LSA 4 Background Essay

‘Helping learners better understand the

use of discourse features of
conversations’
Edward Green
Contents
Introduction & Scope page 2
Important features of interactive conversations pages 2 - 5
Common student problems pages 5 - 6
Teaching solutions pages 7 - 9
Conclusion page 8
Bibliography and word count page 9
Appendices pages 10 - 18

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Introduction

I have chosen to focus on spoken discourse and in particular features of

conversations because it is an area I am not very familiar with. Furthermore, as most
day-to-day spoken language is conversational and functional, learners see the
benefit in focussing on useful conversational strategies and raising-awareness of
how native-speakers interact. Many learners often measure their own linguistic
development in terms of the fluency of their discourse (Thornbury:2005:63) and a key
judge of fluency is having effective conversations with both native and non-native
speakers.
This essay will look at what features of spoken discourse help with opening,
maintaining and closing conversations and avoiding communication breakdown. It
will then look at some common student problems in these areas. Finally, it will
suggest some practical teaching ideas that deal with these student problems. It will
looking at problems and solutions for students from beginner to advanced levels.

What sort of conversation?

Conversation is informal, interactive spoken discourse between a small
number of participants (Cook:1989). Furthermore, unlike an interview, it is not
necessitated by a practical task. The idea of ‘conversation’ has traditionally been
categorised according to two ends of a spectrum those being interactive, also known
as ‘interpersonal’ (Thornbury:2005:66) (i.e. getting to know you better) and
transactional (i.e. getting business done). I agree with McCarthy who through a case
study of service encounters (transactional) conversations showed a ‘constant
tendency for customers and assistants to engage in some sort of friendly chat’
(1991:137). Therefore I have decided to focus on ‘interactive/interpersonal’
conversations typified by appendix I. By investigating the common features of this
type of discourse I aim to better prepare my students for conversations which deviate
from the script. I will not be focussing overtly on paralinguistic features and
phonology however, I will comment on them where they aid the discourse.

Important features of interactive conversation

The following features of spoken discourse are not unique to conversation;

however, they are essential tools for any proficient user of English. I have decided to
place them under the loose headings of ‘initiating and closing conversations and
maintaining conversations’, however, the interactive nature of conversational

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discourse and the shared negotiation toward an outcome mean that these very
distinctions are fluid. There is a further category of lexical discourse markers.

Initiating and closing conversations

• Adjacency pairs – These are ‘two types of turn in conversation which
typically occur together’ (Cook:1989:156), Willis adds that they are almost
‘formulaic’ (2003:195). Lines 45 and 46 of appendix I indicate an adjacency
pair for saying goodbye. When someone says ‘take care’ we usually reply
with ‘you too’ or ‘thanks’.
• False starts – Most speech, in particular interactive conversations are
produced with little or no thinking time (Thornbury:2005:64) A false start such
as line 2 and 5. Indicate a hesitation at word level, however a false start such
as line 22 ‘and we er... so, I can’ can involve changes at sentence level.
• Intonation - In order to open a conversation we usually employ a rising
intonation. In terms of pronunciation, there is a rise for genuine questions and
a fall when the question is simply to confirm what the speaker already knows.
This is arguably one of the more reliable rules when it comes to assigning
intonation patterns to specific grammatical forms (Thornbury:2002). For
example in line 1 there is rising intonation on the phrase ‘what do you want to
talk about?’ this suggests the speaker is inviting the other person to take a
turn.

Maintaining conversations
• Fillers – These are short noises, prefabricated words or phrases. These are
used principally when the speaker wants to discourse space in order to give
him/herself thinking time (Brown & Yule:1983:17). Fillers allow participants
time to consider messages and move towards a negotiated outcome
(Cook:1989:78). Native-speakers generally use a rising intonation with fillers
to show that they are pausing and thereby are not interrupted. Examples from
the text include ‘er’ (9), ‘umm’ (32) and ‘you know’ (40).
• Repetition – Used the same way as fillers, repetition gives the speaker and
listener more thinking time. It can be used at both word and sentence level.
An example of it is line 2, ‘I…I’
• Incomplete utterances – When someone does not finish what they were
saying. This can be when someone finishes an utterance for you for example
lines 22 and 23.

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• Vague Language - Incomplete utterances can also be linked to what is
known as ‘vague language’, again this is a way of giving us thinking time, if
we cannot find the exact word (Willis:2003:197), for example line 41 ‘things to
do, people to see’. Another classic example is the suffix ‘ish’.
• Backchannelling –‘Successful discourse is the responsibility of both
participants. Even someone who is simply listening to a story is expected to
take an active part’ (Richards:2005:115). Backchannelling is therefore the
‘active part’ of the listener. It can take the form of utterances such as ‘yeh’ or
‘right’, noises as in our dialogue ‘mmm’ (30), ‘mhm, mhm’ (20) or
paralinguistic features such as a nod. Backchannelling indicates we catch the
speaker’s drift (Thornbury:2005:65).
• Conversational repair Learners having a conversation may need to adjust
their message, interrupt and clarify, having little or no time to do this whilst
emerging with a negotiated result. This is done either through the speaker
clarifying what they have just said using phrases such as ‘I mean’ and using
repetition to repeat the message. If the listener wants to clarify they can do
this by repeating what has just been said but with rising intonation for
example ‘Saturday…’ (line 6) or using set phrases such as ‘say again’, ‘I don’t
understand’ or ‘what was that?’

Discourse markers

Discourse markers are used to signal one’s intentions, to hold the

conversational turn, and to mark boundaries in the talk (Thornbury:2005:15).
Parrot (2002:302) gives a clear definition and states some of the different
functions and uses of discourse markers: McCarthy argues, the possible choices
of conjunction will often overlap in meaning with little overall difference,
particularly in spoken texts (1991).

1. To 'signpost' logical relationships and sequences. For example to make a

contrast ‘but’ (7,21). To add extra information, ’and’ (16). To state what
happens next ‘so’ (8).

2. To 'manage' conversations - to negotiate who speaks and when, to

monitor and express involvement in the topic. ‘well’ (44), this is used to
signal the end of a conversation.

3. To influence how the listeners or readers react. ‘you know’ (40). In this
case, the marker is used to create an atmosphere of solidarity or intimacy

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 (Parrot:2002:309). Another phrase which could suggest intimacy in this
particular case would be to insert ‘I mean, I’ll just keep Robert’s present’.

4. To express our attitude to what we say and write. ‘I mean’ is also an

example of expressing a higher degree of involvement in what we are
saying. Another example of this could be the use of ‘etc’ (42) which in this
case expresses lethargy or resignation to continue with the day’s
unexciting business.

However, as Parrot goes on to state ‘the function of conversation management

discourse markers is always very dependant on context (2002:308).’

Common student problems

1. Lack of awareness of features of spoken discourse

• A problem for Arabic learners is a lack of awareness of the importance of
spoken discourse and its importance in the language classroom. Learners in
Libya for example, used to grammar-translation and audio-lingualism
methodologies were sceptical of the importance of features of conversational
discourse, they saw it as incorrect as opposed to the correctness of written
English. A context where this caused real problem was in preparation for
KET, PET, FCE and CAE exams, where students are expected to ‘engage in
discussions and work towards negotiated outcomes’ (UCLES:2008:76).
Despite grammatical and lexical competence, Libyan learners often lacked
the pragmatic competence to deal with conversations because they weren’t
aware of some features of discourse for example, signalling the beginning or
end of a turn. This was a teaching problem, Willis states ‘as most spoken
language is, of its very nature, spontaneous, some aspects are very difficult to
teach’ (2003:198). Furthermore, if students believe discourse raising activities
are a waste of time, or that such activities do not fit their perceived needs this
affects motivation and may mitigate the benefits of such activities.

2. Lack of awareness of fillers

• In my experience, lower level students from different contexts have struggled
with fillers. Some students leave long silences during turns, which are
considered less acceptable in English than in other languages such as
Chinese and Japanese (Burns, Joyce & Gollin:1996:36). Furthermore,

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 prolonged silences can be (mis)interpreted as a cue for interruption. Some
student turns can be punctuated by so many ‘umms’ and ‘errs’ that
comprehension becomes difficult. Use of ‘umms’ and ‘errs’ can be attributed
to nervousness on the part of the speaker. However, Thornbury states that
teachers attempting to ‘tidy up’ spoken language, may be making it harder to
produce and process (2005:65). I have observed many teachers forcing a
nervous student to speak without ‘umming and ahhhing’. By focussing on
removing ‘umms’, ‘errs’ and periods of silence rather than looking at better
ways of segmenting discourse, teachers and materials writers neglect the
authentic aspect of conversation which involves awareness of fillers.
Appendix ii is an example of an interactive scripted dialogue without fillers.

3. Lack of strategies for initiating conversations

• According to a colleague, Chinese students ‘have few phrases for starting
conversations’. This is because Chinese students are used to what McCarthy
describes as a ‘three-part exchange in traditional classrooms’ (1991:122).
Initiation, response and follow-up. McCarthy continues that teachers will take
the initiation and follow-up roles whilst students are restricted to the response
role. Burns continues that ‘teachers will often find students much better
versed in the use of declarative statements rather than interrogatives’
(1996:112). Whilst the problem cannot be confined to a lack of awareness of
features of discourse (it encompasses grammatical, lexical and even cultural
knowledge) it is clear that a lack of teaching focus on reversing the roles
within a classroom has left students with a paucity of options for initiating
conversation.

4. Lack of variety of clarification

• Moroccan learners often use a limited range of clarifying tools. They often
translate phrases directly from French or Moroccan Arabic. Furthermore, a
rising intonation and raising of the voice when asking for clarification can
sometimes offend native speakers of English who are more used to hearing
‘excuse me?’ or ‘sorry’, rather than ‘what?’ or ‘eh?’. This problem is a case of
L1 interference and lack of awareness of the cultural specificity of speaking to
British English speakers, the ‘politeness principle’ (Cook:1989:33).
Furthermore, many teachers are unaware of strategies native speakers use to
clarify.

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Teaching solutions

1. Features of discourse
I have adapted an activity from Thornbury for the purpose of raising awareness of
aspects of spoken discourse for intermediate students studying towards the PET
exam. By comparing an authentic conversation to a scripted piece from a textbook,
learners become more aware of important features of spoken discourse and then get
to practice them. Learners listen to two dialogues (appendices iii and iv) and discuss
which was more authentic and why. Hopefully students should identify features such
as repetition, fillers and false starts. Secondly I give students a copy of the first
dialogue (iii) and students mark the features. Thirdly, students are given the second,
scripted dialogue (iv) and have to re-write it using some of the features identified.
Students rehearse and practice the second dialogue (controlled practice). Finally,
students are given a collaborative speaking task from the PET exam. A task with an
exam focus lowers the ‘affective filter’ and increases motivation.

2. Fillers
In order to raise awareness of the usefulness of fillers, teachers need to present
dialogues which highlight their use in authentic texts. One such activity which adopts
a bottom-up approach to features of conversational discourse is from Face to Face –
Pre-Intermediate. Following on from two listening exercise based on conversations
about neighbours, exercise 8 (appendix v) explains the utility of fillers in conversation
and raises-awareness of specific lexical items such as ‘well’, ‘er’, ‘you see’, ‘you
know’ and ‘um’. Students are then asked to ‘notice’ these words in the tape script
(appendix vi). Following this activity, students, in pairs, exchange ideas about their
neighbours. The students’ task is to decide which person has the worst neighbours.
This exercise is effective as the freer practice stage does not insist on students using
the fillers, rather sets out a natural context and the need to use them. A bottom-up
approach focuses students’ attention on the usefulness of fillers.

3. Initiating conversations
One activity I have adapted is taken from Reward Upper-Intermediate (appendix vii).
Students participate in an extended mingle exercise within the context of attending a
business conference party. Students first complete worksheet (appendix vii) with
details of an invented person. Following this, I write the following lexical phrases on
the board ‘allow me to introduce myself’, ‘pleased to meet you’, ‘I see you work for
Audi’, ‘Hi, let me introduce myself’, ‘well, enjoy the evening’ and ask students why we

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use the phrases. After, I drill useful intonation patterns for interrupting people, such
as the rise-fall on ‘Hi, let me introduce myself’. Students then mingle in class and
practice initiating and closing brief conversations. They have to meet as many people
as possible in 10 minutes. The idea of meeting as many people as possible
encourages task repetition which is particularly useful as learners pay less attention
to what they are saying and more attention to how they are saying it.

4. Conversation repair
An effective approach to conversation repair would be a task based approach. Lower
level students complete an information gap activity such as a spot the difference
exercise (appendix viii). Through monitoring and feedback I then highlight
deficiencies in the repair strategies and presents them on the board, I present some
clarification strategies including highlighting correct intonation patters. Following this,
students complete a similar spot the difference task. Students should ‘notice’ the
difference between their interlanguage and a more native speaker like model. This
lesson adopts a ‘top-down approach’ to discourse.

Conclusion
Having completed this assignment I am more aware of what skills students
need to initiate, maintain and close interactive conversations and how to further
exploit discourse features for other types of spoken communication such as story-
telling. I have suggested some activities to help learners with problems with spoken
discourse, focussing mainly on maintaining conversation, which from my reading has
been highlighted as a key aspect of conversation management. However, it is
important to remember the utility of teaching students ways of opening and closing
conversations. Conversations are something learners often do in their L1 so as well
as identifying transferrable skills, teachers can also raise awareness of specific
features of conversational English as well as model texts. Encouraging learners to
reflect n the strategies they use in their L1 can also have a beneficial effect for their
general communication skills.

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Bibliography

Brown, G. & Yule, G. 1983. Discourse Analysis, CUP, Cambridge.

Burns, A. Joyce, H. Gollin, S. 1996. I see what you mean. Using spoken discourse in
the classroom, Macquarie University, Sydney.

Cook, G. 1989. Discourse, OUP, Oxford.

Halliday, M.A.K. & Hasan, R. 1976. Cohesion in English, Longman, London.

McCarthy, M. 1991. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers, CUP, Cambridge.

Parrot, M. 2003. Grammar for English Language Teachers, MacMillan, Harlow.

Richards, J.C. 2005. The Language Teaching Matrix, CUP, Cambridge.

Sewel, H.D. 2004. Do Students Need Critical Discourse Awareness? taken from
http://www.cels.bham.ac.uk/resources/essays/Sewell_WDisc.pdf

Thornbury, S. 2002. About Language – Tasks for teacher of English, CUP,

Cambridge.

Thornbury, S. 2003. How to Teach Speaking. Pearson Longman, Harlow.

Thornbury, S. 2005. Beyond the sentence: Introducing discourse analysis,

Macmillan, Harlow.

UCLES. 2008. First Certificate in English; Handbook for Teachers, CUP, Cambridge.

Vurdien, R. 2011. Email Discourse, taken from Modern English Teacher. Vol 20
Number 1. pp. 62-67.

Willis, D. 2003. Rules, Patterns and Words. CUP, Cambridge.

Practical Materials

Redston, C. Clark, R. Young, A & Coward, H. 2005. face2face pre-intermediate,

CUP, Cambridge.
Riley, D. 1996. Reward Upper-Intermediate: Business Resource Pack, MacMillan,
Harlow.
Appendix viii taken from
http://www.handoutsonline.com/thumbnails2/christmas/spot_the_difference_colour.gi
f

Word Count - 2500

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 Appendix I – Sample conversation
Sisters Kate and Margaret are at home.
1. M: okay… what do you want to talk about?
2. K: I…I don’t know!
3. M: (hhh)
4. K: pick a conversation!...
5. M: (hhh) wh, wha, what do you fancy doing on Saturday?
6. K: Saturday… I, I thought we were going to get the… the presents?
7. M: yeah... well w- we… talked about Saturday or Sunday ... er … but Bede
8. and ... Sinners are playing on Sunday so... (hhh) wouldn’t give us much
9. time to get back for four o clock, especially if we wanted to, er, go to 10.
Browton
11. K: mmm…
12. M: so ... probably Saturday
13. K: okay
14. M: erm... but we’ve got the...
15. K: (sniff)
16. M: erm… Paul Norton, and his wife coming round on the, evening time [for
17. a meal
18. [oh
19. but… the only problem is I need to get, dad’s present.
20. M: mhm mhm
21. K: and we er... so, I can either do that on the Saturday and Sunday but... I
22. think... one of the shops might not be… [open
23. M: [on Sunday... you you’re home
24. all we- [all
25. K: [oh yeah
26. M: from Monday
27. K: oh will do yeah ...
28. M: anyway… have you got, erm,.. any plans?
29. K: Friday, at home
30. M: mmm
31. K: no... I’ve re, really got no idea what I’m doing next week...
32. M: so, umm, presumably though you’ll be going shopping.
33. K: OH YEAH, at some point...
34. M: how many presents have you got to buy [yet
35. K: [I’ve just got to get ... dad’s.]

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36. M: [yeah
37. K: and I need to get, this… thing for Emma… and see if I can see anything
38. for Robert and, I’ll just carry on with the present that I’ve got him…[can.
39. M: [Sorry, say again?
40. K: I said, I’ll just keep Robert’s present, you know.
41. M: OK…right, anyway, I’d best be off, I’ve got things to do, people to see
42. etc…
43. K: right, we’ll speak later, OK?
44. M: OK, well then…
45. K: [take care
46. M: you too…
47. K: bye.
48. M: bye.

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 Appendix ii
Ed and Stephen are chatting in front of the British Council.

Dialogue 2

E: Hello Stephen, how are you?

S: Fine and you?
E: Good, how was your weekend?
S: Ah, It was alright, I just went to a restaurant for dinner.
E: Did you go on your own?
S: I went with a couple of mates.
E: they were the ones from Spain, were they?
S: yeh, they just came down for a long weekend, how about yourself?
E: I was studying most of the weekend but I watched the game on Saturday night.
Raja against Asfi. Did you see it?
S: Yes, but only the first half.
E: they won four one.
S: Oh really? Are you still studying Ed?
E: Of course. I’ve got to go and study now. I’ll see you later. Have a nice day.
S: Bye Ed.

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Appendix iii

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Appendix iv

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Appendix v

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Appendix vi

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Appendix vii

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Appendix viii

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