current briefs
Sun storms
Modeling solar phenomena
Every second, five million tons of matter
are converted into energy deep within the
Sun. Nuclear reactions in the core provide
the source of the Sun’s energy, which then
radiates through the dense interior and exits
through the Sun’s surface and atmosphere
into space. Along with this radiation, the Sun
emits a variable stream of charged particles
referred to as the solar wind. With a speed
of up to 2.5 million miles per hour, the solar
wind blows past Earth and eventually escapes
our solar system. During active periods,
however, large magnetic eruptions called
flares or coronal mass ejections (CMEs) can
drastically alter the solar wind in ways that
can greatly affect the Earth’s geomagnetic
environment.
The enormous electromagnetic eruption
of a CME can interfere with our communica-
tions and electric power infrastructures. A
better understanding of how CMEs affect us
on Earth is necessary to ensure their integrity.
Our planet has its own magnetic field that
acts as a giant protective bubble, shielding
us against the incoming solar wind, but it is
not always an impenetrable barrier against
a CME. An enhancement in the northern
lights is among the visual effects of such a
disturbance, but charged particles associ-
ated with CMEs can have other, potentially
destructive consequences. They can interfere
with the normal operation of radio and sat-
ellite communications and electric power
grids, as well as disrupt global positioning
networks. Magnetic disturbances associated
with CMEs have occurred throughout his-
tory, with the strongest geomagnetic storm
in recent memory occurring in March 1989.
Over the past decade, a team at UC
Berkeley, NASA, and other concerned indus-
try partners, have been working toward reli-
able models of CMEs that could eventually
serve as forecasting tools. The collaborative
Solar Multidisciplinary University Research
Initiative (MURI) was formed in 2001, led by
principal investigator George Fisher, a solar
physicist at the Space Sciences Laboratory,
and several of his colleages also at UC
Berkeley. From 2001 to 2006, Fisher’s group
played the lead role in a coordinated effort
by nine research institutions across the US
to investigate the mechanisms of magnetic
eruptions on the Sun and their effects on our
solar system at large.
To understand the research at MURI,
we must first understand a bit about the
structure of our Sun. Imagine traveling from
the Sun’s core all the way to the outermost
layer of the Sun, the solar corona. To do
so, you would need to pass through three
distinct regions. You would start in the
deep interior surrounding the core, where
the energy generated by nuclear reactions
is transported by little packets of light
called photons. Next you would reach the
solar convection zone, a turbulent layer that
spans the outer 30 percent or so of the Sun,
where energy is transported through rolling
convective motions, much like in a boiling
pot of water. Finally, you would travel out
through the surface of the Sun at the top of
the convection zone, where the density of the
plasma is low enough for photons to escape
past the corona and into space.
While the core is extremely hot at 27
million degrees Fahrenheit, the tempera-
tures gradually cool as you travel outward.
At the surface of the Sun, the temperature
is a relatively cool 9980 degrees. However,
as you move beyond the surface and into
the solar atmosphere, something strange
happens—the temperature suddenly rises
millions of degrees. Physicists generally
attribute this dramatic temperature increase
 to the dynamic magnetic field that threads
its way through the convective interior and
fills the corona.
The UC Berkeley team’s primary goal has
been to develop and use advanced numerical
models to understand the physics behind
this dramatic temperature change and the
trigger mechanism for eruptive events like
flares and CMEs. These numerical tools
will hopefully be used to understand and
predict the potentially destructive geomag-
netic storms that result from solar eruptions,
providing a means to forecast space weather.
Unfortunately, the large variations in physi-
cal conditions between the solar interior and
its outer atmosphere make such models
incredibly difficult to develop. The plasma of
the solar convection zone (between the core
and the surface) is dense, opaque, and turbu-
lent, whereas the solar corona is rarified and
transparent, with its structure and evolution
dominated by its magnetic field. Although
each domain may be separately understood
quite well, “a quantitative understanding
of the global magnetic behavior of the Sun
poses a formidable challenge,” says William
Abbett, a MURI researcher at UC Berkeley’s
Space Sciences Lab.
To efficiently model and predict
the behavior of dynamic and electri-
cally charged fluids, physicists often use
a set of conservation equations called
Magneto-Hydro-Dynamic equations, or
MHD. Abbett developed a specialized code
called RADMHD (RADiative MHD) that
is designed to simultaneously simulate the
transition region between the cool dense
sub-surface layers and the hot rarified
corona—the very region that may hold the
key to a better understanding of coronal
heating and magnetic eruptions.
“RADMHD has enough physics incor-
porated into the code to be able to simulate
the granular convective pattern observed at
the Sun’s photosphere,” says Abbett. A key
NASA
strength of the RADMHD model is its ability
While the Earth’s magnetosphere protects it from most forms of solar wind, large magnetic surges in the outer
layer of the Sun, called “coronal mass ejections” or CMEs, can occasionally penetrate the Earth’s defenses .
to incorporate magnetograms—maps of the
surface magnetic field observed by NASA
satellites—directly into a computational
model that includes the coronal magnetic
field. This enables a new paradigm in solar
physics: much like simulations used for ter-
restrial weather forecasting, it is now feasible
to use previous observations of the evolving
magnetic field at the surface to predict its
future state.
The UC Berkeley-led MURI effort has
deepened and extended computational
capabilities and allowed realistic modeling
of how solar magnetic fields emerge and
evolve. Modeling how CMEs and other
eruptions are launched, however, remains
an ongoing challenge. “The mechanisms that
trigger and drive these eruptions are the least
understood aspects of space weather,” says
Fisher. “As yet, no one has demonstrated the
ability to use a physics-based solar model
that incorporates observed data to make
a deterministic prediction of a CME.” To
date, all CME forecasts rely upon statistical
associations between how properties of the
solar surface have related to the occurrence of
CMEs in past data. All that can be said today
is that if the Sun’s surface looks a certain
way, we can guess that it might produce a
CME soon, with the operative words being
“might” and “soon.”
The UC Berkeley group is conducting
ongoing studies of pre-CME coronal evolu-
tion. One of the current objectives of their
research is a better understanding of how
magnetic flux systems emerge across the
solar surface, a process that some researchers
contend is primarily responsible for CME
initiation.
The Great Magnetic Storm in September
1859, known as the Carrington event, is still
the strongest magnetic storm on record.
For several days, it produced spectacular
auroral displays that were seen at latitudes
as low as Hawaii, and it severely disrupted
telegraph communications in Europe and
North America. Today, the effects would be
far more devestating, affecting space-based
communication, reconnaissance, GPS, and
millions of users dependent on the power
grid. Is a similar magnetic storm in our
future? The MURI team can’t say for sure,
even using their sophisticated RADMHD
code. In the early months of 2011, the Sun
unexpectedly kicked up a series of unusually
intense X-ray flashes. Despite continuing
progress in solar physics, we still have a lot
to learn about our central star.
Alireza Moharrer is an employee of the solar
power company Flagsol in Oakland, CA.
Spring 2011 Berkeley Science Review 7