Symbols of Canada: Historical Flags and The National Flag of Canada

SYMBOLS OF CANADA:
Historical flags and the National Flag of Canada.
Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra
Symbols of Canada: Historical Flags and the National Flag of Canada
Preface
Nothing makes the citizens of a nation prouder than the appearance of the
national flag. A flag is not simply a piece of cloth, but a symbol evoking a
plethora of intense feelings and profound emotions, appearing in all sorts of
places, from battle fields to game fields. A flag is the highest and most sacred
symbol of a country, treasured by the people and honoured by the public
officials, representing the nation’s psyche in and out of the country,
epitomising its history, past, present and future aspirations, and accumulating
the abstruse idea of what a country is. The national flag of Canada and the
flags of the provinces and territories are symbols of honour and pride for all
Canadians and should, accordingly, be treated with respect. This article is a
tribute to the Canadian Flag, which recently celebrated its 45th birthday.
Introduction
Although Canada truly became a sovereign country in 19311, it lacked a
national flag: it used, for a good many years, the Canadian Red Ensign, a
“borrowed” flag from the British Navy, whose use was for a long time not
officially legitimised. There was no flag which Canadians, regardless of
extraction, could fly to proclaim their Canadianness, a result of Canada’s
external dichotomy, being entangled between the disparate usage2 of flags in
the United Kingdom and the United States. The use of the maple leaf itself,
which was not officially sanctioned until 1965, was an outlet from Canada’s
internal dichotomy, the ambiguous loyalty to the Nation and the Empire.
Although today Canada’s flag is the most recognisable symbol of the country,
and is appropriately honoured by its citizens - regardless of ethnic background
-, it is in fact the product of a much bitter debate, which divided Canadians for
98 years. Acknowledgement should primarily be given to the two rival political
protagonists, Diefenbaker3 and Pearson, both of whom were ardent Canadian
patriots, adhering though to different visions for Canada, personifying
Canadian Imperialism and Canadian Nationalism, respectively, so aptly
encapsulated by the symbols each chose to represent his country.
1
. The passing of the Statute of Westminster by the Imperial Parliament, on 11 December 1931,
formally declared that all the self-governing Dominions of the Empire/Commonwealth and Britain
were constitutionally “equal in status”, with “no member subordinate in any way” to another,
changing the legal status of the Dominions (Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa).
2
. Contrary to American practice, whose stars and stripes represented the citizens and could be
flown by them freely (a common practice only after the Civil War, 1861-1865), there was no such
precedent or provision in the British ceremonial: the British subject had no such flag; the Union
Jack was the flag of the sovereign and his/her representatives. Its keen use as a national flag by the
British is a post-World War II (1939-1945) phenomenon.
3
. Despite his tenacious opposition to the adoption of a Canadian flag, it should not be forgotten
that, ironically, his election campaigns in 1957 and 1958 had engendered a tremendous feeling of
national pride among Canadians. But, the Canadianism which he embraced had blossomed beyond
his vision and he was left in its wake, as the champion of the old Canadian imperialism.
Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 1

Early Canadian flags

Canada’s history is marked and largely defined by its past as a colony and a
vast land shared (or, perhaps, divided) between the First Nations and two of
the World’s largest colonial nations, Britain and France, which often found
themselves in armed conflict between them. This dual past has been an
integral part of Canada’s identity, which has now evolved from a bi-communal
country into a multi-cultural mosaic of nations.
The first flag flown over Canadian soil was the
English flag (a white flag with St. George’s Red
Cross in the middle, established in 1277). It was
carried by John Cabot, a Venetian sailing under
English colours, and raised upon his reaching the
East coast of Canada in 1497. This flag was used in
the English colonies of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
In 1534, Jacques Cartier landed at Gaspe
Harbour and claimed the new land for France,
thus forming the Nouvelle France and Québec
colonies, located in eastern and central
Canada. During the French sovereignty, eight
military flags were used4, including the white
flag of la Marine Royale after 1674, but the
fleur-de-lis flag, representing French royalty, was the most prominent of all.
Following the Treaty of Paris, Canada was
ceded to Great Britain in 1763, whose flag at
the time was the two-crossed Royal Union
flag5. Although it was first flown in Canada in
the British Settlement in Nova Scotia in 1621,
it was used in all of Britain’s colonies in North
America, from Newfoundland to the Gulf of Mexico.
In 1801, following the Act of Union
between Great Britain and Ireland,
Canada started using the present Royal
Union flag (with the addition of St.
Patrick’s red diagonal cross). On 18
December 1964, the Canadian Parliament
approved the continued use of this flag, as a symbol of membership in the
Commonwealth of Nations and allegiance to the Crown (see page 17).
4
. Details about these flags may be found at http://www.crwflags.com/FOTW/FLAGS/ca-16-fr.html.
5
. Commonly known as the Union Jack, its original version (used since 1606) was an amalgamation of
St. George’s red cross, impressed upon the Scottish flag - St. Andrew’s white cross on a dark blue
background. Wales had been subdued by England since 1284, hence its absence on the flag.

Many are unaware of the fact that the flag of
Spain once flew over Canada. By virtue of the
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the Spanish
claimed ownership of the west coast from
Mexico to Vancouver Island as Spanish
territory. Early Spanish explorers landed in a
few places on the west coast of Canada in 1592
and again in 1774, without building any settlements. In 1789, Spain asserted its
claim to the region by establishing a small fort at Friendly Cove at the
entrance to Nootka Sound on the west coast of Vancouver Island, fearful of the
Russian intentions to explore the coast south of Alaska, and worried by the
increased trading activity of the British that followed Captain James Cook’s
historic visit to the area in 1778. In 1795, the Spanish withdrew from the
Nootka Sound area to explore further south.
Following the War of 1812 (June 1812 - February 1815), when the United States
Congress declared war on Great Britain and attacked Canada, Canadians
successfully defended their homeland. This caused a sudden rise of national
identity sentiments, uniting its English and French inhabitants. It was not too
long that Canadians began to feel they should have their own national flag.
In 1867, Great Britain’s Parliament passed
the British North America Act, which
formed its North American colonies into a
union called the Dominion of Canada6. The
Confederation used the Royal Union flag
until 16 July 1870, when it was replaced by
the Red Ensign (a red flag with the Union Jack in the upper left corner). The
Red Ensign was created in 1707 as the flag of the British Mercantile Marine and
was modified accordingly, by the addition of a shield bearing the quartered
arms7 of Ontario, Québec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, to be used as
Canada’s land and sea flag (1870-1904).
It is interesting to note that the usage of this
flag on land had never been sanctioned,
except by public usage, while on 02
February 1892, the British Admiralty
approved its use at sea, which in turn gave
rise to the name Canadian Red Ensign. Each
time a new Province entered the Confederation8, its mark of identification was
6
. The Dominion of Canada, consisting of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Ontario and Québec, was
formed on the 1 July 1867 as a result of the Canada Act.
7
. On 26 May 1868, a royal warrant granted Coats of Arms to the four provinces and created the
Great Seal of Canada, the four Provincial Coats of Arms quarterly.
8
. The new Provinces entered the Confederation in the following order: Manitoba: 1870, British
Columbia: 1871, Prince Edward Island: 1873, Saskatchewan: 1905, Alberta: 1905.

incorporated into the shield. Indeed, this lack of legalised approval was
enough for the Canadian troops who fought in World War I to employ the
Union Jack, instead of the Red Ensign. Even today, the Union Jack maintains its
presence, as an incorporated symbol, in the provincial flags of British
Columbia, Manitoba and Ontario, while it may be flown - along with the
Canadian flag - on certain institutionalised occasions.
Another flag used in Canada was the Acadian
flag, chosen in Miscouche, Prince Edward
Island, on 15 August 1884, during the 2nd
National Acadian Convention, although its
use was initially considered controversial,
for it represented republicanism and anti-
clericalism for many Acadians. It was
proposed by Reverend Marcel-François
Richard from Saint-Louis, New Brunswick, president of the 3rd Commission
responsible for studying the choice of a national flag. Resembling France’s
tricolore - which had been used both in Québec and Acadia9, reminiscent of
their origins -, it was its modification, with the golden star representing10 the
Star of the Blessed Virgin of the Assumption, patron of the Acadians. On 15
August 1995, it was officially recognised and proclaimed a national flag of
Canada by the then Canadian Lieutenant-Governor Jules Léger.
On 26 January 1924, the unofficial version of the Canadian
Red Ensign was changed by an Order in Council, replacing
the composite shield with a shield from the Royal Canadian
Coat of Arms11, and was quietly approved for use on
Canadian governmental buildings abroad (Canada House in
London, and the new legations in Washington, Geneva,
Paris and Tokyo), but not at home. On 10 November 1943,
the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) ordered that “the
Canadian Red Ensign with a shield of the Coat of Arms of Canada in the fly is to be
flown in addition to the RCAF Ensign, at all units of the RCAF, serving with forces of
other nations”, while on 22 January 1944, the Canadian Army ordered that “the
Canadian Red Ensign with a shield of the Coat of Arms of Canada in the fly is to be
flown at all units of the Canadian Army, serving with forces of other nations”.
9
. Acadia, the other Francophone community in Canada, comprised of the Canadian Maritime
Provinces Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and parts of the Province of Québec
and the US State of Maine. At the conclusion of the French-Indian War (about 1760), Acadians
settled in Louisiana, hence the derivation of the Louisiana French term “Cajun” (from the
dialectical pronunciation of “Acadien”).
10
. Other than the French origin, the red section serves as a reminder of the hardships of the past;
the white section denotes spiritual purity and present peace, while the blue section represents
harmony with the sea and the sky. Similarly, the star also represents the starfish that guides the
sailor through storms and reefs: in French, the starfish is called étoile de mer (literally, sea star).
11
. This Royal Coat of Arms, with green maple leaves, was granted to Canada by a Royal
proclamation on 21 November 1921, while on 26 April 1922, an Order in Council unofficially
replaced the badges on the Blue and Red ensigns.

On V-E Day (Victory in Europe, 8 May 1945),
following the victorious return of Canadian
troops from World War II, the Canadian Red
Ensign temporarily replaced the Union Flag on
the Peace Tower at Parliament Hill, and
pressure was exercised to proclaim it official.
In response to this, Prime Minister King12 issued an Order in Council on 5
September 1945, proclaiming: “Until such time as action is taken by Parliament for
the format adoption of a national flag … it shall be appropriate to fly the Canadian Red
Ensign within and without Canada, whenever place or occasion may make it desirable
to fly a distinctive Canadian flag”. Thus, the Canadian Red Ensign returned to the
Parliament - from which it had been displaced for 43 years.
Yet, even after these modifications, the
Canadian Red Ensign was about to change
once more. The 1921 proclamation specified
that the “proper” colour of the maple leaves
should be used (depending on species and
season, maple leaves can be green, yellow or
red). Although the original submission to the College of Arms in London asked
for green maple leaves, there was some discontent from insignificant
segments of the Canadian society over the choice of green as “proper”,
stemming from the fact that King George V had officially declared red and
white13 to be Canada’s colours: some argued that the three maple leaves in the
shield, representing Canada along with the Dominion’s four founding nations
(England, Scotland, Ireland and France) should be red, not green.
As time progressed, the influence of this
attitude seemed to grow, and subsequent
renditions14 of the maple leaf tended to be
red, rather than green. On 8 October 1957,
the Canadian government formally
announced changes to the design of the
Canadian Red Ensign and the Canadian Coat of Arms, resulting to their final
configuration, with red maple leaves, also replacing - at the Queen’s pleasure -
the “female” Irish harp with the old Celtic version of it. Moreover, the border
around the Scottish rampant Lion was, out of error, changed from a double
one to a single one and, as a result, all subsequent flags reproduced that error.
12
. Mackenzie King, an experienced politician, used what appeared to be rather tortured language to
masterly handle the delicate situation. As Fraser (1997) puts it: “What appears to be rather
tortured language was actually masterly. It permitted French Canadians to think the Ensign had
been rejected as a permanent standard, English Canadians to think it had been accepted, and
others to cling to the hope that a new national emblem was imminent”.
13
. Red originated from Saint George's Cross, and white from French King Charles VII’s royal emblem.
14
. Such renditions include the 1940 Canadian Army Battle flag, numerous Royal Canadian Navy and
Air Force badges, as well as the Canadian Army flag, officially adopted in 1947.

In search for a flag

Canada had begun as a British and a French
colony, evolved into a Dominion and was on
its way to become a sovereign country.
Consequently, a national flag was sought
after. The search for such a flag began in
1925, when a Committee of the Privy
Council began researching possible designs; its work, however, was never
completed. The seed for this pursuit was sown by a seemingly minor request to
the Cabinet from the Minister of National Defence, who noted that the
Canadian Blue Ensign was authorised15 for use on Canadian government-
owned vessels, and the Canadian Red Ensign was authorised for other vessels
registered in Canada, but “there is throughout the country a desire that there should
also be adopted for use a distinctive flag, which shall be recognised as the flag of the
Dominion of Canada”. Although the issue was initially considered as purely
internal (Prime Minister King was absent and probably did not even learn it
until it leaked), it erupted in the press early in June, resulting to a public
crisis16. In a desperate attempt to prevent any further developments on the
issue, the imperialists sent a letter to the Toronto Press noting that the
Committee was composed entirely of Roman Catholics, which they considered
as “an insult to the sensibility of every loyal Canadian British subject”.
On 8 November 1945, a joint committee of the Senate and House of Commons
was appointed with a similar mandate, yet the internal dichotomy was
prevalent: English-speaking MPs wanted the Union Jack to be part of the flag,
while French-speaking MPs wanted to have it eliminated. The committee had
received guidelines on the subject by Secretary of State, Paul Martin, who
specified that the ideal flag of Canada should “be easily recognisable, unlike any
other, discernible at a distance, characteristic in structure and appropriate and
symbolic of the country and of its position as a sovereign state in the family of nations”.
Although by 9 May 1946 it had received 2.695 submissions and designs, the
15
. On 16 December 1868, the Colonial Secretary notified the Governor General that colonial
government ships “shall use the blue ensign with the seal or badge of the Colony in the fly
thereof”. It seems that this reflected the re-organisation of the British Navy, in 1864: the Royal
Navy used the White Ensign, the colonial governments and the Royal Naval Reserve used the Blue
Ensign (cf. Australia’s and New Zealand’s flag), while the Red Ensign was used by the Mercantile
Navy. Similarly, when the Royal Canadian Navy was established (04/05/1909), it was authorised to
use, provisionally, the White Ensign as an ensign and the Canadian Blue Ensign as a jack, on 3 March
1911, which was confirmed on 16 December 1911. In 1957, the colour of the maple leafs was
changed from green to red, in accordance to the changes in the Canadian Red Ensign.
16
. Driven by cries of outrage from Toronto branches of the Imperial Order of the Daughters of the
Empire and the Loyal Orange Lodge, the issue entered the Parliament. To prevent a government
crisis, Prime Minister King, heading a minority government, attempted to address the questions
raised by North Toronto MP, T. L. Church (whether the Union Flag was Canada’s only official flag),
and then to assure the Parliament that "the government would not for a moment consider adopting
a national flag other than by resolution of this House and the full sanction of the Parliament of
Canada”, a commitment binding on all future governments, ultimately leading to the great flag
debate of 1964.

committee eventually recommended “that the national flag of Canada should be
the Canadian Red Ensign with a maple leaf in autumn golden colours in a bordered
background of white”, violating most of Martin’s criteria.
The committee’s recommendation had been
carried 25 to 1, with 11 absentees. Clearly,
the consensus of the committee was not the
consensus of the country, for the people’s
preference was evident17, while within the
committee, a fundamental controversy had
developed: Imperialists were adamant about the inclusion of the Union flag,
while nationalists from within and without of Québec said No. The Québec
Legislative Assembly had urged the committee “to choose a really Canadian flag,
that is to say a flag that excludes any sign of subjection, of colonialism, and which all
Canadians, regardless of their origin, may display with pride”. While, rationally
speaking, this would automatically mean the exclusion of the Royal Union flag
as a proposal, for the polarised Committee it only served to harden the
defensiveness of the imperialists.
Prime Minister King, being in an awkward situation - leading a minority
government and not perceiving the issue of the flag as paramount - rejected
the committee’s report for not being unanimous, even though the
recommended flag had been his personal choice, and then allowed the matter
to be dropped quietly (just as he had done back in 1925), so the Parliament was
never formally called to vote on a design. But the problem refused to go away…
In Québec, a provincial movement, led by
Independent Member of the Legislative
Assembly, René Chalout, was initiated to
persuade the Québec government to
institutionalise a truly Canadian flag over its
legislative building, displacing the unpopular
and largely unused Canadian Red Ensign. Two
years later, after having considered a number
18
of ideas , on 21 January 1948, at the Legislative Assembly, the provincial
government of Maurice Duplessis adopted the fleurdelisé, Québec’s provincial
flag19, to replace Québec’s Blue Ensign, which had been in use since 1868.
17
. Of the 2.695 designs submitted to the Committee by 9 May 1946, maple leaves featured in 1.611
and Union flags in 383, while 231 featured stars, 184 fleurs-de-lis, 116 beavers, 49 crowns and 22
crosses. Other designs included First Nations’ symbols or various animals, flowers etc.
18
. Ironically, one of those ideas involved the incorporation of a red maple leaf, later to be adopted
for the National Flag of Canada.
19
. On 21 January 1948, the new flag was adopted and was flown over the Legislative Assembly
building that very afternoon. Apparently it was the Carillon flag that flew that day - created by
Elphège Filiatrault, a parish priest in Saint-Jude, Québec -, because the modern fleurdelisé (with
the fleurs-de-lis re-positioned upright to their modern configuration in correspondence with the
rules of heraldry) was not available until 2 February 1948.

The flag was adopted by a Ministerial decree and the news was presented to
the Legislative Assembly more or less as a fait accompli. Opposition leader
Adélard Godbout expressed his approval, as did René Chalout. Thus, Québec
became the first province to declare its own flag, providing partial satisfaction
within the province, but not solving the problem of the nation. So content
were the Québécois with their provincial flag, that when the great flag debate
erupted, Liberal politician Pierre Trudeau said: “Québec does not give a tinker’s
damn about the new flag. It’s a matter of complete indifference”.
In need of a flag
A few years after World War II, another war broke out, the Korean War (1950-
1953), calling Canadian men and women back into the battlefields. With the
controversy over the flag having become a national sport, played regularly in
newspapers, magazines and the Parliament, many lamentably remarked that
“Canadian soldiers are being asked once more to fight abroad and shed their blood
under a flag which is not theirs”.
The approaching Centennial celebration was only a few years apart, but there
was another issue, not many years before it, that expedited matters:
subsequent to the Anglo-Egyptian crisis20 over the Suez Canal in 1956, Lester
Pearson negotiated an end - which, in the process, was his greatest diplomatic
achievement, bringing him the Nobel Peace prize of 1957 -, and proposed that
French and English forces be replaced by a United Nations’ peacekeeping
force, offering the Canadians as peace-keepers, only to be rejected by the
Egyptians, and for a very egregious reason: in reference to the Canadian Red
Ensign, they supported that just by looking at the Union Jack in the Canadian
flag, it would be immediately perceived that the Canadians could not be
objective and, at any rate, they could have been mistaken for the British. Thus,
the domestic issue was kicked into the forefront of international debate.
On 27 January 1960, Lester B. Pearson, as Liberal leader of the Opposition,
issued a press report, urging the Canadian government to find “a solution to the
problem”, acknowledging an inescapable reality21: neither the Canadian Red
Ensign nor the Union flag was “acceptable to many Canadians as a distinctive flag
of Canada”. The government’s refusal to accept the invitation resulted to it
becoming Liberal Party policy in 1961, and part of the federal election platform
in 1962 and 1963. During his election campaign, Pearson promised that Canada
would have a flag of its own within two years22, well in time before the
Centennial celebrations; he was elected as a Prime Minister on 8 April 1963.
Early in May 1964, Prime Minister Pearson informed the House of Commons
20
. On 26 July 1956, Egyptian President Nasser nationalised the Anglo-French Suez Canal Company,
resulting in a conflict between France and the United Kingdom (29 October - 6 November).
21
. In 1958, an extensive poll was taken, according to which over 80% wanted a distinctive national
flag, 60% wanted it to bear a maple leaf, while only 13% wished it to bear the Union Jack.
22
. Pearson was the first party leader to put a time limit on finding a national flag for Canada.

that the government wanted to adopt a distinctive national flag as a vehicle to
promote national unity, seeking “a flag that is … as Canadian as the Maple Leaf,
which should be its dominant design”.
As a result, the Senate and the House of
Commons formed a committee in September
1964, which once again was called to decide.
Some 2.000 suggestions were submitted, which
were examined along with about 3.900 others,
including those that had been accumulated in
the Department of Secretary of State and from
the Parliamentary flag Committee in 1945-
1946. In the absence of standards, submissions came in all shapes and sizes, on
a variety of materials and designs, including First Nations’ symbols.
The protagonists and the battle for public opinion

Mr. John Matheson23 (a Member of the Parliament
from Ontario and a keen supporter of a new flag)
advised the Prime Minister and, preceded by a
preliminary letter on 14 February 1963, he
submitted a detailed submission on 23 May 1964,
proposing a flag bearing “three red maple leaves
conjoined on a single stem on a white background”. From
the very start, Matheson’s aim had been to build on
existing designs, rather than to create something
new. His proposal was very old: the maple leaves
had been used in Canada’s flags, badges and insignia
for a long time. Yet, in the significant absence of a Union Jack or another
accompanying emblem, it was strikingly new. His design had leaked to the
press (February 1964), and it seemed to be endorsed by many Canadians,
including the Prime Minister himself. However, after a suggestion24 by Alan
Beddoe - a modification of Matheson’s proposal -, the Prime Minister was
immediately delighted, which meant the neglect of Matheson’s original design.
Along with Mr. Matheson, Dr. George Stanley (Dean of Arts at the Royal
Military College in Kingston) was also deeply involved in the process. While
the former established the conceptual framework for a suitable flag, seeking
23
. On 5 February 1963, in the twilight of Diefenbaker’s regime, Matheson posed two questions
(“Does Canada have national colours, and if so what are these colours? Does Canada have a national
emblem and, if so, what is that emblem?”), whose answers were obviously found in Canada’s 1921
Grant of Arms, laying the groundwork for the subsequent actions of a Liberal government.
24
. On a Saturday morning, probably early in May, John Matheson was invited by the Prime Minister
to show him some drawings of the three-leaved flag. While Pearson was examining several trial
designs, Alan Beddoe, without prior advice or warning, extracted from his briefcase another design,
with vertical blue bars, which he handed to the Prime Minister saying: “Perhaps you would prefer
this flag, which conveys the message: From Sea to Sea”.

and combining the appropriate components to create it, the latter brought to
the attention of the Committee that the Commandant’s flag at the College (a
mailed fist holding three maple leaves, on a red and white background) was
impressive. During a particular conversation between the two men, in March
1964, looking at the Royal Military College flag flapping furiously from the
Mackenzie Building, Dr. Stanley remarked to
Mr. Matheson: “There, John, is your flag”.
Matheson, interpreting the utterance
literally, remarked that Canadians would
not accept a mailed fist as a national symbol,
to which Stanley replied: “No, I mean with a
red maple leaf in the place of the College Crest”.
Dr. Stanley had based his preference towards the design on
historical grounds as well: a combination of red, white and
red appeared on the ribbon of Canada’s first military medal,
the General Service Medal (1866-1870), awarded by Queen
Victoria, while red and white were proclaimed as Canada’s
national colours in 1921, by King George V, following Major
General Sir Eugene Fiset’s recommendation for the Arms of
Canada, in 1919, that Canada’s emblem should be the single
red maple leaf on a white field - which was worn by all
Canadian Olympic athletes since 1904.
Up until April 1964, when 3.541 entries had been sent, 2.136 included maple
leaves, while 408 included Union Jacks and 359 included the fleur-de-lis.
Canadians themselves were deeply divided on the issue: some felt a strong
attachment to Britain and, therefore, to its Union Jack; others believed that
the Union Jack should be removed, because it roused too much controversy,
but could not agree on the new symbol25 to represent the country.
On 14 May 1964, Pearson informed the press
of his choice and intention to proceed with
the flag legislation. Quickly, the three-leaf26
flag with the addition of the vertical blue bars
- which were diversely criticised27 - received
the mocking epithet Pearson’s Pennant but,
nevertheless, the three-leaf design rapidly gained wide popularity and
25
. Apart from the maple leaf, there was another symbol associated with Canada: the beaver -
historically employed by nobles and statesmen. Since the late 17th century, beavers’ pelts were
used to produce all sorts of hats. Despite this recognition, the beaver was close to extinction by the
mid-19th century and, as Montréal had ceased to be a major fur entrepôt, its use as a symbol
declined. However, 389 entries did include the beaver on their proposal.
26
. The three leaves were said to represent the British, the French and the First Nations.
27
. Other than the fact that Canada’s colours were red and white, not blue, critics also argued that
vertical blue lines do not normally represent water; water is traditionally shown by blue and white
wavy lines, such as in the flag of British Columbia.

acceptance. George Bist, a World War II Veteran, while retaining the blue bars,
replaced the three leaves with a single red leaf on a white square, and thus
evoked Eugène Fiset’s 1919 suggestion. Immediately, the New Democratic
Party seized the idea as its own, and it became widely promoted by the
instantly formed political group, a Citizen’s Committee for a Single Maple Leaf.
Meanwhile, the Native Sons of Canada28, supporters of another singe-leaf
design (see page 22), arranged for miniature copies of their favourite flag to be
delivered to every MP. J. Picard, president of the Toronto branch, distributed
about 5.000 miniatures across the country, hoping that his flag would
strengthen Canadian unity rather than draw upon British tradition.
Interesting were his views on God Save the Queen: “Just as long as it belongs to
Great Britain, it can certainly not belong to us. We feel that a nation’s anthem is much
like a man’s wife. It’s not to be shared with every Tom or Dick in the U.K.”.
In the battle for public opinion, Pearson took his
campaign into the lions’ den, the Royal
Canadian Legion29. While speaking at the 20th
RCL Convention in Winnipeg, on 17 May 1964,
Pearson, a veteran himself - having enlisted for
service at the age of 17 during World War I -
explained that he meant no disrespect for the
Royal Union Flag or the Canadian Red Ensign,
but declared: “I believe most sincerely that it is time
now for Canadians to unfurl a flag that is truly distinctive and truly national in
character”, to which the Legionnaires, ironically having recently replaced the
Union Flag of their own badge with a maple leaf, thundered “No! No!”
On 15 June 1964, Pearson initiated the great flag debate with a moving speech,
including extensive historical information, but a very simple message: the flag
should be “exclusively Canadian ... saying proudly to the world and the future: ‘I stand
for Canada’”. Pearson assured the Parliament that the issue would be resolved
by neither an Order in Council nor a referendum, but by the Parliament itself.
The debate carried on for weeks, bringing
the country to a political standstill.
Pearson, as well as two vexillologists and
heraldry experts, Alan Beddoe (a retired
naval Captain, heraldic advisor to the
Royal Canadian Navy) and Colonel
Fortescue Duguid (a historian) all seemed
to favour the Pearson Pennant.
28
. The Native Sons of Canada, a right-wing fraternal society established in Winnipeg in April 1921,
promoted the growth of the spirit of Canadianism across Canada.
29
. In 1925, and again in 1945-1946, the Orange Lodge had been the main force opposed to losing
the Union flag, thus removing the umbilical cord with the Empire, while in 1964 the Royal Canadian
Legion was the most passionate supporter of the status quo of the Canadian Red Ensign.

Despite the fact that most Canadians were pleased
with the idea of having a distinctive flag, John G.
Diefenbaker, former Prime Minister - originally
strongly opposed to the formation of a flag
Committee -, was rigorously opposed to the adoption
of a new flag. Even before the debate had opened, he
said that “the government-proposed Maple Leaf design
bears no relationship with Canada’s past”, while he
opened the opposition side of the debate, denigrating
it further with “Surely Canada deserves something better
than ... the symbol of three maple leaves”. While speaking
to the Parliament, he once said: “This flag will only be
passed over my dead body”. On 22 July 1964, during a
telecast of The Nation’s Business, he resorted to vituperative demagogy, alleging
that Pearson’s attempt to establish a flag without the Union Flag was driven by
atheism: “Why does the government insist that the Christian crosses, the spiritual
element, be removed from our flag?” Later on, after the flag Committee had
decided upon the flag which was to be proposed to the Parliament, he led a
broadside on CBC National, in which he asserted that the chosen flag “shows
nothing of our heritage”. Before the final speech, he uttered that Pearson was
“The worst Prime Minister the country had ever had”, while after the vote he told
Pearson: “You have done more to divide the country than any other Prime Minister”.
For 37 days, there was a very intense controversy over the subject, with
Diefenbaker and his party issuing more than 200 speeches30 and resulting to
the complete halt of discussions for other programmes, much more important
for the people’s daily lives, such as the Canada Pension Plan. While Pearson
was transcending his time - even though newspapers had speculated that he
was about to commit political suicide -, Diefenbaker became increasingly
isolated31, even within his own party - a prisoner of his heritage.
To resolve the situation, on 10 September
1964, Prime Minister Pearson assigned the
issue to a 15-member all-party32
Committee, headed by Liberal MP John
Matheson, to make the final decision. The
Committee was given six weeks to re-
consider all designs and make a proposal,
while its 35 confidential meetings lasted
for weeks, often late at night. Unlike
30
. More specifically, the Conservatives made 210 speeches, the Liberals 50, the New Democratic
Party 24, the Social Credit 15 and the Créditistes 9.
31
. Eventually, some thirty Anglophone Conservatives and ten Québécois members refused to
support Diefenbaker’s leadership on this issue.
32
. The all-party Committee consisted of: seven Liberals, five Conservatives, one New Democrat,
one Social Crediter, and one Créditiste.

Mackenzie King, Pearson did not interfere with its work. Soon, John Matheson
realised that if the Committee was ever to produce a good flag, he would have
to choose it himself and then manoeuvre the Committee into supporting it,
something which, given Canada’s lengthy and factious flag controversy, was a
daunting prospect itself. Yet, a more practical obstacle was raised: the design.
Both the Pearson Pennant and his own design had politically sunk, and, in any
case, he began courting with the elegant simplicity of a single maple leaf on
the flag. He remembered the conversation he had with Lieutenant Colonel
George Stanley in Kingston, about the Royal Military College’s flag. But the
equal red pales of the flag were too similar to Peru’s flag, while the narrow
central white pale was inadequate to display a single large maple leaf. So,
Matheson broadened the central pale to form a square, rendering something
similar to the Legionnaires’ own badge, which, in turn, appealed to Matheson’s
sense of humour and mischief. Having solved the design issue, Matheson
consulted with Conrad Swan, a heraldist at the College of Arms in London and
a native of Vancouver Island, who not only provided the heraldic language
used on the flag proclamation, but also coined a new heraldic term to describe
Matheson’s unusually broad central pale: the Canadian Pale.
Another issue to be dealt with was the selection of the maple leaf, the flag’s
fundamental ingredient. In Matheson’s own words: “The problem is a simple one.
We need a design for the single maple leaf. The red bars are set. We need the
proportions and specifications finalised, once the design is settled.” The sugar maple
leaf has 23 points, but a simpler rendition should be used. Mr. Jacques Saint
Cyr, of the Government Exhibition Commission (ironically, a Québec
separatist), established the stylised maple leaf, initially with 15 points - but his
design was rejected. He then re-designed another stylised maple leaf with 13
points, much similar to his design for the 1961 Canadian Trade Exhibition in
Europe. Although it was initially accepted, two points at the bottom were
removed on 9 November 1964 and a small curve in the stem was straightened,
for two main reasons: the striking
similarity to the 1961 design and a visual
hindrance which Matheson pointed to
Saint Cyr: “Do you think maybe it’s too busy at
the base? What would happen, for example, if
you took away two of the four points?”
Mr. George Best suggested the precise dimensions (two by length and one by
width) and analogies of white and red, while Dr. Gunter Wyszchi prescribed
the exact shade of red. It seemed that, technically speaking, everything was
set: the next step should be taken, and in absolute stealth: no Opposition MPs
should be aware that a particular flag design was promoted by the Liberals:
should the news broke out, any such flag - regardless of design - would become
a target of incontrollable and ferocious criticism in the blink of an eye. Only

one solution was the viable option, a surreptitious one: Matheson’s flag joined
the other proposals on the wall, while - unaware of his little scheme - Liberal
MP, Grant Deachman, and New Democrat MP, Reid Scott, confronted Matheson
with the obvious: Pearson’s favourite had no chance of success and, so, they
were prepared to cave in and go along with the Conservatives on an ensign.
Matheson protested that, although a singe-leaf design should be selected - and
obviously Pearson’s flag did not qualify -, it was imperative that the
Committee should not choose an ensign, but a flag, displaying both Canada’s
colours and emblem, and matching the aesthetic standards of Pearson’s flag.
Requesting for a paradigm, Matheson indicated the fruit of his nurturance:
almost instantly, agreement was reached. However, the Conservatives should
continue to think that the Liberals would vote for the Pearson Pennant, so that
eventually, they would actually vote against it - Matheson’s and Deachman’s
grand design. Nobody should even suspect that a unanimous approval of
Matheson’s design was to be the case.
The single-leaf design had many advantages:
being neutral, it could help Québec to stay
content within the Confederation. As Matheson
(1980) puts it: “The fight for a flag was a fight to save
Canada”. By 1963, the Police was concerned with
the activities of a small but extremely violent
terrorist organisation, Front de Libération du
Québec, seeking to establish a socialist
independent state in Québec by force. With a
growing anti-Confederative and an intense anti-
British sentiment in Québec, several people were
afraid that the Confederation would someday
collapse, and that the Francophone Québec could
separate from the rest Anglophone provinces. What could be better than a
maple leaf, which symbolised33 the land that all Canadians loved, a neutral
symbol of unity and inter-cultural co-operation?
The making of the flag

On a Friday afternoon, in late autumn 1964, an urgent request came from
Prime Minister Pearson to the desk of Ken Donovan, an Assistant Purchasing
Director with the Canadian Government Exhibition Commission, which later
33
. Ironically, the Maple Leaf flag is perhaps least popular now in Québec, because it has become a
symbol of Canadian federalism and is thus rejected by Québec nationalists, who prefer to fly the
fleur-de-lis flag. In January 2001, Québec’s Deputy Premier and Head of the separatist Parti
Québécois, Bernard Landry, refused an $18 million grant to renovate the Québec City zoo, because
Ottawa required the Canadian flag to be flown beside the Québec flag: “Le Québec n’ a pas
l’intention de faire le trottoir pour des bouts de chiffons rouges” (Québec does not intend to
prostitute itself {walk the streets} for bits of red rags).

became a part of the Department of Supply and Services. The Prime Minister
wanted prototypes of the proposals for the new flag to take to his new
residence at Harrington Lake the morning after, all of which included the
single maple leaf design and were - of course - simply drawings on paper!
Within a few hours, Mr. Donovan and his team of designers managed to do the
impossible, assembling the flag prototypes. Graphic artists and silk screeners,
Jean Desrosiers and John Williams were called in to work on Friday evening. In
the absence of any seamstress, the flags were sewn by the 20-year-old Joan
Donovan, Ken Donovan’s daughter, in an old warehouse in Québec. During a
ceremony celebrating the 30th anniversary of the flag, Joan O’Malley (Joan
Donovan’s present name) recounted her historical experience:
“I really didn’t realise what I was getting into when I got that phone call
from my father in 1964. I was just doing my father a favour; not
participating in history. Let me tell you, I don’t think of myself as the Betsy
Ross34 type. And sewing the flag was not easy. I was no professional - I had
just sewed some of my clothes before this. My sewing machine wasn’t made
for such heavy material. But eventually, the flag came together.
At the time, it wasn’t the best way I could think of to spend a Friday night. In
fact, my father was more excited than I was about the whole thing - he was
the one who got to deliver the prototypes to Mr. Pearson's house. Even
though I may not have realised the importance of what I had been asked to
do then, I felt good about sewing the prototypes for the flag. It was certainly
not a request people got every day. I still use that sewing machine, but have
promised to give it to the Canadian Museum of Civilisation someday”.
Voting for the Flag

After 41 meetings and a general agreement that the voting would be recorded
on camera, on 22 October 1964, the Chairman, Herman Batten, who did not
vote, placed three motions before the Committee:
a) The Conservative motion to decide the flag question with a
national plebiscite, which was defeated (9 to 5),
b) The motion that only one national flag should exist, which passed
(14 to 0), and
c) The motion that the national flag should be the extant Canadian
Red Ensign, which was defeated (10 to 4).
So, the Committee would have to choose among three possible designs, which
were the reduction of the three categorisations, according to design:
34
. Betsy Ross (1752-1836), one of the most cherished figures in US history, sewed the first American
flag after a visit in June 1776 by George Washington, Robert Morris, and her husband's uncle,
George Ross in her house in Philadelphia, which is currently a museum.

a) The Red Ensign with the fleur-de-lis and the Union Jack,
b) A design incorporating three red maple leaves between two blue
borders (the Pearson Pennant) and
c) A red flag with one, stylised35 red maple leaf on a white square.
Since only three finalists were on the
table, a vote was taken for the retention
or rejection of each. Although the vote
would be recorded in the minutes, the
Committee would only be informed of the
success or failure of each motion. The
three-leaf design was retained (8 to 6), as
did the one-leaf design (13 to 1), while the flag with the Union Jack and the
fleur-de-lis was rejected (9 to 5). For the first time, an exclusively Canadian
flag would be selected, but the choice remained between the one-leaf and
three-leaf designs. The Tories assumed that the Grits would vote for the
Pearson Pennant, but all others would vote against it, so they voted for the
one-leaf flag, not on the basis of design, but solely as a way to humiliate the
Liberals with a split and inconclusive vote - exactly what government strategy
had expected them to do. The result was a unanimous 14 to 0!
Terrified of what they had done, they cast
four votes in opposition to the next
motion, which asserted that the just-
chosen design represented a suitable flag
for Canada, followed by a motion which
recommended the continued permissive
use of the Union Flag “as a symbol of
Canada’s membership in the Commonwealth of
Nations and her allegiance to the Crown”,
which passed by 8 to 1, with 5
Conservative abstentions. In the end, their obstinacy had done the country a
great service, for it had bought the necessary extra time to develop the best
possible flag. But having a unanimous choice for a flag in the Committee, as
amazing as it was, did not constitute acceptance by the Parliament itself.
The voted flag was consequently recommended to the House of Commons.
Oxymoronically, the Conservatives had voted for it, but they persisted
opposing it. Canadians began feeling anxious, and their discontent was headed
towards the implacable Conservatives whom so aptly the Montréal Star blamed
for “holding the Parliament to Ransom”. Soon, Conservatives found themselves
entrapped in their tactic, expressing, one after another, their frustration36
35
. Apparently, the Committee had a 13-point stylised maple leaf in front of them.
36
. Nova Scotia MP, George Nowlan said, complaining: “The Liberals have got to use closure, to get
us off the hook. We can’t just quit now, our people would never forgive us for it. They’ve got to
take the responsibility for forcing us”.

about their leader’s obstinacy, also realising that historical moments were
unfolded in the Parliament, and that any retrocession would have a
tumultuous impact on them. On 9 December 1964, both Léon Balcer,
Diefenbaker’s Québec lieutenant, and the Créditiste, Réal Caouette, invited the
government to end the travesty by applying closure. Responding to the
inevitable outcome, with 252 speeches having been delivered, and despite of
objections37 on behalf of Diefenbaker, Pearson used the rules of closure to limit
speeches to 20 minutes. Closure was approved by a motion (152 to 85).
When the final vote on the adoption of the new flag took place, on 15
December 1964, at 02:00 a.m., it passed at 02:13 a.m. by 163 to 78. The Senate
approved the resolution on 17 December 1964 and, a day later, the
Conservatives, politically desperate and seeking to preserve their posterity,
urged the House of Commons to deal with the continued use of the Union
Flag38. On Christmas Eve, Queen Elizabeth II approved the Maple Leaf flag. On
28 January 1965, when both the Prime Minister and the leader of the
Opposition were in London, attending the funeral of Sir Winston Churchill, the
Queen signed the Royal Proclamation, by which the Maple Leaf flag became
the flag of Canada on 15 February 1965.
The inauguration of the flag

The official inaugurating ceremony for the Canadian flag was held on
Parliament Hill in Ottawa, on 15 February 1965. Governor General Georges
Vanier, Prime Minster Lester B. Pearson, the members of the Cabinet and
about thirty thousand of Canadians all attended the majestic ceremony.
When the Canadian Red Ensign was lowered with
great honour, some cried - including John
Diefenbaker, who looked down when the Maple Leaf
flag was raised. On the stroke of noon, throughout
Canada and at Canadian legations and Canadian ships
throughout the World, the new Maple Leaf flag was
raised. 26-year-old constable of the Royal Canadian
Mounted Police, Joseph Secours, hoisted the new
Maple Leaf flag atop the Peace Tower, on Parliament
Hill in Ottawa; simultaneously, the people gathered
for the ceremony sang the National Anthem, O’
37
. John Diefenbaker said that closure was bad for the parliamentary system, accusing Pearson of
“trying to impose his flag on the people”.
38
. With an enormous majority, 185 to 25, the Royal Union Flag was retained as a symbol of
Canada’s allegiance to the Crown and its membership in the British Commonwealth. The practical
result of this resolution is that the Union Jack is to be flown alongside Canada’s flag at all federal
buildings, airports and military bases, on special occasions and where physical circumstances allow
(a second pole), on Commonwealth Day (8 March), Victoria Day (the Queens’ birthday: the third
Monday of May) and Statute of Westminster Day (11 December), as well as during Royal visits. It
may also be flown at the National War Memorial.

Canada, along with a choir of Ottawa children, followed by the Royal Anthem,
God Save the Queen, while moments later, a sudden east wind gave the first
breath of life to Canada’s Maple Leaf flag.
It was on that momentous day that the Honourable
Maurice Bourget, Speaker of the Senate, added a
further symbolic meaning to the Canadian flag by
the following words: “The flag is the symbol of the
nation’s unity, for it, beyond any doubt, represents all
the citizens of Canada, without distinction of race,
language, belief or opinion”. Prime Minister Lester
Pearson said: “Under this Flag may our youth find new
inspiration for loyalty to Canada; for a patriotism based
not on any mean or narrow nationalism, but on the deep
and equal pride that all Canadians will feel for every part
of this good land”.
After the adoption of the National Flag of Canada, monarchists and other
traditionalists, cherishing Canada’s British heritage continued to flow the
Canadian Red Ensign. However, in the subsequent decades, the Maple Leaf flag
was widely accepted as the National Flag and while the Canadian Red Ensign
can still be seen in some Royal Canadian Legion halls - where it is popular with
war veterans - and is also flown by the descendants of United Empire Loyalists,
it has indisputably39 been accepted as the National Flag of Canada.
With the adoption of
the Maple Leaf Flag
and its widespread
use, it has become a
powerful symbol:
proudly worn, proudly
displayed and gloriously waved. So inextricably is
the flag linked to the Canadian identity, to an
extent that it would be hard to imagine Canada
without it - everything that the governing
Liberals hoped it would become, when Prime
Minister Pearson first pitched the idea to a not
entirely receptive Canadian audience. In 1996,
Prime Minister Jean Chrétien declared the 15th of
February as National Flag of Canada Day.
39
. Apart from the discontent on behalf of the Québécois, who seem to favour La Séparation, in
recent years many far-right and neo-Nazi groups, particularly those affiliated to Paul Fromm, have
attempted to appropriate the Canadian Red Ensign as a symbol of their movement, meant to
emphasise their adherence to traditional Canadian values. Fromm’s groups, as well as other white
supremacist groups such as the Canadian Heritage Alliance, advocate the re-adoption of the ensign
as a Canada’s national flag. Additionally, as of 2007, the Red Ensign (currently the 1868 version) will
be permanently flown alongside the Maple Leaf Flag at the Canadian National Vimy Memorial.

Various “adventures” of the flag

While the story of the adoption of the Canadian flag is intriguing itself, some
other adventures of the flag are also interesting:
The first adventure of the Canadian flag concerned its colours, red in
particular. Some weeks after the flag’s debut, Gordon Robertson, Clerk of the
Privy Council Office, remarked that on an Easter automobile trip to
Washington D.C., “All along I saw new Canadian flags that were all colours, from pink
through orange to rust - but virtually none that were red”. Apparently, the red
colour chosen for the new flag had been specified for the Canadian Red Ensign,
in which fading had never been perceived as a problem. The Prime Minister,
sharing Mr. Robertson’s concern about the problem, asked the Department of
National Defence (DND) and the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) to
take action. As a result of an interdepartmental flag Committee, the colour co-
ordinates were specified40 on 30 December 1965.
A relatively obscure issue, which in 2004 re-
emerged from the past, with the publication
of a book by James Cook (see bibliography),
relates to the design of the stylised maple
leaf on the flag. Apparently, without having
that knowledge in mind, Jacques St-Cyr’s
stylised 11-point maple leaf (right) is rather similar to the logotype of a
Canadian craft shop, Canada’s four corners (left). Although it could be supported
that Cook’s story may be inconclusive, the two craft stores, which had been
displaying the logotype in advertisements, cards and an exhibition since
September 1963, were in close proximity (44, Bank Street and the Château
Laurier) to the place where the flag Committee gathered (180, Sparks Street).
The first Maple Leaf flag had its own adventure: after the flag was first flown
on 15 February 1965, nobody seemed to know what became of that original
flag. Until a headline in Ottawa Citizen came on 15 February 2000, signed by Ian
MacLeod: “Flag of the Party: How the Liberals confiscated the first maple Leaf flag”.
Apparently, Lester Pearson was so proud of his flag that took the flag away and
placed it in the Liberal Party caucus board room, where it was quietly handed
down from one Liberal Leader to the other for 35 years. Even when the
Conservatives came to power, the Prime Minister was kept in the dark. A few
hours after the article was published, Prime Minister, Jean Chrétien, presented
the flag to the Heritage Minister, Sheila Copps, to be placed in a museum or
some other national institution. (Source: CBC Television).
Another Maple Leaf flag had an adventure of its own, and was found in a
surprising place: the first Maple Leaf flag to fly over the Peace Tower had been
40
. See http://www.iscc.org/jubilee2006/abstracts/RobertsonAbstract.pdf.

lost for almost 40 years, until it was found in Waterloo, Belgium, preserved by
Elisabeth Hoffman Lamoureux, the widow of the then Deputy Speaker of the
House of Commons and former Ambassador to Belgium, Lucien Lamoureux, to
whom the flag was secretly given for safe keeping - despite federal cabinet
directions to be given to the custody of a Museum. According to an article in
Ottawa Citizen on 7 February 2005, titled “40 years lost: First Maple leaf may be
home for Canada Day”, despite the meticulous preparations for the flag-raising
ceremony, little consideration was given to what would happen afterwards.
Madame Lamoureux donated the flag, to be preserved and enshrined in a
museum, to be displayed for the Canadian people (Source: CBC Radio).
Symbolism of the flag

The Colours:
Red and white have long been associated
both with England and France. Historical
records that in the First Crusade (1096-1099),
Bohemund I, a Norman lord, had cut red
crosses from his mantles, distributing them
to the 12.000 crusaders to wear them as a
distinctive badge on their garments. In
subsequent Crusades, each nation was
distinguished by a cross of a different colour.
Red was the colour of St. George’s Cross, the
colour borne by French Crusaders in 1189,
the colour of St. Denis, patron saint of Paris,
and the colour associated with early Kings of England. In the course of history,
red and white, white and red, alternated as the national colours of the two
countries. White was popular with monarchs of France, and was the colour of
the field of the St. George’s Cross, also being Virgin Mary’s colour. It was the
colour given to the English Crusaders, and the colour of banners borne by Joan
of Arc and several early French Regiments. Red and white were used in the
General Service Medal 1866-1877, authorised by Queen Victoria in 1899 for
service in the Fenian Raids and the Red River Expedition. Additionally, the
Royal Military College at Kingston, Ontario, had flown a flag since the turn of
the century, consisting of equal pales of red, white and red. In 1921, white and
red were officially designated as the colours for Canada in the Proclamation of
the Royal Arms of Canada, by King George V.
There is no official symbolisation for the colours used, although many would
say that red symbolises the blood of all Canadians that sacrificed themselves
for their country and to save Europe from the Nazis, and white symbolises the
ice, an element so abundant throughout Canada, or, perhaps, that red
symbolises strength and white symbolises purity.

The Maple leaf:
There are ten41 indigenous species of maple in Canada. Canada has been
associated with the maple leaf since the early 1700s42. In 1834, Ludger
Duvernay proposed the maple leaf as an emblem of Canada, upon the
foundation of the Société Saint-Jean-Baptiste (24 June 1834). In 1836, Le
Canadien, a newspaper published in Lower Canada, proposed it as a suitable
symbol for Canada, while in 1848, the Toronto Literary Annual The Maple Leaf
selected it as the chosen emblem for Canada. In 1860 it was used for the
decoration during the visit of the Prince of Wales43 and, subsequently, was
incorporated into the badge of the 100th Regiment (Royal Canadians).
Alexander Muir’s The Maple Leaf Forever (1867) was considered a national song
of the Anglophones for many decades, while the Coat of Arms created the next
year for Ontario and Québec both included the maple leaf. Beginning with the
II I Olympiad (1904, St. Louis, USA), Canadian athletes used it on their
uniforms, while in 1937, Frank McDonagh of Toronto offered a flag consisted of
a superimposed crown on a single autumnal maple leaf on a blue field. During
World War I, it was included in the insignia of almost every battalion and
regiment of the Canadian Expeditionary
Force44, while during World War II it was
also used on Canadian army and naval
equipment. In 1945, the Maple Leaf, a paper
published in London by Canadian Armed
Forces, suggested that the Battle flag45
should become the National flag of Canada.
An interesting flag proposal, published in the
Lingue du Drapeau National, the first bilingual
pamphlet on the subject, was a flag with a green
maple leaf, centred on a field diagonally divided
from upper hoist to lower fly, red over white. Its
symbolisation was simple and effective: the green
41
. Of the 150 known species of maple (genus Acer), only 13 are native to North America, ten of
which grow in Canada: Sugar, Black, Silver, Big-leaf, Red, Mountain, Striped, Douglas, Vine and the
Manitoba. With the exception of four species, native maples are large trees. At least one of the ten
species grows naturally in every Province.
42
. Maple trees were used to produce valuable wood products, maple sugar and were also used as a
commercial asset and for natural beautification.
43
. It was actually the first real Royal visit and indeed the first time that the maple leaf was actually
adopted, and for a very good reason: When people lined up in the streets of Toronto to see the
Prince of Wales on 21 August 1860, those of English origin wore a rose, the Scots wore a thistle, but
what were the Canadian-born to wear? With the beaver’s use declining, the maple leaf was the only
option.
44
. During that time, Lester Pearson had noted this fact and vowed that he would campaign to put
the maple leaf on the flag. Fifty years later, as Prime Minister of Canada, he succeeded in fulfilling
his oath.
45
. This flag not only bore three red maple leaves, but also prominently featured both the Union
Jack and three fleurs-de-lis.

maple leaf represented Canada, red represented Royal Britain and white
represented Royal France. This flag was subsequently fostered by the Native
Sons of Canada, becoming a major contender for the national flag until 1964.
It is important to mention here that Prime Minister Lester B.
Pearson was seeking to produce a flag which embodied
history and tradition, but simultaneously he also wanted to
excise the Union Jack as a reminder of Canada’s heritage and
links to the United Kingdom. Hence, the issue was not
whether the maple leaf was pre-eminently Canadian, but
rather whether the nation should exclude the British-
related component from its identity.
The maple leaf today appears on the penny, although, between 1876-1901 it
appeared on all Canadian coins46. Since 1921, the Royal Arms of Canada have
included three maple leaves as a distinctive Canadian emblem. In the same
proclamation, the maple leaves on the base of the shield were green: the
original blazon’s description wrote “argent three maple leaves slipped vert” (three
green maple leaves with stalks on a white background). However, before
publication, this was changed to “argent three maple leaves conjoined on one stem
proper”, with the significant change being
the replacement of vert (green) with
proper (natural). “Proper” can of course be
read as “any colour occurring naturally”,
which in the case of a maple leaf can be
red, green and yellow (depending upon the
species depicted and the time of the year).
The original submission to the College of
Arms, London, asked for green maple
leaves; hence this is how the authorities
subsequently interpreted “proper”.
In 1957, the maple leaves’ colour on the shield of the Royal Arms was changed
from green to red on a white background, in recognition to Canada’s official
colours. However, the Canadian Coat of Arms, as well as Ontario’s Provincial
flag and Coat of Arms, and Québec’s Coat of Arms, are, botanically speaking,
incorrect, because maple leaves always grow two by two on a branch. Yet, this
is not a problem, for such incongruities with reality appear on other flags as
well, for example the flag of Wales, which is, zoologically, equally inaccurate.
The Flag Committee relied on photographs produced by the Dominion Forest
Service to choose the exact variety which was the most familiar to Canadians:
the hard sugar maple tree47 was selected as the desired species, not only
46
. The modern one-cent piece has two maple leaves on a common twig, a design that has gone
almost unchanged since 1937.
47
. Acer saccharum is native to the hardwood forests from Nova Scotia to southern Ontario.

because not it had a handsome leaf, but also because this tree had been
familiar to the First Nations, the French Habitants, and the United Empire
Loyalists, for whom it had produced furniture, food, and fuel. More
importantly, the leaf was visually familiar to all Canadians. The natural leaf
has about 23 points, but the stylised version appearing on the Maple Leaf flag
has only 11. The exact size and the placement of the leaf on the flag were
chosen after thorough study and tests under varying wind velocities48 at the
National Research Laboratory Wind Tunnel.
Despite wide acceptance on behalf of Canadians for the use of the maple leaf as
a symbol, its official use was only recognised in 1965, with the new National
Flag of Canada, often called Maple Leaf flag or One-leaved (L’Unifolié). However,
the maple tree was never officially recognised as Canada’s arboreal emblem,
until it was officially proclaimed so on 25 April 1996, and published in the
Canada Gazette on 15 May 1996.
The Canadian Duality Flag

Since the adoption of the Maple Leaf
flag, Canada’s Confederation found itself
in peril twice, when two referenda49 took
place in Québec, regarding whether the
predominantly Francophone province
should separate from the rest of Canada.
The people’s verdict was - with a
marginal difference50 - a NON. Nevertheless, an intense anti-Confederative
sentiment has settled over Québec, just like during the period of the great flag
debate and before it. Canada’s Anglophone population has been identified with
the red colour, to the dismay of the Québécois and other Francophone
populations, who are mainly represented by blue.
Not only the Québécois, but all Canada’s Francophones feel an intense need to
stand out from their Anglophone peers, distinguishing themselves - united in
diversity. Some of them have even adopted provincial flags51, so as to
represent the province’s Francophone communities. In response to this, a
proposal has been made to renew the national flag of Canada, including some
48
. The design was chosen as the best available model of the sugar maple leaf for display upon a flag
surface, under moderate and mean conditions of wind. When fluttering or flapping in a breeze or
light gale, it projects the appearance of a living leaf.
49
. The first referendum was held on 20 May 1980 and the second on 30 October 1995.
50
. In 1980, the result was 59,56% to 40,44%, while in 1995 it was a 50,58% to 49,42%.
51
. Currently there are 11 such flags. Other than Québec’s fleurdelisé (officially recognised on 9
March 1950 - the only provincial flag in Québec), there is Acadia’s flag (officially recognised to fly
over New Brunswick’s Parliament on 15 August 1995), the Franco-Albertains (1982), the Franco-
Columbiens (1981), Franco-Manitobains (1980), the Franco-Nunavois (for Nunavut, 2002), the
Franco-Ontarien (officially recognised on 21 June 2001), the Franco-Ténois (for the Northwest
Territories, 1992), the Franco-Terreneuviens (for Newfoundland and Labrador, 1986), the Franco-
Yukonnais (1985) and the Fransaskois (for Saskatchewan, 2005).

blue colour into it, as to include the French element in the flag. The idea was
proposed in October 1992 by the TRFC Committee (The Renewed Canadian
Flag), but was only realised in 24 October 1994, when the first “Canadian Unity”
flag was seen flown outside the Parliament. Primarily based on Hank
Gigandet’s inspiration, approximately 25% of the red colour in the pales has
been replaced by blue, adding a Francophone flavour to the identity of the
flag, in an attempt to recognise and support the distinct Francophone society.
The maple leaf was also enlarged by 5%, in an attempt to better symbolise the
vastness of Canada, its natural resources and the First Nations. On 01 June
2003, the Canadian Unity flag was re-named into “Canadian Duality” flag.
Supporters of this flag believe in the beauty and symbolism of the present
national flag of Canada, yet they also believe that a renewed “bi-lingual” flag
would promote the unity and harmony of Canada and would recognise
Canada’s linguistic duality52. The issue itself is quite delicate and rather
controversial. Although a number of people in Canada, including some MPs
and especially the Conservatives53 and the Francophone community, would
like to see some blue on the national flag, many feel that a change in flag
would be neither desirable nor acceptable.
52
. Indeed, what is apparent from the symbolism of this flag is that it is not the French nation that is
recognised, but the French language. Canada consists of a number of nations, but – eventually -
they all use either English or French to communicate.
53
. Red and white are the colours of the Liberal Party. The Conservatives had, for better or worse,
accused Prime Minister Pearson for endorsing red and white as the colours of the Maple Leaf flag
because they are the colours of his party, also calling it “The Liberal flag”.

SELECTED SOURCES - BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Books:
Cook, Jack, The Eleven Point Maple Leaf: Canada’s Four Corners Logo
(Ottawa, Ontario, 2004). http://www.canadasfourcorners.com/
Fraser, Alistair B., The Flags of Canada (Penn State University, 1997).
http://fraser.cc/FlagsCan/index.html.
Matheson, John Ross, Canada’s Flag: A Search for a Country (Boston: G.K.
Hall and Company, 1980). http://collections.ic.gc.ca/flag/
Stanley, Dr. George., The Story of Canada’s Flag: A Historic Sketch
(Toronto: Ryerson Press, 1965). http://www.stfx.ca/people/lstanley/
stanley/flagbook/welcome.htm.
Internet Resources:
A flag for Canada: http://www.flagforcanada.ca/default.aspx.
Canada: A people’s history: http://www.cbc.ca/history/
Canadian Heritage: http://www.canadianheritage.gc.ca.
CBC Archives: http://archives.cbc.ca/
Flags of Canada and Provinces:
http://www.members.shaw.ca/kcic1/flags.html.
Flags of the World: http://www.fotw.us/
Historica: http://www.histori.ca/
Library and Archives of Canada: http://www.collectionscanada.ca/
Public Work and Government Services Canada: http://www.pwgsc.gc.ca/
The Canadian Encyclopedia: http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/
The images of a country:
http://scaa.usask.ca/gallery/flagdisplay/index.htm.
The Red Ensign: http://personal.nbnet.nb.ca/ensign/
Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/

Symbols of Canada: Historical Flags and The National Flag of Canada

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SYMBOLS OF CANADA:

Historical flags and the National Flag of Canada.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 1

Early Canadian flags

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 2

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 3

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 4

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 5

In search for a flag

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 6

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 7

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 8

The protagonists and the battle for public opinion

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 9

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 10

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 11

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 12

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 13

The making of the flag

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 14

Voting for the Flag

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 15

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 16

The inauguration of the flag

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 17

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 18

Various “adventures” of the flag

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 19

Symbolism of the flag

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 20

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 21

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 22

The Canadian Duality Flag

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 23

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 24

SELECTED SOURCES - BIBLIOGRAPHY:

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, April 2011 25

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