1.2
Black 26.8 68.0 21.4 6.6
Latino 12.2 19.6 9.2 3.4
people are at risk of these diminished ties at the end of the 1970s, about one
life chances. in ten African American men served
We calculated the cumulative chance time in prison. For the younger cohort
of imprisonment for two birth cohorts, born from 1975 to 1979, the lifetime risk
one born just after World War II, from of imprisonment for African American
1945 to 1949, and another born from 1975 men had increased to one in four. Pris-
to 1979 (Table 1). For each cohort, we on time has become a normal life event
calculated the chances of imprisonment, for African American men who have
not jail incarceration. Prisons are the dropped out of high school. Fully 68
deep end of the criminal justice system, percent of these men born since the
now incarcerating people for an average mid-1970s have prison records. The
of twenty-eight months for a felony con- high rate of incarceration has redrawn
viction. While there are about ten mil- the pathway through young adulthood.
lion admissions to local jails each year– The main sources of upward mobility
for those awaiting trial or serving short for African American men–namely,
sentences–around seven hundred thou- military service and a college degree–
sand prisoners are now admitted annu- are signi½cantly less common than a
ally to state and federal facilities. prison record. For the ½rst generations
These cumulative chances of impris- growing up in the post–civil rights era,
onment are calculated up to age thirty- the prison now looms as a signi½cant
four. For most of the population, this institutional influence on life chances.
represents the lifetime likelihood of
serving prison time. For the older post-
war cohort who reached their mid-thir-
The ubiquity of penal con½nement in
the lives of young African American men
Source: Becky Pettit, Bryan Sykes, and Bruce Western, “Technical Report on Revised Population Estimates
and nlsy79 Analysis Tables for the Pew Public Safety and Mobility Project” (Harvard University, 2009).
burgeoning research literature examin- has been interviewed at some point be-
ing the economic effects of incarcera- tween 1979 and 2006 while incarcerated,
tion ½nds that incarceration is associat- compared to 5 percent of whites and 12
ed with reduced earnings and employ- percent of Latino respondents. Analysis
ment.4 of the nlsy showed that serving time in
We analyzed panel data from the Na- prison was associated with a 40 percent
tional Longitudinal Survey of Youth reduction in earnings and with reduced
(nlsy), one of the few surveys that fol- job tenure, reduced hourly wages, and
lows respondents over a long period of higher unemployment.
time and that interviews incarcerated The negative effects of incarceration,
respondents in prison. The nlsy began even among men with very poor eco-
in 1979, when its panel of respondents nomic opportunities to begin with, are
was aged fourteen to twenty-one; it com- related to the strong negative percep-
pleted its latest round of interviews in tions employers have of job seekers with
2006. Matching our population estimates criminal records. Devah Pager’s experi-
of incarceration, one in ½ve African mental research has studied these em-
American male respondents in the nlsy ployer perceptions by sending pairs of
friends, if you’re in that lifestyle, most ties leave formerly incarcerated parents
the time they’re gonna be sittin’ right less equipped to provide ½nancially for
next to your ass in prison. . . . The males, their children. New research also shows
they don’t really participate like a lot that the children of incarcerated parents,
of females in the lives of the incarcerat- particularly the boys, are at greater risk
ed. . . . They don’t deal with it, like ½rst of developmental delays and behavioral
of all they don’t like to bring to reality problems.8
that you’re in prison; they don’t wanna Against this evidence for the negative
think about that . . . Or some of ’em just effects of incarceration, we should weigh
don’t care. So the male’s kinda like wiped the gains to public safety obtained by
out of there, so that puts all the burden on separating violent or otherwise antiso-
the woman.7 cial men from their children and part-
ners. Domestic violence is much more
Partly because of the burdens of in-
common among the formerly incarcer-
carceration on women who are left to
ated compared to other disadvantaged
raise families in free society, incarcera-
men. Survey data indicate that formerly
tion is strongly associated with divorce
incarcerated men are about four times
and separation. In addition to the forced
more likely to assault their domestic part-
separation of incarceration, the post-
ners than men who have never been in-
release effects on economic opportuni-
carcerated. Though the relative risk is
Source: Becky Pettit, Bryan Sykes, and Bruce Western, “Technical Report on Revised Population Estimates
and nlsy79 Analysis Tables for the Pew Public Safety and Mobility Project” (Harvard University, 2009).
endnotes
1 We gratefully acknowledge Bryan Sykes, Deirdre Bloome, and Chris Muller, who helped
conduct the research reported in this paper. This research was supported in part by a gift
from The Elfenworks Foundation.
2 In her essay for this issue, Candace Kruttschnitt shows that women’s incarceration has
pronounced effects by separating mothers from their children. The continued growth of
women’s incarceration rates threatens to have large effects on family life.
3 Bruce Western, Punishment and Inequality in America (New York: Russell Sage Foundation,
2006); Caroline Wolf Harlow, Education and Correctional Populations (Washington, D.C.:
Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2003).