You are on page 1of 41

Energy Use in the Home

• Introduction
• End Uses of Energy in the Home
• Energy Efficiency First
• Using Solar Energy in the Home
o Building Characteristics
o Solar Energy System Types
o Passive Solar Energy Systems
o Solar Water-Heating Systems
o Solar Electric Systems
• Pennsylvania's Solar Resource
• Codes, Permits, and Covenants
• Questions
• Answers

Introduction

Energy from the sun can be tapped to provide a clean source of home energy. This lesson will
introduce you to the ways we use energy in the home, and how solar energy can be used to meet
some, or all, of a home’s energy needs. It will also address safety, codes and covenants, and
permits for Pennsylvania.

End Uses of Energy in the Home

Energy is used in many ways in the home, including space heating and cooling, water heating,
refrigeration, appliances, lighting, televisions, computers, stereos, and more.

Residential energy use follows a typical pattern. Normally, people get up in the morning and get
ready for work, and as they get ready for work, they shower, and fix breakfast. The activities
surrounding getting ready for work in the morning makes a peak in home energy use, generally
from about 6:00 a.m. to about 8:00 a.m. When people are away from the home during the day,
the home’s energy use is low, but when they arrive home from work in the evening, energy use
in the home goes up again. Preparation of the evening meal, domestic chores, and leisure
activities make a larger peak in home energy use in the evenings. Energy use is lowest at night
when people are sleeping.
This graph
illustrates a typical
energy
consumption
pattern in homes.
Source: National
Center for
Appropriate
Technology.

According to DOE’s Energy Information Administration, almost half of the average home's
energy consumption is used for heating. Another 17 percent is used for water heating, 6 percent
for cooling rooms, and 5 percent for refrigeration.

This chart illustrates how energy is used in


homes. Due to rounding, percentages may
not add to exactly 100 percent.
Source: DOE Energy Information
Administration.
Source: Alliance to Save Energy
www.ase.org

Fossil fuels account for the nearly all residential energy use. Displacing fossil fuel use with
renewable energy resources such as solar can make a significant contribution to reducing
harmful emissions that contribute to global warming. Using renewable energy resources like
solar also can reduce dependence on the utility grid, and reduce energy costs.

Energy Efficiency First

Installing energy-efficient systems in a home is more cost-effective than meeting the energy
needs of less-efficient equipment with solar energy. Reducing electricity use is the best and least
expensive way to save energy and money. A homeowner interested in solar energy should be
made aware that solar energy systems will provide a much higher fraction of the total energy
used in the home if energy-efficiency measures are taken first. Although some efficiency
measures amount to installing and using more energy-efficient equipment, some efficiency
measures relate to energy-use habits.

Decreasing hot water requirements or electric requirements of the home will decrease the size of
the solar water- heating system or solar electric system and, therefore, will reduce the cost of the
solar systems to be installed. Decreasing the hot water requirements of the home from 20 gallons
of hot water per person per day to 15 gallons per day will reduce the solar water system cost by
about 20%.

Every kilowatt-hour you trim off your projected annual use in a PV-based system will reduce
your initial setup cost by $10-$12. Being smart about the appliances and lights you choose will
allow you all the convenience of a typical home while consuming far less energy. That can shave
thousands of dollars off the initial solar energy system cost.
The homeowner should consider these energy-efficiency strategies:

• Replace appliances, lighting, heating and cooling equipment, and other


products that are more than 10 years old with an ENERGY STAR® model.
ENERGY STAR labeled products meet strict energy use guidelines, using
about 30 percent less energy than their conventional counterparts. Choosing
ENERGY-STAR products can save families about a third on their energy bill
with similar savings of greenhouse gas emissions, without sacrificing features, style or comfort.

To find ENERGY STAR product lists, go to www.energystar.gov/.

• Switch electric space heating, water heaters and clothes dryers to natural gas or propane.

• Replace older full-size fluorescent lamps with newer, more efficient models. Most common full-
sized fluorescent lighting fixtures are equipped with T-12 (1-1/2 inch diameter tubes) lamps and
magnetic ballasts. This technology started to make its way into American homes in the 1940s.
Many of these older fluorescent fixtures are still in use today. Although this lighting technology
is much more efficient than incandescent lighting, new full-sized fluorescent technologies are
available today that are even more efficient. The new lamps, T-8 (1-inch diameter tubes) and T-5
(5/8-inch diameter tubes) produce much better quality light because of better coatings on the
inside of the tube and higher frequency ballasts. The new lamps are more efficient because of
their smaller diameter and higher operating frequency. T-8 and T-5 lamps use ballasts
specifically made for them; do not use the new lamps on the old T-12 ballasts.

• Replace incandescent lights with compact fluorescent lamps. The


most common lighting in the home is incandescent. This
technology basically uses heat to create light. Incandescent lighting
is inefficient, converting about 90% of the electric energy to heat,
only 10% to light. Most incandescent fixtures can use compact
fluorescent lamps (CFLs). CFLs are small fluorescent lamps that
have the ballast built into the base. Early CFLs (manufactured in
the 1990s) used magnetic ballasts and were heavy, relatively large,
Image: NREL/PIX 07737
and flickered when they were turned on. Modern CFLs use
electronic ballasts, are smaller, lighter, and come on instantly. CFLs use about one-third as much
electric energy to produce the same light as an incandescent lamp. Most CFLs cannot be used
with dimming, and CFLs in general do not like enclosed fixtures, where they can get too hot.

• Install lighting controls. Lighting equipment in the home is generally controlled by light
switches. The biggest problem with light switches is that they can be left on when not in use.
Lighting controls that can be installed include timers and occupancy sensors. Timers can be
installed that will turn off the lights after a set time interval. Timers work well in places where
the use is intermittent and the occupancy of the space is for short periods of time, such as
stairways, hallways, and closets.

There are two basic types of occupancy sensors: Passive Infrared Radiation sensors, and
Ultrasonic sensors. Both types have their strengths and weaknesses, and some more expensive
occupancy sensors include both types. Occupancy sensors sense when a person is in the space
controlled, and turn the lights on. As long as the sensor senses someone is in the room, the lights
stay on. After the person leaves the space, the sensor turns off the lights after a pre-set time
interval. Problems associated with occupancy sensors include false ons (caused by pets, mainly)
and false offs (caused when the person in the room does not move enough to keep the lights on).
Occupancy sensors work well in laundry rooms, workshop areas, and kitchens. If using
occupancy sensors in bedrooms and bathrooms, an ultrasonic or dual-sensor type occupancy
sensor is recommended.

• Install low-flow shower heads and faucet aerators. Low-flow shower heads and faucet aerators
can significantly reduce the amount of hot water used in the home. There are many different
styles to choose from.

• Insulate the current water heater, as well as any hot water pipes
that you can get to.

• Lower the water heater thermostat. If there is no dishwasher in the


home—or if the dishwasher is equipped with its own automatic
water heater—turn the water heater down to 120°F (49°C) to save
energy and money.
Image: NREL/PIX 03062

• Practice energy-efficient habits. If a family is accustomed to leaving lights and appliances on


when they’re not in use, it will take a lot of dedication on the part of family members to change
these energy-wasting habits. It’s a worthwhile effort, however, as considerable savings can be
achieve simply by turning off lights and appliances when they are not in use.

• Eliminate "phantom" loads. Phantom loads are caused by 120VAC to DC


chargers such as cell phone chargers, and by appliances that still use power
even though they are turned off, such as televisions, computers and audio
equipment. These loads may seem small, but because they are on all of the
time, they can add up. In fact, they can account for as much as 6% of a
home’s energy use. To avoid this energy use, plug all of the related Image: Energy
appliances (for example, all of the entertainment equipment) into a power Star
strip that has a switch on it. When the appliances are not in use, switch off the power strip
switch. Some homes have electric outlets that are switched with wall switches. These can also be
used to turn off equipment that contributes to phantom loads.

Using Solar Energy in the Home

Solar energy—energy from the sun—can provide the energy


needed for many of these uses. In fact, solar energy can provide
all the energy needs in a home. However, systems designed to
meet all energy loads in a home are larger and thus expensive.

Zero-energy homes are both energy-efficient and capable of


producing enough of their own electricity from solar and other
renewable energy resources to offset the amount of energy
This Zero-energy home built purchased from the utility. The result is a net-zero annual energy
by Habitat for Humanity bill.
features an integral collector
storage system to provide hot
water. Image: NREL/PIX
14164 Building Characteristics

Buildings must exhibit certain characteristics to be a good candidate for a solar energy system.

Exposure: The building should provide maximum southern exposure without any substantial
shading from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. Although an orientation of due south is best, a deviation of 30
degrees or less from true south is considered acceptable for most solar energy applications.

Slope: For roof-mounted systems, the preferred roof slope is equal to the latitude at the site,
between 39 and 42 degrees in Pennsylvania. Roof slopes between 20 and 60 degrees (roughly
4/12 to 20/12 pitch) are acceptable.

This table shows orientation factors for


various roof pitches.
Source: U.S. Department of Energy

Structure: Although most roofs can support the added weight of a solar energy system, you
should check the condition of the rafters. The roof must be able to safely support the added dead
load of the solar array and mounting rack and the temporary live load imposed by the installation
crew. The solar array and mounting rack will add approximately 3 pounds per square foot of
dead load to the roof. A structural engineer should be consulted if there is doubt that the roof can
handle the additional load.
Access to wiring (solar electric) or plumbing (solar water heat): Ideally, the south-facing roof
should be near the main electrical service entrance if you are installing a solar electric system. To
minimize wiring runs, the breaker panel containing the building’s main disconnect switch and
then household’s electrical end-use breakers should be easily accessible and relatively close to
the solar array. The breaker panel should have space available for installing a 120/240V breaker;
this is the solar system’s connection to the electrical grid. If you are installing a solar water-
heating system, you will have to have access to the connections to the existing water heater, and
there should be room near the existing water heater for the solar water storage tank.

The further a home is turned from south, the less its ability to collect solar energy in the
winter.

Solar energy systems can be designed to heat water or living spaces, or to provide electricity.
Solar electric systems can be connected to the existing utility grid or can be separate, stand-alone
systems.

The following information summarizes common types of solar energy systems. Solar water-
heating and solar electric systems will be addressed in more detail later in this course.

Passive Solar Energy Systems

Passive solar designs are those that collect the sun’s energy using no moving parts. Passive
systems can provide over half the space heating energy by using windows to allow more sun into
the home in the wintertime, increased levels of insulation to help to keep the house warm, and
added thermal mass—such as concrete, tile, or brick.
Windows also are an important component of passive solar
designs. Effective passive solar designs for most U.S.
climates, including Pennsylvania, use windows to maximize
solar heat gain in winter and minimize it in summer.

In heating-dominated climates like Pennsylvania, most


windows should generally face south to collect solar heat
during the winter when the sun is low in the sky. In the
In passive solar designs, the summer, when the sun is high overhead, overhangs or other
majority of windows are placed on shading devices, such as awnings, prevent excessive heat
the south elevation, as shown here. gain.
Image: NREL/PIX 02778
Windows on east-, west-, and north-facing walls are reduced in heating climates, while still
allowing for adequate daylight.

An indirect-gain system has its thermal


storage between the south-facing windows and
the living spaces. Using a Trombe wall is the
most common indirect-gain approach. The
wall consists of an 8–16 inch-thick masonry
wall on the south side of a house. A single or
double layer of glass is mounted about 1 inch
or less in front of the wall's surface. Solar heat
is absorbed by the wall's dark-colored outside
surface and stored in the wall's mass, where it
radiates into the living space.

In direct gain passive design, the sunlight is


allowed to enter the living space directly.
Concrete walls and floor, along with tile, and
In passive solar designs, the majority of
sometimes water storage features are used to
windows are placed on the south elevation, as
absorb the solar heat gain in the daytime, and
shown here. Image: NREL/PIX 02778
these building elements re-radiate the warmth
at night.

Solar Water-Heating Systems

Solar water-heating systems can reduce the cost to heat domestic water by as much as half. The
challenge in northern climates such as Pennsylvania is freeze protection, but there are a number
of systems on the market that provide freeze protection.

Solar water heating is addressed in detail later in this course.


Solar Electric Systems

Solar electric systems—also called photovoltaic (PV) systems—generate electricity directly


from the sun.

A grid-connected—or net-metered—PV system is connected to the utility grid through a


special meter than turns backwards when the house produces more electricity than it needs. The
utility grid serves as storage, eliminating the need for batteries. Grid connected PV systems are
covered later in this course.

Off-grid—or remote—systems are those that are completely independent of the utility grid.
They require batteries to storage the energy they collect during sunny times for use at night or
when the sun isn’t shining. Since off-grid systems generally provide electricity for the entire
home, they require storage batteries and usually have some kind of backup generator. This
course covers only the installation of grid-connected solar electric systems without batteries.

Pennsylvania’s Solar Resource

Most residential solar collectors are flat panels that can be mounted on a roof or on the ground.
Called flat-plate collectors, these are typically fixed in a tilted position correlated to the latitude
of the location. This allows the collector to best capture the sun. These collectors can use both
the direct rays from the sun and reflected light that comes through a cloud or off the ground.
Because they use all available sunlight, flat-plate collectors are the best choice for many northern
states.

PVWatts (www.pvwatts.org) is a useful on-line calculator that helps to understand the solar
resource at a given location. The table below shows summer, winter, and annual solar resources
for Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. PVWatts can help you determine the solar resource available at
your specific site, and also help you estimate the size of solar system needed to provide the
necessary solar energy for either solar water-heating or solar electric systems. (Tip: To convert
from Kilowatt-hours to Btu, multiply by 3413. To convert square meters to square feet, multiply
by 10.76).

Average Daily Solar Radiation


for the months of January and July and yearly for various tilts and azimuth angles in Wilkes
Barre, PA (kWh/m2/day)
Source: PV Watts Website
www.pvwatts.org
Tilt Angle Azimuth Angle January July Yearly
25 180 2.50 5.58 4.19
25 210 2.40 5.81 4.12
25 270 1.72 5.52 3.59
40 180 2.81 5.47 4.19
40 210 2.66 5.45 4.09
40 270 1.69 5.08 3.37
55 180 2.89 4.82 3.98
55 210 2.79 4.85 3.88
55 270 1.62 4.55 3.09

Codes, Permits and Covenants

Different communities have different restrictions and requirements in place regarding the
installation of solar energy systems. Before installing any solar energy system, contact your local
building code officials to learn about required permits, as well as codes and covenants that could
affect where and how you install a solar energy system.

Grid-tied PV systems should be interconnected by a licensed electrician in compliance with the


National Electrical Code (NEC). Hot water systems should be installed by a licensed plumber in
compliance with the National Standard Plumbing Code. In fact, some municipalities issue
permits for such work only to licensed contractors, and others might require approval of the
system by a committee.

It is wise to investigate all requirements prior to beginning your project to ensure that installation
is fully in compliance.

Lesson 1 Questions

1. What’s the most important step to ensuring that a PV system provides the highest fraction
of total energy used in a home?
2. What is a "phantom" load?
3. What building characteristics must be present in a home in order to be a good candidate
for a solar energy system?
4. What is direct gain passive design?
5. Describe a Trombe wall.
6. What is a grid-connected PV system?
Photovoltaics (PV) System Basics
• Overview
• Types of PV systems
• PV System Components
• Grid-Connected PV System Components
• System Components
o Solar Cells
o Arrays
o Mounting Structures
o Combiner Box
o Inverters
• Questions
• Answers

Overview

Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert sunlight to electric current. You are already familiar with
some simple PV applications in today’s society, such as calculators and wristwatches. More
complicated systems provide power for communications satellites, water pumps, and the lights,
appliances, and machines in homes and workplaces. Many road and traffic signs along highways
are now powered by PV.

PV systems produce some electric current any time the sun is shining, but more power is
produced when the sunlight is more intense and strikes the PV modules directly (as when rays of
sunlight are perpendicular to the PV modules). While solar thermal systems use heat from the
sun to heat water or air, PV does not use the sun's heat to make electricity. Instead, electrons
freed by the interaction of sunlight with semiconductor materials in PV cells create an electric
current. PV modules are much less tolerant of shading than are solar water-heating panels. When
siting a PV system, it is most important to minimize any shading of the PV modules.

PV allows you to produce electricity—without noise or air pollution—from a clean, renewable


resource. A PV system never runs out of fuel, and it won't increase U.S. oil imports. Many PV
system components are manufactured right here in the United States. These characteristics could
make PV technology the U.S. energy source of choice for the 21st century.

Types of PV Systems

Net-Metered Systems

Lesson 7 will focus on installation of grid-connected/net-metered PV systems. PV systems


interconnected to the utility called grid-connected or net-metered systems can be metered in
such a way as to allow the customer-generator to get credit for electric energy produced by the
PV system. The PV system is connected at the customer’s breaker panel, and if the power
generated is greater than the load, the power runs in reverse through the meter, and runs it
backwards. The Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission adopted net-metering standards that
govern how small alternative electric generators—such as PV systems—connect to the electric
distribution system and how they are compensated for generation they provide into the electric
utility distribution system. The net-metered customer is to be reimbursed (by the electric
distribution company) at the full retail rate for each kilowatt-hour produced by the customer
during a billing period and at the end of the billing period, the customer will be compensated if
they generated more than they used during the period. In other words, the electric utility meter on
the building can backup whenever the PV system produces more electricity than is being
consumed and if at the end of the billing period the building still has generated more than it
consumed, the distribution company will pay for the excess. Net metering laws are generally in
place in order to encourage renewable energy generation. Before the homeowner buys or installs
any generation equipment to be net metered, they should call their electric utility service
provider, and find out from them all of the utility requirements and rules for installing and
interconnecting a generator.

Net-metered PV systems use the


existing utility grid as storage.
Image: DOE

Stand-alone Systems

PV systems that are not connected to the utility


grid are called remote or stand-alone systems.
These systems are sized large enough to meet
all the electric needs of the building, rather
than just a portion as is common in grid-
connected systems. To reduce the size—and,
thus, cost—of these systems, the home owner
must be very efficient in electric energy use.

Rafters are usually 16 inches or 24 inches


center to center. If you cannot attach the
collector mounting hardware to the rafter itself,
PV provides electric energy to this remote
you must install a spanner block between the
home.
rafters and mount the collector hardware to the
Image: NREL/PIX 07630
sleeper. Do not rely on the roof sheathing to
support the solar collectors. Be sure that the collector mounting hardware is securely attached to
the framing members.

In remote areas where existing utility lines are a considerable distance away, PV is often the least
expensive way to provide electricity to a building. The expense of installing the power line can
be at least $25,000.00 per mile and can be as much as $60,000.00 per mile. A remote solar
electric system can be less expensive than the line extension.

Off-grid systems have the same components as grid-connected systems, except that they do not
need a grid-tie inverter, and they do need storage batteries. Also, off-grid systems may have
additional components such as an auxiliary generator, or even a wind turbine.

PV System Components

Specific PV system components may include a DC-AC power inverter, battery bank, system and
battery controller, auxiliary energy sources, and sometimes the specified electrical load
(appliances). In addition, an assortment of balance-of-system hardware, including wiring, over-
current, surge protection and disconnect devices, and other power processing equipment may be
included. The following diagram illustrates the relationship of individual components.

Diagram: Florida Solar Energy Center


Grid-Connected PV System Components

This schematic shows example components of a general grid-connected system.

PV modules are mounted on mounting racks and are attached to a structure or may be mounted
on a pole. A number of modules assembled together is called an array. Individual modules
produce electric current and voltage that depends upon the specific module. The electric output
wires of the modules are wired together in a combiner box in order to get the voltage and
current required by the inverter. The array output can be disconnected by a DC disconnect
switch. In order for the system to be disconnected from the grid by utility workers, a utility
accessible AC disconnect switch is installed on the inverter output. The inverter may have two
connections to the breaker panel.
Pole-mounted PV system array.
Tantare Residence, Townsend, MT.

System Components: Solar Cells

Semiconductor
The primary material used to convert sunlight to electricity is called a semiconductor. There are
two basic types of semiconductors: p-type and n-type. The p-type semiconductor material has an
abundance of “holes” with a positive electrical charge, while the n-type semiconductor material
has an abundance of electrons with a negative electrical charge. When these two semiconductors
come into contact with each other, a p/n junction is created at the interface. At this junction,
excess electrons move from the n-type side to the p-type side, resulting in a positive charge along
the n-type side and a negative charge along the p-type side. This creates an electric field much
like a battery with one side having a positive charge and the other a negative charge.

The process through which the device converts sunlight into


electricity is called the photoelectric effect. The device is
commonly called a photovoltaic or PV cell. Sunlight striking a
PV cell is either reflected, absorbed, or it passes through. The
light that is absorbed in the PV cell transfers energy to the
electrons in the cell’s atoms. With the added energy from the
absorbed light, the electrons escape from their normal position
and become part of the electrical flow in an electrical circuit
through, for example, a motor on a model car, shown at
left.
The typical PV cell produces a small electrical output —
usually constructed to produce between 0.5 and 2 Watts.
Since these devices are electrical, they can be connected in
series and parallel strings to boost the electrical output.
Connecting in series increases the voltage output, while
connecting in parallel increases the current output.
Connecting PV cells in series and parallel strings forms
what is called a module. Some manufacturers now produce
“power modules” that can produce 190 Watts or more. A
190-Watt module connected to a load may produce 27 volts at around 7 amps when exposed to
full sun conditions.

System Components: Arrays

Modules are commonly connected in series and parallel strings to form what is called an array.
The output of an array can be designed to meet almost any electric requirement, large or small.
The picture below shows an array that has a peak DC rating of 4.5 kilowatts.

Image: National Center for Appropriate Technology, Butte, MT

System Components: Mounting Structures


Image: DOE Image: Spa Hot Springs Motel Tracking Solar
Arrays

Generally, solar modules do not have the structure needed to withstand wind loading, and so
must be mounted on a mounting structure. Mounting structures are usually made of steel or
aluminum and may be attached to the roof of the home in a fashion similar to that for solar
water-heating panels (see Lesson 4). Mounting structures may be fixed mount, may allow the
array to be tilted seasonally, or may, on pole mounts, be able to track the sun.

Back to Top

System Components: Combiner Box

Another major component of a PV system is


the combiner box. Modules are commonly
connected into an electrical string to produce
the desired voltage and amperage. The resulting
wires from each string are routed to the
combiner box. In this box all the strings are
combined into one electrical output that is then
fed to the inverter. In this picture, ten strings of
modules are fed through fuses to produce a
single output. Note the size of the input wires
versus the size of the wire conducting the
combined output out the bottom of the circuit
board. The black cylinder on the right hand
side of the combiner box is a lightning arrestor.
System Components: Inverters

PV cells, modules, and arrays produce direct current (DC). Electric loads that are not connected
to the utility grid can use the PV-generated power if they are designed to operate on direct
current. Using a charge controller, PV-generated power can charge a bank of storage batteries
which can power DC loads when the sun is not shining on the array. Most appliances and
equipment found in the home are designed to operate on alternating current (AC) which is
generated by electric utility companies. The device that converts DC to AC for use in the home is
called an inverter. In stand-alone or grid-connected PV system installations, inverters are
commonly used to power household appliances, tools and other equipment. These inverters do
not need the utilities voltage and frequency reference to produce AC with electrical
characteristics much like utility-generated AC. Inverters that are connected to the utility grid
produce AC that is identical to the power produced by the utility. These inverters sense the
utility’s generated voltage and wave form
characteristics and produce AC of the same
form.

In the picture to the right, the inverter is the


large, white, rectangular device. The white,
square box to the right of the inverter and the
gray box to its left are disconnect switches—
the one on the left disconnects the inverter from
the utility and the one on the right is the DC
disconnect. In this case, the DC disconnect
switch also contains a ground fault interrupter
for the PV array. The small box just above the
inverter is a monitor that shows the array’s DC
voltage and current output. Note the electrical
conduit into and out of the disconnect switches.

Questions

1. Give three ways that a PV cell and a battery are alike.


2. A battery converts chemical energy into electrical energy. What type of energy does a PV
cell convert?
3. Since each individual PV cell’s electrical output is small, how can the cells be configured
to produce the electrical output needed to power a high electric demand?
4. Why is an inverter needed for a PV system that is connected to the local utility grid?
5. What function does the combiner box perform in a PV system?
PV System Selection and Sizing
• Questions
• Answers

The first step in designing a PV system is to decide whether to install a PV system that is
connected to the local utility grid or a remote system that functions without a utility connection.
For either PV system type, the amount of shade-free roof area available from roughly 9 a.m. to 3
p.m. for mounting the PV array must be determined. If a ground- or a pole-mount is considered
rather than a roof-mount, these optional sites need to be shade-free also during the same time
period. A remote PV system’s array size is determined after determining the building’s average
daily electrical demand and sizing other components in the total system. For a grid-connected PV
system the array size can be simply sized to fit within the amount of mounting area and the
budget for the project. Most of the discussion in this lesson will focus on grid-connected PV
systems, with some tidbits on remote
site installations

Most power modules have a peak


output around 12 Watts per square foot
of module area. Thus, for every 100
square feet of roof area, a PV array
with an output of around 1200 peak
Watts could be installed. Using the
amount of roof area available, an
estimate of the total potential array
output can be made. Be sure that there
is room around the PV array to be able
to work around it safely.

At this point, an economic decision


must be made. Using a cost of $8 to
$10/Watt of the array’s peak output to install a PV system, a preliminary assessment between
available funds and array size can be made. Only install modules that have a UL 1703 listing.
The Underwriters Laboratory (UL) uses safety and performance standards specific to the
equipment type and issues a listing for models that pass the safety and performance tests.

For most grid-connected PV system installations, the estimated peak array output is used as the
basis for specifying the inverter needed for the PV system. In some cases, the building’s
electrical demand may be determined and used to specify the inverter. In a remote or stand-alone
PV system installation, the average daily electric load of the building needs to be calculated first.
The building’s electric demand should include the Watt demand of all ac loads running at the
same time, plus the wattage from the surge of starting motors, plus all dc loads operating at the
same time; this demand is further increased by 1.2 to account for inverter losses. In both the grid-
connected and remote site situations, the initial estimate of the inverter’s capacity may be
changed by making a decision that at some point in the future you plan to increase the size of PV
array.
There are two basic types of
inverters to consider for this course
– those that produce a modified sine
wave and those that produce a true
sine wave. Although modified sine
wave inverters are less expensive
than true sine wave models, they
can not produce the quality
waveform required by some
equipment. Utility companies
produce electricity that is a true sine
wave. A modified sine wave
inverter produces a slightly squared
off electrical waveform, but
computers, power tools,
refrigerators and most all equipment
can use this generated electricity. Pure sine wave inverters produce a true sine wave that is the
same as utility generated waveforms and is needed by high-end audio equipment and other
specialized equipment that are electrically sensitive such as life support equipment. All inverters
should be UL 1741 listed. In grid-connected installations the inverter must shut down rapidly in
situations where the utility goes down – this is called anti-islanding and is a safety function for
utility personal and electricians who may be working in the area.
Sine Wave and Modified Sine Wave Electric Power Forms
Graphic: NCAT

Back to Top

Inverters designed for remote site and grid-connected installations are available that are designed
to use nominal 12-, 24-, or 48-volt DC electricity from the PV array and some grid-connected
inverters are designed to operate with input voltages ranging from 139 up to nearly 600 volts
DC. The higher-voltage strings carry low current levels; this allows the use of smaller diameter
wire in the circuit between the inverter and the modules.

Once you have identified the type and the output capacity of the inverter for a grid-connected
system, you can determine the PV modules you’ll need. Using module maximum working
voltage and amperage values, you can use series and parallel calculations to match the inverter’s
input electrical requirement with the proposed array output electrical characteristics. You will
have to be aware of the open circuit voltage and amperage of the module strings to not exceed
the normal input range for the inverter chosen. Matching modules with the inverter will most
likely be an iterative process. Inverters using high voltage inputs are best matched with PV
modules using a computer program provided by each inverter manufacturer. The computer
programs use a database of specific module electrical characteristics to identify the appropriate
number of modules in each string and the number of strings feeding the specified inverter.
Programs for several brands can be found at the links below:

• Xantrex: www.xantrex.com/support/gtsizing/disclaimer.asp?lang=eng
• Sunnyboy: www.sma-america.com/stringsizing.html
• PV Powered: www.pvpowered.com/string_sizing.php
• Beacon Power: www.beaconpower.com/StringCalc/
• Fronius: www.fronius.com/solar.electronics/downloads/configurator.htm
In Lesson 3, you learned that the amount of solar insolation
incident on surfaces with tilt angles between 10 and 50
degrees up from horizontal and orientations plus/minus 30
degrees of true south varies only about 6 percent on an
annual basis. Mounting the array on a sloped roof at the
optimum 40 degree tilt angle is most likely not worth the
added cost for tilting the rack up to hold the array. A slight
advantage of tilting the array at 40 degrees is wintertime
shedding of snow. real disadvantage of the added tilt is the
potential of damage from strong winds. And another
consideration is the aesthetic appearance of a skylight-like
structure on the roof compared to an off-angle array
installation. Given the small annual insolation variation, the
decision to mount the PV array three to four inches above
(parallel to) the roof is the best method to use. On a flat
roof, and for a ground- or a pole-mount, the array should be
installed at a 40-degree tilt angle. The pictures to the right
and below show grid-connected PV systems mounted on a
flat roof, a pole, and on a railroad tie foundation (ground
mount).

Installing a PV system parallel to a sloped roof would have


the following equivalent tilt angle:

Roof slope Slope or Tilt Angle


(degrees)
3/12 14
4/12 18
5/12 23
6/12 27
9/12 37
12/12 45
16/12 53
20/12 59

The National Electric Code (NEC) has a significant impact on the design of and the components
used in a PV system. Sandia National Laboratories' Photovoltaic Center has posted the following
wire coding and sizing information from The Stand-Alone PV System Handbook on its website.

Wire Types Commonly Used in the U.S.


• Underground Feeder (UF)—may be used for interconnecting balance-
of-systems (BOS) but not recommended for use within battery
enclosures; single conductor UF wire may be used to interconnect
modules in the array but this type of wire is not widely available.
• Tray Cable (TC)—multi-conductor TC wire may be used for
interconnecting BOS; TC has good resistance to sunlight but may not
be marked as such.
• Service Entrance (SE)—may be used for interconnecting BOS
• Underground Service Entrance (USE)—may be used for
interconnecting modules or BOS; may be used within battery
enclosures
• THHN—indicates wire with heat resistant thermoplastic sheathing; it
may be used for interconnecting BOS but must be installed in
conduit, either buried or above ground. It is resistant to moisture but
should not be used in wet locations.
• TW—refers to moisture resistant thermoplastic sheathing; it may be
used for interconnecting BOS but must be installed in conduit. May
be used in wet locations.

Note: The use of NMB (Romex) is not recommended except for ac circuits as
in typical residential wiring. Although commonly available, it will not
withstand moisture or sunlight.

Back to Top

In the United States, the size of wire is categorized by the American Wire Gage (AWG) scale.
The AWG scale rates wires from No. 18 (40-mil diameter) to No. 0000 (460 mil diameter).
Multiple conductors are commonly enclosed in an insulated sheath for wires smaller than No. 8.
The conductor may be solid or stranded. Stranded wire is easier to work with particularly for
sizes larger than No. 8. Copper conductors are recommended. Aluminum wire is less expensive,
but can cause problems if used incorrectly. Many different materials are used to make the sheath
that covers the conductors. You must select a wire with a covering that will withstand the worst-
case conditions. It is mandatory that sunlight resistant wire be specified if the wire is to be
exposed to the sun. If the wire is to be buried without conduit it must be rated for direct burial.
For applications such as wiring to a submersible pump or for battery inter-connections, ask the
component dealer for recommendations. Often the dealer or manufacturer will supply
appropriate wire and connectors.

More useful information is contained in NEC. It is recommended that any designer/installer


review Article 300 before proceeding. This article contains a discussion of wiring methods and
Table 310-13 gives the characteristics and recommended usage of different wire types. Table
310-16 gives temperature derate factors. Another useful reference available from the PVSAC at
Sandia National Laboratories is Photovoltaic Power Systems and the National Electrical Code,
Suggested Practices.

Selecting the correct size and type of wire for the system will optimize performance and increase
reliability. The size of the wire must be capable of carrying the current at the operating
temperature without excessive losses. It is important to derate the current carrying capacity of the
wire if high temperature operation is expected. A wire may be rated for high temperature
installations (60-90°C), but this only means that the insulation of the wire can withstand the rated
temperature — it does not mean that ampacity is unaffected.

The current-carrying capability (ampacity) depends on the highest temperature to which the
wires will be exposed when it is carrying the current. According to Table 310-16 in the NEC, a
UF-type wire operating at 55°C can safely carry only 40 percent of the current, or 30°C — a
significant derate. If the ampacity of the wire is exceeded, it could result in overheating,
insulation break-down, and fires. Properly sized fuses are used to protect the conductors and
prevent this kind of damage.

Loss in a DC circuit is equal to I2R, where I is the current and R is the resistance of the wire. For
100 ampere current, this means 10,000 times the loss in the circuit compared to a one amp load.
It is easy to see why resistance must be kept small. Also, the voltage drop in the circuit is equal
to IR. Voltage drop can cause problems, particularly in low-voltage systems. For a 12-volt
system, a one-volt drop amounts to more than 8 percent of the source voltage. Avoid long wire
runs or use larger wire to keep resistance and voltage drop low. For most applications, AWG No.
8, No. 10, and No. 12 are used.

An abbreviated wire sizing table for a 12-Volt DC system is shown below. The table indicates
the minimum wire size that should be used if the voltage drop is to be limited to 3 percent for
any branch circuit. (This table can be adjusted to reflect different voltage drop percentages or
different system voltages by using simple ratios. For example, a 2-percent loss can be calculated
by multiplying the values in the table by 2/3. For a 24-Volt DC system, the values can be
multiplied by two. For a 120-volt system multiply by 10.) The calculations show one-way
distance, taking into account that two wires, positive and negative, are used in an electrical
circuit.

As an example, assume the array is 30 feet from the controller and the maximum current is 10
amperes. The table shows that No. 8-size wire can be used up to a one-way distance of 30 feet
(no temperature derate included). While the general rule is to limit the voltage drop for any
branch circuit to 3 percent, there may be some applications, particularly those operating at or
below 12 Volts, where the loss should be limited to 1 percent or less. For the total wire run on
any path from source to load, the loss should be no greater than 5 percent.

One-way Wire Distance (feet) for 3% voltage drop - 12 volt system - copper wire
AWG Wire Size
14 12 10 8 6 4
Amperes
1.0 71 113 180 286
2.0 35 56 90 143 278 362
5.0 15 24 38 60 95 150
10.0 7 12 19 30 47 75
20.0 6 9 15 23 36
30.0 4 6 10 17 24

The NEC requires certain conventions for color of conductors and specifies requirements for
disconnecting the power source (code reference for each condition is given in brackets).
Specifically:

• The grounded conductor is to be white. [200-6]. Convention is for the first ungrounded
conductor of a PV system to be red, and the second ungrounded conductor black
(negative in a center tapped PV system).
• Single-conductor cable is allowed for module connections only. Sunlight resistant cable
should be used if the cable is exposed. [690-31b]
• Modules should be wired so they can be removed without interrupting the grounded
conductor of another source circuit. [690-4c]
• Any wiring junction boxes should be accessible. [690-34]
• Connectors should be polarized and guarded to prevent shock. [690-33]
• Means to disconnect and isolate all PV source circuits will be provided. [690-13]
• All ungrounded conductors should be able to be disconnected from the inverter. [690-15]
• If fuses are used, you must be able to disconnect the power from both ends. [690-16]
• Switches should be accessible and clearly labeled. [690-17]

The purpose of grounding any electrical system is to prevent unwanted currents from flowing
(especially through people) and possibly causing equipment damage, personal injury, or death.
Lightning, natural and man-made ground faults, and line surges can cause high voltages to exist
in an otherwise low-voltage system. Proper grounding, along with over-current protection, limits
the possible damage that a ground fault can cause. Consider the following and recognize the
difference between the equipment grounding conductor and the grounded system conductor:

• One conductor of a PV system (>50 volts) must be grounded, and the neutral wire of a
center tapped three wire system must also be grounded. [690-41]. If these provisions are
met, this is considered sufficient for the battery ground (if batteries are included in the
system). [690-73]. A ground is achieved by making a solid low resistance connection to a
permanent earth ground. This is often done by driving a metallic rod into the earth,
preferably in a moist location. [250-83].
• A single ground point should be made. [690-42]. This provision will prevent the
possibility of potentially dangerous fault current flowing between separate grounds. In
some PV systems where the PV array is located far from the load, a separate ground can
be used at each location. This will provide better protection for the PV array from
lightning surges. If multiple ground points are used, they should be bonded together with
a grounding conductor.
• All exposed metal parts shall be grounded (equipment ground). [690-44]
• The equipment grounding conductor should be bare wire or green wire. [210-5b]
• The equipment grounding conductor must be large enough to handle the highest current
that could flow in the circuit. [690-43]
Because the module frames are usually aluminum and bare copper wire is used for the ground
conductor, you must use the module grounding location and the manufacturers specified
hardware to assure a low-resistance connection to provide long-term protection from shocks and
fire hazards. The grounding conductor must be sized to safely carry the current of the over-
current device protecting the circuit.

It is important that the installation crew includes a certified electrician knowledgeable about
applicable codes and a person knowledgeable about the equipment used in the PV system
installation. Article 690 of NEC addresses electrical requirements and the equipment for
installing a PV system. The electrician must know the codes and be present to answer questions
during the electrical inspection.

Back to Top

Questions

1. During the initial site visit to check a single story building’s acceptability for a PV
system, you note that the asphalt-shingled roof has a 4/12 slope and is oriented 10
degrees to the west of true south. The south-facing roof is a rectangle that is 30 feet wide
and 20 feet from the eaves to the roof top. Is this building a good candidate for a PV
installation? If it is and given that the roof can support the PV system and a 3-person
installation crew, what would you suggest to the building owner as the largest, safe array
(peak output) to install?
2. For the same building described in question 1, what conditions might you encounter that
would make you reject the site for a system installation?
3. What estimated cost would you tell the building owner for an installed PV system with a
peak output of 3000 Watts?
4. Why is an inverter needed in a grid-connected PV installation?
5. Why is an inverter needed in a remote or stand-alone PV system?
6. How would you size the inverter for a grid-connected PV system?
7. What is the color of the grounded conductor in a PV installation and how is it sized?
8. What is the color of the equipment/frame ground wire in a PV installation and how is it
sized?
9. What function does the equipment/frame ground perform?
10. Given that a PV system uses modules outputting a nominal 12 volts at 5 amperes, the
modules are 30 feet from a combiner box, and you can only tolerate a 2% voltage drop,
what gauge of wire should be used to connect the modules with the combiner box? What
gauge of wire if the modules strings were 24 volt at 5 amps?
PV System Installation
• Questions
• Answers

In the initial site visit, the approximate locations for the inverter, disconnect switches, the
combiner box(es), and the junction box(es) are identified. The distance between each device and
from the inverter to the building’s electric panel is noted. Using the PV system’s peak DC
voltage and current output, the inverter’s AC electrical characteristics, and the distances between
the equipment the appropriate size of wire for each run can be determined (see the voltage drop
table in Lesson 6).

Given that the building has passed the site survey and is a good candidate for installing the solar
electric system, it is time to start the paper work. Keep in mind that various municipalities across
Pennsylvania enforce different codes and may have restrictive covenants that need to be checked
and cleared with the local officials. The building and electrical permits need to be obtained
before proceeding with the PV system installation.

Safety

Safety is of the utmost importance. Even before


unloading the solar equipment and installation
hardware and tools, the crew should have a safety
meeting. It is recommended that everyone on the
crew be trained in CPR and basic first aid. This
meeting should include safety issues presented in
the solar water-heating section, such as preventing
falls from cluttered work areas, setting up and using
ladders correctly, wearing gloves and safety glasses,
and being careful to not drop tools or equipment.
The meeting also should include a lengthy
discussion of electric shock and its potential when working around PV systems should be
presented. The following information is excerpted from Sandia National Laboratory’s
Photovoltaic Systems Research & Development website
www.sandia.gov/pv/syso/ESafety1.html.

Common electrical accidents result in shocks and/or burns, muscle contractions, and traumatic
injuries associated with falls after the shock. These injuries can occur any time electric current
flows through the human body. The amount of current that will flow is determined by the
difference in potential (voltage) and the resistance in the current path. At low frequencies (60 Hz
or less) the human body acts like a resistor but the value of resistance varies with conditions. It is
difficult to estimate when current will flow or the severity of the injury that might occur because
the resistivity of human skin varies from just under a thousand ohms to several hundred thousand
ohms depending primarily on skin moisture.
If a current greater than 0.02 amperes (only 20 milliamperes) flows through your body, you are
in serious jeopardy because you may not be able to let go of the current-carrying wire. This small
amount of current can be forced through sweaty hands with a voltage as low as 20 volts, and the
higher the voltage the higher the probability that current will flow. High voltage shock (>400
volts) may burn away the protective layer of outer skin at the entry and exit points. When this
occurs, the body’s resistance is lowered and lethal currents may cause instant death. The data in
the following table shows the reaction of the human body to various levels of current flow.

Electric Shock Hazard - Current Level


AC Current DC Current
Reaction
(ma) (ma)
Perception - Tingle, Warmth 1.0 6.0
Shock - Retain muscle control; reflex may cause injury 2.0 9.0
Severe Shock - Lose muscle control; cannot let-go; burns;
20 90
asphyxia
Ventricular Fibrillation 100 500
Heart Frozen - Body temperature rises; death occurs in minutes 1000 1000

Electrical shock is painful and a potentially minor injury is often aggravated by the reflex
reaction of jumping back away from the source of the shock. Anytime a PV array contains more
than two PV modules, a shock hazard should be presumed to exist.

To avoid shock, always measure the voltage from any wire to any other wires, and to ground.
Use a clamp-on ammeter to measure the current flowing in the wires. Never disconnect a wire
before you have checked the voltage and current. Do not presume everything is in perfect order.
Do not trust switches to operate perfectly and do not trust that schematics will always tell
everything you need to know. Use a voltmeter often—it could save your life.

Back to Top

Roof: Select Installation Site

On the roof, the physical site for the PV array needs to be chosen and within this area, the rafters
must be located. The composition of the roof will dictate how the mounting rails or rack—which
hold the modules in the array—should be installed. The mounting procedure is basically the
same as for the solar water-heating installation. You have the choice of using lag screws into the
center of the rafters; using the J-bolt next to the rafter; or using a spanner board, all thread, and
compression block to mount the clips for holding the rack system which holds the modules
securely in place.

Locating the rafters and their centers from up on the roof could involve using a stud finder,
tapping with a hammer, using the fascia board/rafter nail connection, or a combination of these
methods.
If you cannot locate the rafters from the roof, you will have to get into the attic space. Once you
get oriented in the attic space, use a long 1/16th inch drill bit to drill a hole up through the roof
right next to one of the rafters that you will be using to attach the mounting clips. If you do not
have someone on the roof to note where the drill bit comes up through the roof, push a piece of
wire up through the hole to allow you to easily see the hole when you go back up on the roof.
Drill two holes, one at the upper level of the mounting rack’s location and one at the lower level
of the rack. Be sure to measure the distance between the rafters at each level of the drilled hole—
this will allow you to locate the center of rafters, including those that were not installed parallel
to each other.
For a roof covered with masonry or ceramic tiles, the installation process needs some
adjustments. The roof structure is commonly designed near the limit of the dead load of the tiles.
In this case, the rafters must be enhanced to support the additional dead load of the PV system
and the live load associated with the installation. An alternative is to remove the tiles where the
PV system is to be installed and transition to a roof of asphalt or composition shingles. Doing
this should allow the installation of the PV system without enhancing the roof structure.

Install the mounting clips according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Use a sealant that is UV-
resistant to prevent leaks when screwing down the mounting clips. If you had to drill up through
the roof to locate the rafters, be sure to force sealant into those holes also. For an installation with
the array installed parallel to the roof slope, the mounting clips should be such that the PV
modules are situated 3 to 4 inches above the roof. This allows cooling air to circulate below the
modules, allows rain to run off under the array, and helps prevent ice dams from forming during
freezing conditions. Depending on the mounting equipment, rails are commonly attached to the
mounting clips and serve as a secure structure for attachment of the modules and sub-arrays.
Connect all dissimilar metals (such as steel and aluminum) using non-conductive washers to
prevent galvanic corrosion. Make sure that all connections of the mounting clips and mounting
rails are tight—once the modules or sub-arrays are attached, it might not be possible to get to the
nuts and bolts.

Visually check the modules for any cracked glazing, and check that the frame, wiring box, and
the back’s potting material are intact. Check the open circuit voltage and current of each module
before hauling them up onto the roof. Depending on the mounting technique and the inverter’s
input voltage, you may be able to assemble a group of modules into a sub-array on the ground.
The modules can be connected with the proper size, color, and type of wiring to form the sub-
array, and then the sub-array’s open circuit voltage and current can be checked before being
moved to the roof as a unit. Label the each wire pair for connection in the junction—this is used
to document and identify the string and circuit going to the inverter and can be used for
troubleshooting purposes at some point in the future. To prevent shocks, be sure to use wire nuts
and/or electrician’s tape to cover the ends of wires coming off the modules or sub-array. When
the modules are exposed to sunlight, they are electrically hot and are capable of providing the
closed-circuit (normal) operating voltage and current levels to any material that can become a
circuit. Before closing the electrical connector box on each module, check that the wiring
connections are tight.

Getting the modules or sub-array to the roof can be as simple as one man on a step-ladder lifting
a module up to a second person on the roof of a single story building. In the case of a sub-array,
two people could be on the roof using ropes or straps to pull the sub-array up a ladder or two
with another person below stabilizing and pushing the sub-array upward. In the picture below, an
articulated manlift is used to move sub-arrays to the roof of a three-story building.
Note two points of interest:
1) there are two people on the left-facing roof—they are in harness and tied off and will move to
the south roof to attach the sub-array when it ispositioned near the mounting rails; and
2) the table to the right of the white truck is used to assemble the modules into sub-arrays.

Before the module or sub-array is attached to the mounting rack on the roof, the frame ground
wire needs to be attached. Modules have a designated spot to attach the equipment ground wire.
You’ll need to procure the correct type of stainless steel fastener and connector (sometimes
supplied with the module). The wire for the equipment ground shall be bare copper. The ground
needs to be continued to the common DC equipment ground bus. This can be accomplished by
transitioning to a green THHN ground wire in the roof junction box which is carried thru the
steel conduit to the PV DC disconnect or inverter. The bare copper wire can be run outside the
conduit to the junction box, then the combiner box and on to the inverter or other disconnect
means where it is connected to a equipment-grounding screw. The size of the equipment
grounding wire is dictated by the rating of the overcurrent device (breaker/fuse) protecting the
circuit. If for example the overcurrent breaker is rated at 30 amps, the grounding conductor
should be AWG #10 copper. Check the tightness of the equipment ground connection and
tighten as necessary – you probably will not be able to reach all of them later when the modules
or sub-arrays are mounted securely on the rails.
The locations for the junction box(es) and
combiner box(es) were determined during the
initial site survey. Re-evaluate the sites, install
the hardware, and connect the pieces of
equipment with conduit. The combiner box is
basically a device that connects the input PV
strings in parallel to produce one circuit.
Remember that paralleling electric circuits
increases the current flow in the downstream
circuit. The combiner box output wire must be
sized larger for the higher current and to
minimize voltage drop and line losses of the
PV generated DC power going to the inverter.
The conduit between the junction box(es) and the combiner box(es) must be sized to safely hold
the number of module or sub-array wire pairs passing through.
Note: steel conduit is recommended for PV source circuits and required per National Electric
Code section 690.xx.

In the fused combiner box(es), the fuses should be removed and the appropriate number of
properly sized wire pairs should be fished from the combiner box(es) to the junction box(es).
Each wire pair should be labeled at each end for connection in the combiner and junction boxes.
Connect the wire pairs in the combiner box(es) first and then connect them to the wires from
modules or sub-arrays in the junction box(es).

CAUTION: When making PV source circuit electrical connections in junction and


combiner boxes, make absolutely sure that each source circuit is broken by keeping a series
connection disconnected for each source circuit (typically made with MC style plugs).

Back to Top

The very last connection should be the plugging together these series connections. In this way,
you will never be exposed to the lethal voltages involved. The junction box(es) should be sized
larger than required for the number of wire pairs to be connected in them. Over sizing allows
safe connection of the wire pairs outside the box and then the long leads are coiled neatly inside
the box. The combiner box above has 10 input strings (this box is installed in an attic space -
note the green equipment ground wires). Before you close up the junction box(es) make sure that
the wire connections between the PV strings and the extension wires to the combiner box(es) are
tight.

The conduits between the combiner box(es), DC disconnect switch, and the inverter must be
sized to accommodate the size and number of wires passing through them. With the fuses out of
the combiner box(es), the inverter and the DC disconnect switch in the off position, and the
appropriate wires can be pulled through the conduit and connected to the combiner box(es),
disconnect switch, and the appropriate inverter inputs. Note that only the positive wire is
switched by the disconnect. The equipment ground wire can also be connected at the combiner
box(es), the DC disconnect switch, and the inverter.
A DC grounding electrode should be
installed that connects with the
equipment ground at the inverter. This
ground should in turn be connected to
the existing AC grounding system in the
building’s electric panel. The size of this
equipment grounding should be #8
Copper minimum. Conductor size for
the DC output is determined by the amp
rating of the circuit protection from the
combiner box(es) and the DC disconnect
switch. The grounding wire size for the
AC side of the inverter to the building’s electric panel is determined by the amp rating of the
circuit breaker and must be #8 copper at a minimum.

If the installation crew is large enough, the inverter and disconnect switches can be installed in
the building while the modules are being installed on the roof. The meter that looks like a utility
meter is the building owner’s way of keeping track of the number of kWhs produced by the PV
system installed on the roof. This inverter does not have the capability to display the number of
kWhs produced by the PV system.

This picture shows the inverter mounted on a board.


The AC disconnect switch is mounted to the left of
the inverter and the DC disconnect switches are
mounted to the inverter’s right. This is a clean
arrangement and having critical switches near each
other to be easily shutdown in an emergency or
whenever work has to be done on the solar electric
system is ideal. Assembling the board with the
inverter and disconnect switches already mounted
saves install time in the building. Mounting the
inverter board close to the combiner box(es) reduces
the amount of large gauge wire needed between the
combiner box(es) and the inverter. Thus the longer run is smaller gauge wire for the AC circuit
from the inverter to the building’s electric panel. A note here, if the inverter has multi-speed
cooling fans, the noise when the fans operate on high is often too loud to hold a meeting in the
same room. It is best to install the inverter board on a wall in a room that is not normally
occupied.

The AC output from the inverter must be connected to an overcurrent device that is rated at 1.25
times the maximum continuous output current of the inverter. Run conduit from the inverter to
the AC disconnect switch and to the building’s electric panel. The utility may require a separate,
lockable utility disconnect switch be installed near the utility’s meter. This disconnect switch is
for utility personnel use to take the PV system off line when utility work is done in the area. The
wire size for these runs is determined by the inverter’s AC current output and the distance to the
breaker being back-fed in the electric panel.
Turn the electric panel breaker(s) to the off position, check the disconnect switches to be sure
they are in the off position, then fish the appropriate wires to each device back to the inverter.
Connect the wires securely to the panel breakers, switches, and the inverter. The installation is
ready for a final check before the system is turned on.

Although it is probably not possible to check the rooftop connections, check the tightness of all
electrical connections and tighten as necessary. In the process of checking the electrical
connections, check that the conduit runs are supported according to code, and check the tightness
of all mounting screws and bolts used to mount the inverter, disconnect switches, conduit, and
the equipment grounding connections.

Use the voltmeter to check the polarity and the open circuit voltage and current of each string
coming into the combiner box(es). Write down the open circuit volt and current values for each
string. These will be used as reference numbers to check the performance of each string and help
in the troubleshooting process. Check the open circuit DC voltage at the inverter when the DC
disconnect switch is closed. The open circuit current in this circuit is probably more than can be
checked with a digital voltmeter (they usually max out at 10 amps), so use a DC ammeter to
determine the current level. Record this value for future reference. Check the utilities line-to-
line-and line to-ground voltage at the breakers in the electric panel and label the front of the
electric panel and the breakers to identify the solar circuits.

Once the final physical and electrical inspections are complete, follow the inverter
manufacturer’s instructions to get the inverter turned on. If all is installed correctly, the PV
system should start to produce power. Turn off the inverter, the panel breakers, and all the
disconnect switches and contact the inspector to schedule the final system inspection.

Finally, you will need to prepare a general electrical schematic to give to the building owner (and
the electrical inspector), along with copies of the equipment descriptions, operating and
troubleshooting instructions, and warranties. On the electrical schematic, include a drawing of
the PV array layout with the specific circuits going to the combiner box(es) labeled.

Questions

1. Why is the equipment ground necessary between the modules and the inverter? Can the
same reason be used for installing the equipment ground between the inverter and the
electric panel?
2. Why is low-voltage power dangerous?
3. Does a PV module with an open circuit voltage and amperage of 27 and 3.5 respectively
under full sun conditions, present a shock hazard for someone who comes in contact with
the wires? Explain your answer.
4. What is the function of the combiner box?
5. Why is there disconnect switch between the inverter and the PV array?
6. Why is there a disconnect switch between the inverter and the building’s electric panel?
7. What are the two factors used to determine the size of wire to install in the PV system?
8. Why is it important to evaluate the voltage drop in DC circuits?
9. What three methods are commonly used to locate the rafter centers when on the roof?
10. Why mount the PV array at a level 3 to 4 inches above the roof?

PV System Maintenance
• Maintenance Steps
1. At the inverter
2. On the Roof
3. At the Combiner Box(es)
4. Inside
5. Back at the Inverter
• System Troubleshooting
1. Load Problem
2. Inverter Problem
3. Array Problem
• Questions
• Answers

Schedule maintenance twice a year. Around noon on a sunny day is an ideal time to perform
maintenance. A homeowner with neither the necessary instrumentation nor the electrical
knowledge might consider contracting with an electrician to perform maintenance and inspection
of the PV system.

Maintenance Steps

Step 1: At the Inverter


Use a voltmeter and a DC ammeter to check and record the inverter’s operating DC input voltage
and current level and on the AC side, and the inverter’s output voltage and current levels. Check
that the appropriate LEDs are lit up to indicate proper operation of the inverter. If the inverter
can display the total kWh produced since it first started up, record the amount. Use this number
to compare the PV system’s production since the last inspection.
Step 2: On the Roof

Note and record the condition of the modules. Look for


signs of degradation (for example, color changes, fogged
glazing, de-lamination, warping, or water leaks),
cracked glazing, and bent frames on the modules.
Tighten all loose nuts and bolts, holding the modules to
the mounting rack and to the mounting clips. Secure any
loose wiring under the modules. Check the wiring for
signs of chewing by squirrels, and look for cuts, gashes,
or worn spots in the wiring’s insulation. Replace any
damaged wire runs. Check the frame ground
connections between modules and from the modules to
Rinse the PV array to remove debris. the junction box(es). Check to see that the sealants
Image: NREL/PIX 00180 around all building penetrations are in good condition
and repair if necessary. Open the junction box(es) and look for and correct any dirty, loose, or
broken connections. Test the tightness of each connection and tighten all loose ones. Note any
problems that can be corrected at a later time or at the next scheduled inspection time. Close the
junctions box(es) and check that all conduit connections are tight.

Remove all sources of shade on the array and rinse the array to remove the accumulated dust,
dirt, and other debris. Some debris, such as bird droppings, may need to soak a bit to fully
remove it.

Step 3: At the Combiner Box(es)


Open the combiner box(es) and look for any dirty, loose, or broken connections, and correct as
necessary. Use a voltmeter and DC ammeter to measure and record the array’s operating voltage
and current level on the output side of the combiner box(es). Note the relative sun conditions at
the time (i.e., full sun, partly cloudy, heavy overcast). Remove the fuses and then check and
record each string’s open circuit voltage and current levels. Note any deviation between strings
for future correction. You can also use the open circuit measurements to determine if the array’s
output is degrading over time. Return the fuses and close the combiner box(es).

Step 4: Inside
Open all disconnect switches. Use the ohmmeter section of the voltmeter to check the grounding
system connections. Greater than 25 ohms indicates that corrosion or a poor connection is
present, which must be located and corrected. If opening the disconnect switch breaks the
ground, you need to rewire the switch to correct the problem. Check each of the disconnected
sections for a ground-fault condition any that are found.
Step 5: Back at the Inverter
Turn the inverter off and check for dirty, loose, or broken wires and connections. Check for and
repair any ground faults. Power the system up. Check for normal start up operation and that the
inverter produces AC electricity.

Back to Top

System Troubleshooting

Troubleshooting a PV system usually means:

1. A load does not operate properly or not at all;


2. The inverter does not operate properly or not at all; or
3. The array has low or no voltage or current.

A qualified electrician should check and correct electrical problems in a PV system, since
homeowners are unlikely to be qualified to perform such work.

Troubleshooting: Load Problem


The first step is to check all switches. Are they turned off, or in the wrong position? If so, turn
them on or put them in the correct position. Also check to see that the load is plugged in. With a
voltmeter, check to see that the proper voltage is present at the load’s connection. Next check the
fuses and circuit breakers. Are there blown fuses or tripped breakers? If so, locate the cause and
fix or replace the faulty component. If there are no blown fuses or tripped breakers and the load
is a motor, an internal thermal breaker may be tripped or there may be an open circuit in the
motor. Plug in another load and note its operation.

Check for broken wires and any loose connections. Clean all dirty connections and replace all
bad wiring. With the power off, check for and repair any ground faults. Replace the fuses and
reset the switches. If they blow or trip again, there is a problem short, which must be located and
repaired.

If the load does not operate properly, check the system’s voltage at the load’s connection. Low
voltage could mean that the wire feeding the circuit is too small and too long and needs to be
upgraded to reduce the voltage drop. The load also could be too large for the wire size in the
circuit. Reduce the load on the circuit or run larger wire that is sized for the current load.

Troubleshooting: Inverter Problem


A lack of power output from the inverter could be caused by a blown fuse, tripped breaker, a
broken wire, a ground fault, or any of the inverter’s internal disconnects (high and low voltage
and current). The load on the inverter may have too high of a current demand. Reduce the loads
or replace the inverter with one with a larger output.
With the power off, check for and repair any ground faults before starting the inverter again.

The utility’s voltage and frequency are sensed by the inverter, which normally produces AC
electricity at the same voltage and frequency. The AC current output from the inverter fluctuates
with the level of solar insolation on the array. Low or high utility voltage sensed by the internal
disconnects will cause the inverter to shut down. Contact the utility to correct the problem on its
side.

Inverter problems could also be caused by a problem on the array side of inverter that trips one
of the internal disconnects.

Troubleshooting: Array Problem


Prior to getting on the roof, check and record the inverter’s input voltage and current level from
the array. If the array is not producing DC electricity, check all switches, fuses, and circuit
breakers. Replace blown fuses and reset the breakers and switches. A spurious surge may have
passed through, tripping or blowing the protective devices. Check for broken wires and loose or
dirty connections in the inverter. Replace all damaged wires and clean and tighten all
connections.

Visually check the array for obvious damage to the modules and wiring. Repair as needed and
replace all damaged wiring.

Having a fused combiner box can save a lot of time when checking each module or sub-array
string. Remove the fuses and then check and record the open-circuit voltage and current reading
for each circuit string.

If the output voltage is low, it could indicate that some modules in the series string are defective
or disconnected and need to be replaced. Defective blocking or bypass diodes in the modules
may need to be replaced. Low voltage also could be caused by the wrong wiring connecting the
modules in the string to the junction box or combiner box or the inverter. The wiring could be
either sized too small or the wire run is too long for the string’s output current level. Upgrading
the wire size for the current level should correct this problem.

Low current output could be caused by cloudy conditions, a defective blocking or bypass diode,
a damaged module, one or more parallel connection between modules in the string is broken,
loose, or dirty, or some parallel connections the module are broken, loose, or dirty. Replace a
damaged module or one with internal parallel connection problems. Replace defective diodes
and clean and tighten all connections. Some of the array may be shaded, significantly reducing
the array’s current output. Remove the shade source to regain the string’s full current output.

Dirty modules also could cause reduced current output. Wash the modules to restore the array’s
current output.
Questions

1. What are the two instruments needed to properly perform the maintenance and
troubleshooting tasks for a PV system?
2. During routine maintenance why is it important to check the voltage and current level at
various points in the PV system?
3. Where is a good place to check the open-circuit electrical characteristics of the strings in
the PV array?
4. What are the characteristics that should be measured and recorded in Question 3 and how
are they determined?
5. If you open a disconnect switch while checking the continuity of the grounding system
and the ground is broken, what needs to be done and why?
6. Give three sources or causes of damage to roof top components of a PV system.
7. During maintenance you discover that one string in the combiner box has a much lower
open-circuit current level compared to the other strings from the PV array. Give what
could be two causes and how do you fix the problems?
8. When checking the array string open-circuit voltages, what are two conditions that would
cause a low voltage reading compared to the other strings from the array?
9. If you were measuring the open-circuit current level of a string and the level dropped
suddenly, stayed low for 10 seconds or so and then jumped back to the level you first
measured, what is the most probable explanation for the event?
10. Why should you wash the PV modules whenever maintenance is scheduled?

Economics
• Solar Domestic Water-Heating Systems
• Photovoltaic Systems
• Questions
• Answers

Both solar electric and solar water-heating systems provide useful forms of energy for
consumption in the home, but at a different cost. This lesson provides simple economic
comparison between the systems — the amount of time required to payback the cost of the
system and its installation.

Solar Domestic Water-Heating Systems

To make economic calculations, we’ll use the same example we used in Lesson 3: a family of
four consuming 80 gallons of hot water a day. The hot water temperature is set at 120 degrees F,
the cold water inlet temperature is 55 degrees F, and the hot water tank has a heat loss of 2,147
Btus a day. The total daily heat energy demand was calculated in Lesson 3 to be 45,081 Btus.
Given that the energy in 3,413 Btus of heat is equal to the energy in 1 kWh of electricity, we can
compare the cost of using fuel oil, natural gas, or electricity as the energy source to heat the daily
hot water demand in this example. Fuel oil is sold by the gallon and on average contains 139,000
Btus per gallon. Natural gas is sold sometimes by the MCF (thousand cubic feet) and sometimes
by DekaTherm (DKT). For the purposes of this example, both are 1,000,000 Btus.

Keep in mind that the efficiency of converting from one source of energy to another is not
usually 100%. For this example, the use of electricity to heat water can be considered to be 100%
efficient because all of the energy from electric resistance heating goes into heating the water, so
there are no losses. Fuel-burning appliances must be vented, and some of the energy from
burning the fuel carries the products of combustion out of the house. About 70% of the energy
content of both natural gas and fuel oil is used to heat the water in the water tank, and the
remaining 30% escapes up the flue. Because some energy is lost up the flue, more Btus of gas or
oil must be purchased than Btus of electricity.

The following table shows the annual cost of providing the example hot water demand for
various fuel prices. The annual Btu demand for heating the hot water in the example is
16,454,565 Btus.

16,454,565 Btu / 3413 Btu per KWh = 4,821 KWh 16,454,565 Btu/70% Efficiency = 23,506,521
Btu input of natural gas, propane, or fuel oil.

Electricity Cost Natural Gas (16.5 Mcf CostFuel Oil (118 gallons Cost
(4,821 kWh needed) needed) needed)
Purchased at $482 23.5 purchased at $235 169 purchased at $423
$0.10/kWh $10/Mcf $2.50/gal.
Purchased at $723 23.5 purchased at $306 169 purchased at $465
$0.15/kWh $13/Mcf $2.75/gal.
Purchased at $964 23.5 purchased at $376 169 purchased at $507
$0.20/kWh $16/Mcf $3.00/gal.

In Lesson 3’s example, the solar energy system provides 3.54 MWh per year to the hot water.
3.54 MWh*3413000 Btu per MWh is 12.08 million Btu per year, which provides 12.08/16.5 or
73 percent of the heating fuel on an annual basis. The following table provides the savings for
each fuel and the calculated simple payback for a solar water-heating system that costs $5,200 to
install. The simple payback is calculated as the cost of the solar system divided by the cost
savings per year.

Electric example: Annual Savings = 12,080,000 Btu/3413 Btu per KWh*$0.10 per KWh =
$353.94 savings per year.

$5200.00 installed cost /$353.94 annual savings = 14.7 years simple payback
Natural gas example: Annual Savings = 12,080,000 Btu * $10.00 per DKT/1,000,000 Btu per
DKT * .70 Efficiency = $172.57 savings per year.

$5200.00 installed cost /$172.57 annual savings = 30.1 years simple payback.
Fuel oil example: Annual Savings = 12,080,000 Btu * $2.50 per gallon of fuel oil/130,000 Btu
per gallon of fuel oil * .70 Efficiency = $331.86 savings per year.

$5200.00 installed cost /$331.87 annual savings = 15.7 years simple payback

Electricity Savings Payback Natural Savings Payback Fuel Oil Savings Payback
Gas
$0.10/kWh $354 14.7 yr $10/Mcf $173 30.0 yr $2.50/gal $331 15.7 yr
$0.15/kWh $531 9.8 yr $13/Mcf $224 23.2 yr $2.75/gal $365 14.2 yr
$0.20/kWh $708 7.34 yr $16/Mcf $276 18.8 yr $3.00/gal $398 13.1 yr

A federal tax credit of 30% of the system cost (up to a limit of $2,000) is available to
homeowners or businesses installing a solar water-heating system. For this example, the federal
tax credit reduces the cost of the system by $1,560. The table below reflects the after-tax
paybacks using the cost for the solar water-heating system as $3,640.

Electricity Savings Payback Natural Savings Payback Fuel Oil Savings Payback
Gas
$0.10/kWh $354 10.3 yr $10/Mcf $173 21.0 yr $2.50/gal $331 10.9 yr
$0.15/kWh $531 6.9yr $13/Mcf $224 16.3 yr $2.75/gal $365 9.97 yr
$0.20/kWh $708 5.1 yr $16/Mcf $276 13.2 yr $3.00/gal $398 9.1 yr

Back to Top

Photovoltaic Systems

Calculating the simple payback for a solar electric system is less complicated than running the
numbers for a solar water-heating system. If a 2-kilowatt (peak) DC system is installed and it
produces 2,300 kWh a year for consumption in the building, the simple payback is calculated as
follows:

Simple Payback = (Cost of the PV system installation) divided by (the cost of electricity times
the number of kWh produced by the system)
The installed cost of a PV system ranges from $8 to $10 per DC watt of capacity. For a 2-
kilowatt system, the cost ranges from $16,000 to $20,000. Using electricity costs of $0.10, $0.15,
and $0.20 per kilowatt-hour, the annual savings from producing 2,300 kWh is $230, $345, and
$460 respectively.

$16,000.00 system cost/ 2300KWh per year*$0.10 per KWh = 69.6 years simple payback

With the federal tax credit:

$14,000.00 system cost/2300KWh per year*$0.10 per KWh = 60.9 years simple payback

There are other reasons that people install solar energy systems, such as reducing greenhouse
gases, reducing the need for more power plants, reducing consumption fossil fuels, and reducing
environmental destruction.

There are other economic analysis methods that can tell you more about the value of installing a
solar energy system, but the final analyses are only as good as the input data. For example, it is
difficult, if not impossible, to estimate what the future cost for fuels and interest rates will be. In
the long run, the simple payback comparison is a quick, easy way to compare between systems
using present day costs for fuel and equipment.

Questions

1. Would a solar water-heating system be more cost-effective for a homeowner with electric
resistance heat, or a homeowner with natural gas heat?
2. What is the payback period range for the 2 kW PV system example (given above) that is
connected to a utility that charges $0.08 per kWh? For $0.25/kWh?
3. What are the payback period changes for the conditions given in question 2 when the
federal tax credits are factored into the calculations?
4. How does switching from electricity to natural gas or fuel oil change the simple payback
for a solar water-heating system?

You might also like