LEARNING OUTCOMES

Types of critical behaviours in

organizations

Review of performance model

Learning theories

Learning process and its implications

Motivation to learn

Transfer of training
WHAT IS LEARNING? WHAT IS
LEARNED?

Learning - a relatively permanent change in

human capabilities that is not a result of growth
processes.

These capabilities are related to specific learning
outcomes.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
LEARNING THEORIES

Reinforcement Social Learning

Theory Theory

Goal Theories

Need Theories

Expectancy Theory
Information Adult Learning
Processing Theory Theory
REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Reinforcement theory - emphasizes that people are
motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors
because of past outcomes that have resulted from
those behaviors.

Several processes in reinforcement theory are positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction, and
punishment.
REINFORCEMENT THEORY

What should the trainer do?

The trainer needs to identify what outcomes the learner
finds most positive and negative.

Trainers then need to link these outcomes to learners
acquiring knowledge, skills, or changing behaviors.

Trainers can withhold or provide job-related, personal,
and career-related benefits to learners who master
program content.
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Behaviors
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Continuous

Fixed ratio

Variable ratio

Time (Days)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Fixed interval

Variable interval
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning theory - emphasizes that people
learn by observing other persons (models) whom they
believe are credible and knowledgeable.

The theory recognizes that behavior that is reinforced
or rewarded tends to be repeated.

Learning new skills or behavior comes from:

directly experiencing the consequences of using a behavior or
skill, or

the process of observing others and seeing the consequences
of their behavior.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Learning is also influenced by a person’s self-efficacy,

which is a person’s judgment about whether he or she
can successfully learn knowledge and skills.
INCREASING EFFICACY

Verbal persuasion Logical verification

INCREASING EFFICACY

Observation of others (modeling) Past accomplishments

PROCESSES OF SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY
 GOAL THEORIES

Goal theories

Goal setting theory - assumes that behavior results
from a person’s conscious goals and intentions.

Goals influence a person’s behavior by:

directing energy and attention.

sustaining effort over time.

motivating the person to develop strategies for goal
attainment.
GOAL THEORIES
 GOAL THEORIES

Goal theories

Goal setting theory

It is used in training program design.

It suggests that learning can be facilitated by providing
trainees with specific challenging goals and objectives.

The influence of goal setting theory can be seen in the
development of training lesson plans.
GOAL THEORIES

Goal orientation - the goals held

by a trainee in a learning situation.

It includes learning and performance
orientation.

Learning orientation - trying to
increase ability or competence in a
task.

Performance orientation - learners
who focus on task performance and
how they compare to others.
 GOAL THEORIES

Goal theories

Goal orientation

It affects the amount of effort a trainee will expend in learning
(motivation to learn).

Learners with a high learning orientation will direct greater
attention to the task and learn for the sake of learning in
comparison to learners with a performance orientation.

Learners with a performance orientation will direct more
attention to performing well and less effort to learning.
NEED THEORIES

Helps to explain the value that a person places on certain

outcomes.

Need - a deficiency that a person is experiencing at any
point in time.

Maslow’s and Alderfer’s need theories focused on
physiological needs, relatedness needs, and growth
needs.
MASLOW HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
 MOTIVATIONAL NEED THEORIES
Maslow McGregor Alderfer McClelland

Self--actualization
Self Growth Need for
Achievement
Esteem
Higher self Need for
Order interpersonal
Needs Theory Y Power
Belongingness
(social & love) Relatedness Need for
Affiliation
Safety & Security
Lower interpersonal
Order physical Theory X
Needs Existence
Physiological
NEED THEORIES

Need theories

Suggest that to motivate learning, trainers should
identify trainees’ needs and communicate how training
program content relates to fulfilling these needs.

If certain basic needs of trainees are not met, they are unlikely
to be motivated to learn.
EXPECTANCY THEORY
It suggests that a person’s behavior is based on three
factors:

Expectancies - the link between trying to perform a behavior
and actually performing well.

Instrumentality - a belief that performing a given behavior is
associated with a particular outcome.

Valence - the value that a person places on an outcome.
EXPECTANCY THEORY
ADULT LEARNING THEORY
i. Adults are autonomous and self-directed.
ii. Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and
knowledge that may include work-related activities, family
responsibilities, and previous education.
iii. Adults are goal-oriented.
iv. Adults are relevancy-oriented. They must see a reason for learning
something.
v. Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful
to them in their work.
vi. As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect. Instructors must
acknowledge the wealth of experiences that adult participants bring
to the classroom.
ADULT LEARNING: SOURCES OF
MOTIVATION
Social relationships: to make new friends, to meet a need for associations and
friendships.

External expectations: to comply with instructions from someone else; to fulfill

the expectations or recommendations of someone with formal authority.

Social welfare: to improve ability to serve mankind, prepare for service to the
community, and improve ability to participate in community work.

Personal advancement: to achieve higher status in a job, secure professional

advancement, and stay abreast of competitors.

Escape/Stimulation: to relieve boredom, provide a break in the routine of home

or work, and provide a contrast to other exacting details of life.

Cognitive interest: to learn for the sake of learning, seek knowledge for its own
sake, and to satisfy an inquiring mind.
ADULT LEARNING THEORY
INFORMATION PROCESSING
THEORY

It gives more emphasis to the internal processes that
occur when training content is learned and retained.

It highlights how external events influence learning,
which include:

Changes in the intensity or frequency of the stimulus that
affect attention.

Informing the learner of the objectives to establish an
expectation.

Enhancing perceptual features of the material (stimulus),
drawing the attention of the learner to certain features.
INFORMATION PROCESSING
THEORY

Information processing theory

It highlights how external events influence learning,
which include:

Verbal instructions, pictures, diagrams, and maps suggesting
ways to code the training content so that it can be stored in
memory.

Meaningful learning context (examples, problems) creating
cues that facilitate coding.

Demonstration or verbal instructions helping to organize the
learner’s response as well as facilitating the selection of the
correct response.
THE LEARNING PROCESS
THE LEARNING STYLES
THE LEARNING PROCESS

Instruction - trainer’s manipulation of the environment in order to help
trainees learn.

The training context - the physical, intellectual, and emotional environment
in which training occurs.

Practice - physical or mental rehearsal of a task, knowledge, or skill to achieve
proficiency in performing the task or skill or demonstrating the knowledge.

Metacognition - individual control over one’s thinking.

Two ways that individuals engage in metacognition are monitoring and control.

Advance organizers - outlines, texts, diagrams, and graphs that help trainees
organize the information that will be presented and practiced.

Overlearning - Continuing to practice even after being able to perform the
objective several times.

Error management training - giving trainees opportunities to make errors
during training; provides the opportunity for trainees to engage in
metacognition.

Communities of practice - groups of employees who work together, learn
from each other, and develop a common understanding of how to get work
accomplished.
WHAT TO CONSIDER DURING
TRAINING?
A MODEL OF THE TRANSFER
PROCESS
Trainee Characteristics
Motivation
Ability

Training Design
Create a Learning Environment Learning Generalization
Apply Theories of Transfer Retention and
Maintenance
Use Self-Management Strategies

Work Environment
Climate for Transfer
Management and Peer Support
Opportunity to Perform
Technological Support
TRANSFER OF TRAINING THEORIES

Theory Emphasis Appropriate Conditions Type of Transfer

Identical Elements Training environment is Work environment features Near
identical to work are predictable and stable
environment E.g. training to use
equipment
Stimulus General principles are Work environment is Far
Generalization applicable to many unpredictable and highly
different work situations variable
E.g. training in interpersonal
skills
Cognitive Theory Meaningful material and All types of training and Near and far
coding schemes enhance environments
storage and recall of
training
WORK ENVIRONMENT
CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCING
TRANSFER OF TRAINING

Climate for Manager

Transfer Support

Opportunity to Technological
Peer Use Learned Support
Support Capabilities
ORGANIZATIONAL ELEMENTS THAT
ENCOURAGE TRANSFER

Knowledge and
The Learning Knowledge
Organization Management
 KEY FEATURES OF A LEARNING
ORGANIZATION (1 OF 2)

Feature Description
Continuous Learning Employees share learning with each other
Use job as a basis for applying and creating
knowledge
Knowledge Generation and Systems are developed for creating,
Sharing capturing, and sharing knowledge

Critical Systematic Employees are encouraged to think in new

Thinking ways, see relationships and feedback loops,
and test assumptions
KEY FEATURES OF A LEARNING
ORGANIZATION (2 OF 2)

Feature Description
Learning Culture Learning is rewarded, promoted, and supported by
managers and company objectives

Encouragement of Flexibility and Employees are free to take risks, innovate, explore
Experimentation new ideas, try new processes, and develop new
products and services
Valuing of Employees System and environment focus on ensuring the
development and well-being of every employee
FOUR MODES OF KNOWLEDGE
SHARING TO
Tacit Knowledge Explicit Knowledge

Tacit
Knowledge
Socialization Externalization
FROM

Explicit Internalization Combination

Knowledge