Technical Paper
0803WP02
Calculation of Compressible Flows Using
Flowmaster®
Michael Prosser
Consulting Engineer
Introduction
The behaviour of compressible fluids in piping systems is more complicated than the behaviour of incompressible fluids, and is
correspondingly more difficult to analyse. The term “fluid” includes both liquids (which are almost always treated as incompressible) and
gases (which are sometimes treated as incompressible and sometimes as compressible). Many engineers are familiar with the
procedures for the analysis of pressure losses in piping systems when the flow is incompressible, but are less certain of the correct way
of proceeding when dealing with compressible flows.
Analysis
The first step in the analysis of a gas in a piping system is to
determine whether it can be treated as incompressible. The
basic criterion is that density changes must be small, so that the
density of the gas can be treated as constant throughout the
system. Generally this will be true if the Mach number is less
than about 0.2, there are no changes in elevation greater than
about 100m and there is no heat transfer. Such conditions are
common for many gas systems, for example most heating and
ventilating systems can be treated this way. If there are large
changes in density, which will occur if there are pressure
changes within the system of more than 20%, then the system
must be analysed using the compressible flow equations.
For compressible flow where there are significant density
changes in the gas flow, the basic equations of motion are more
complicated - simply because the density term r is a variable.
The equations (1) to (5) demonstrate this for the particular case
of adiabatic flow of a gas. Only two equations are required for
the incompressible analysis, a continuity equation (1) which
may be expressed in terms of the volume flow rate, and an
energy equation which is commonly known as Bernoulli's
equation (2). Three equations are required for the
compressible analysis, because there is an extra variable, r.
There are several points which should be noted:
• The continuity equation (3) must be expressed in terms
of the mass flow. [Note that equation (1) is just a
simplified version of (3), which is only justified if the flow
is incompressible].
• The energy equation (4) quoted is valid for adiabatic
flows in systems where there is no significant change in
the pipe elevation. It is a simplification of the Steady
Flow Energy Equation (7). In practice, most systems fall
into this category, so equation (4) is a useful form for
analysis purposes.
• Equation (5) is the simplest one of many equations of
state. Fortunately, it applies to many practical
applications where common gases can be treated as
ideal. When dealing with gases at elevated pressures
and/or very low temperatures; real gas effects may be
significant and alternative equations of state should be
used, or a compressibility correction factor used - see
ref. 1. Also, vapours such as steam can be treated by
using an exponent k in the expression for adiabatic
expansion (6), rather than the ratio of specific heats.
Applying the compressible flow equations to ideal gases leads
to a variety of other equations, which describe the phenomena
involved that are useful in the analysis of piping systems.
Because of this variety, and the various restrictions that can
apply, these equations can appear very confusing to someone
who does not use them regularly. Therefore, the more useful
0803WP02 copyright The Flowmaster Group 2003

equations for adiabatic flow of an ideal gas are listed under
‘General Equations for Compressible Flow’ and ‘Compressible
Pressure Loss Calculations’.
An important phenomenon known as choking can occur for
compressible flow. If the pressure downstream of a nozzle is
lowered progressively, while the upstream pressure remains
constant, the mass flow rate of the gas increases until it reaches
a limiting maximum value, at a critical downstream pressure.
Reduction of the downstream pressure below this critical value
does not result in any increase in mass flow rate and the nozzle
is said to be choked. For a nozzle, choking will occur if the
pressure ratio of downstream pressure to upstream pressure is
less than 0.53 (for a gas with k = 1.4). In a complicated piping
system, choking may occur at several positions, and the
determination of these positions is an essential part of the
analysis. Choking may also occur at pipe expansions, at the
end of a pipe and in control valves; so this makes analysis
difficult.
The Mach number of the gas at a given pipe section, is a useful
parameter that can be used for analysis purposes, with
equations (9) and (10); for the total pressure and temperature.
The definition of Mach number (8) is the ratio of the gas velocity
divided by the local velocity of sound. At the throat of a choked
nozzle, M = 1 and the velocity equals the velocity of sound as
given by equation (7). For air at normal temperatures, the
velocity of sound, c, is 340m/s. The Mach number can be
interpreted as the ratio between inertia forces and thermal
forces in the gas, or as the ratio of the flow velocity to the mean
velocity of the gas molecules (i.e. its temperature).
In order to calculate pressure losses in compressible flow, a
loss coefficient and an appropriate equation must be defined.
For incompressible flows, the pressure loss is made non-
dimensional by dividing by the dynamic pressure:
( P1 − P2 )
Ki =
0 .5 ρ V 2
For compressible flows, it is the total pressure loss that must be
used; and since the dynamic pressure does not equal the term
0.5rV2, the term (pt - ps) must be used. Hence the equation
becomes:
( p t1 − p t 2 )
Ki =
( p t 1 − p s1 )
Technical Paper
In the absence of detailed measurements of loss coefficients
under compressible conditions, the incompressible coefficients
can be used; i.e. fL/d for pipe friction and the relevant loss
coefficient K for component losses. There is a complication in
that the incompressible loss coefficients for components with
substantial areas of flow separation (i.e. large loss coefficient)
do not represent the compressible losses very well at high sub-
sonic flows, M>0.5 days. Hence, various iterative steps may be
required to adjust the initial incompressible coefficient for use at
the higher Mach numbers.
Calculation procedures for adiabatic flows, using various
functions of Mach number, have been developed. The
equations are awkward to use as they involve powers of Mach
number and they differ for different values of the adiabatic
exponent, k. Graphical plots of the mass flow function (12), and
the loss coefficient parameter (13), make hand calculations
practical for simple piping systems, but for more complicated
systems or for repetitive calculations, a computer analysis is to
be preferred.
Flowmaster
Flowmaster International Ltd. provide compressible flow
modules for their popular pipeline analysis program,
Flowmaster. These modules perform steady state analysis or
transient analysis for a piping system that is defined by the user.
The gas type and its characteristics can be set by the user, or
he can select the one appropriate to this application from a
range of common gases that are supplied with the program. An
example of a computer model of a simple pipe system is shown
in Fig. 1. The system is comprised of three components as
follows:
• Component 1 - pipe: 100m long, 100mm internal
diameter, friction factor f = 0.02
• Component 2 - gas accumulator: 1m3 volume,
containing air at an initial pressure of 20 bar absolute
• Component 3 - constant pressure: 1 bar absolute
(representing the pipe discharging to atmospheric
pressure)
The temperature of the gas in the accumulator at the start of the
simulation was 20ºC.
0803WP02 copyright The Flowmaster Group 2003
 Technical Paper

An example of the output from an analysis of this system is List of Symbols

shown in Fig. 2. for a steady state condition, and in Fig. 3. for a Q Volume flow rate
transient simulation. The steady state analysis assumed A Area
adiabatic flow and showed that the mass flow rate was 10.95kg/
V Velocity
s and that the pipe was choked at its outlet. Fig. 2. shows the
ρ Density
increase in Mach number along the length of the pipe as the
gas expands (density decreases) and its velocity increases. Mass flow rate
The Mach number increases very rapidly over the last few pipe m&
p Pressure
diameters, which is a feature of choked pipe flow. In this
g Acceleration of gravity
example, the Mach number increased from 0.7 to 1.0 over the
z Height above datum
last 10 diameters, i.e. 1m as the diameter is 0.1m. Inspection of
the results showed that the flow became unchoked at T = 4.2s. Cp Specific heat at constant pressure

T Temperature
For such a simple system, the calculations above could be Gas constant
R
done fairly easily by hand using the methods discussed earlier.
H Total head (in Bernoulli’s equations)
However, in real systems; there will be pipe fittings such as
bends, junctions and expansion pieces; plus valves and k Adiabatic exponent
different pipe sizes, which make hand analysis difficult and time QH Heat flow
consuming. This is where a computer program is of real value Work
WX
and the second example, shown in Fig. 4, demonstrates this.
h Enthalpy
The system consists of a gas storage vessel containing methyl
chloride at 5000 psi. The low pressure bottles connected to the γ Ratio of specific heats

manifold system are filled by opening a control valve C Velocity of sound

(component 97) and the problem was to determine whether the Incompressible loss coefficient
Ki
pressures in the receiving bottles exceeded their safe working
Kc Compressible loss coefficient
pressure during the filling process. Fig. 5. is an example result,
showing the first two bottles experience the highest transient X Loss coefficient parameter

pressures, which reach 12.8 and 11.7 bar absolute respectively.

Since in this application the pressure rating for the bottles was
Suffix:
10.3 bar gauge (i.e. 11.3 bar absolute), some changes to the
t Total (stagnation) value
system are required. For example, the size of the inlet orifices
(components 23 and 27) could be altered and the analysis s Static values

repeated to determine a suitable modification that keeps the 1 Section 1

pressure within the required limit. 2 Section 2

Another result from this analysis is presented in Fig. 6, which
shows the mass flow rate versus time into the branches feeding
five of the 14 bottles. This plot shows that the first two bottles
(fed through orifices 27 and 23) overfill, and that for the last
three or four seconds of the analysis, they supply gas to the rest
of the system. During this transient, various components choke
and then unchoke and the detailed behaviour can be followed
by inspection of the ‘choking parameter’ or the Mach number.
The choking parameter is a feature of the Flowmaster
compressible modules, which highlight when a component is
choked; and is presented both as a warning and as a
parameter that can be plotted against time.
It has an advantage in the case of valves, since it will indicate
when choking occurs due to high internal Mach numbers,
whereas choking will not be indicated by inspection of the outlet
Mach number.

0803WP02 copyright The Flowmaster Group 2003

 Technical Paper

Conclusion efficient and probably the only way of getting a full analysis of
the system.
Calculation of pressures and flow rates in piping systems
handling compressible fluids can be undertaken using hand References
calculations, employing the methods discussed here; but
Ref. 1. Miller D S “Internal Flow Systems” BHRA, Cranfield,
excluding very simple cases, a computer analysis will be more
Bedford, UK 2nd Edition 1990

0803WP02 copyright The Flowmaster Group 2003

 Technical Paper

0803WP02 copyright The Flowmaster Group 2003

 Technical Paper

Fig. 3. Gas mass vs. time

Fig. 1. Pipe-break network diagram

Fig. 2. Mach number vs. pipe length

Fig. 4. Gas bottle filling system

0803WP02 copyright The Flowmaster Group 2003

 Technical Paper

Fig. 5. Total inlet pressures at selected vessels

Fig. 6. Mass flow rates for selected vessels

0803WP02 copyright The Flowmaster Group 2003