Professional Documents
Culture Documents
• Introduction
• End Uses of Energy in the Home
• Energy Efficiency First
• Using Solar Energy in the Home
o Building Characteristics
o Solar Energy System Types
o Passive Solar Energy Systems
o Solar Water-Heating Systems
o Solar Electric Systems
• Pennsylvania's Solar Resource
• Codes, Permits, and Covenants
• Questions
• Answers
Introduction
Energy from the sun can be tapped to provide a clean source of home energy. This lesson will
introduce you to the ways we use energy in the home, and how solar energy can be used to meet
some, or all, of a home’s energy needs. It will also address safety, codes and covenants, and
permits for Pennsylvania.
Energy is used in many ways in the home, including space heating and cooling, water heating,
refrigeration, appliances, lighting, televisions, computers, stereos, and more.
Residential energy use follows a typical pattern. Normally, people get up in the morning and get
ready for work, and as they get ready for work, they shower, and fix breakfast. The activities
surrounding getting ready for work in the morning makes a peak in home energy use, generally
from about 6:00 a.m. to about 8:00 a.m. When people are away from the home during the day,
the home’s energy use is low, but when they arrive home from work in the evening, energy use
in the home goes up again. Preparation of the evening meal, domestic chores, and leisure
activities make a larger peak in home energy use in the evenings. Energy use is lowest at night
when people are sleeping.
This graph
illustrates a typical
energy
consumption
pattern in homes.
Source: National
Center for
Appropriate
Technology.
According to DOE’s Energy Information Administration, almost half of the average home's
energy consumption is used for heating. Another 17 percent is used for water heating, 6 percent
for cooling rooms, and 5 percent for refrigeration.
Fossil fuels account for the nearly all residential energy use. Displacing fossil fuel use with
renewable energy resources such as solar can make a significant contribution to reducing
harmful emissions that contribute to global warming. Using renewable energy resources like
solar also can reduce dependence on the utility grid, and reduce energy costs.
Installing energy-efficient systems in a home is more cost-effective than meeting the energy
needs of less-efficient equipment with solar energy. Reducing electricity use is the best and least
expensive way to save energy and money. A homeowner interested in solar energy should be
made aware that solar energy systems will provide a much higher fraction of the total energy
used in the home if energy-efficiency measures are taken first. Although some efficiency
measures amount to installing and using more energy-efficient equipment, some efficiency
measures relate to energy-use habits.
Decreasing hot water requirements or electric requirements of the home will decrease the size of
the solar water- heating system or solar electric system and, therefore, will reduce the cost of the
solar systems to be installed. Decreasing the hot water requirements of the home from 20 gallons
of hot water per person per day to 15 gallons per day will reduce the solar water system cost by
about 20%.
Every kilowatt-hour you trim off your projected annual use in a PV-based system will reduce
your initial setup cost by $10-$12. Being smart about the appliances and lights you choose will
allow you all the convenience of a typical home while consuming far less energy. That can shave
thousands of dollars off the initial solar energy system cost.
The homeowner should consider these energy-efficiency strategies:
• Switch electric space heating, water heaters and clothes dryers to natural gas or propane.
• Replace older full-size fluorescent lamps with newer, more efficient models. Most common full-
sized fluorescent lighting fixtures are equipped with T-12 (1-1/2 inch diameter tubes) lamps and
magnetic ballasts. This technology started to make its way into American homes in the 1940s.
Many of these older fluorescent fixtures are still in use today. Although this lighting technology
is much more efficient than incandescent lighting, new full-sized fluorescent technologies are
available today that are even more efficient. The new lamps, T-8 (1-inch diameter tubes) and T-5
(5/8-inch diameter tubes) produce much better quality light because of better coatings on the
inside of the tube and higher frequency ballasts. The new lamps are more efficient because of
their smaller diameter and higher operating frequency. T-8 and T-5 lamps use ballasts
specifically made for them; do not use the new lamps on the old T-12 ballasts.
• Install lighting controls. Lighting equipment in the home is generally controlled by light
switches. The biggest problem with light switches is that they can be left on when not in use.
Lighting controls that can be installed include timers and occupancy sensors. Timers can be
installed that will turn off the lights after a set time interval. Timers work well in places where
the use is intermittent and the occupancy of the space is for short periods of time, such as
stairways, hallways, and closets.
There are two basic types of occupancy sensors: Passive Infrared Radiation sensors, and
Ultrasonic sensors. Both types have their strengths and weaknesses, and some more expensive
occupancy sensors include both types. Occupancy sensors sense when a person is in the space
controlled, and turn the lights on. As long as the sensor senses someone is in the room, the lights
stay on. After the person leaves the space, the sensor turns off the lights after a pre-set time
interval. Problems associated with occupancy sensors include false ons (caused by pets, mainly)
and false offs (caused when the person in the room does not move enough to keep the lights on).
Occupancy sensors work well in laundry rooms, workshop areas, and kitchens. If using
occupancy sensors in bedrooms and bathrooms, an ultrasonic or dual-sensor type occupancy
sensor is recommended.
• Install low-flow shower heads and faucet aerators. Low-flow shower heads and faucet aerators
can significantly reduce the amount of hot water used in the home. There are many different
styles to choose from.
• Insulate the current water heater, as well as any hot water pipes
that you can get to.
Buildings must exhibit certain characteristics to be a good candidate for a solar energy system.
Exposure: The building should provide maximum southern exposure without any substantial
shading from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. Although an orientation of due south is best, a deviation of 30
degrees or less from true south is considered acceptable for most solar energy applications.
Slope: For roof-mounted systems, the preferred roof slope is equal to the latitude at the site,
between 39 and 42 degrees in Pennsylvania. Roof slopes between 20 and 60 degrees (roughly
4/12 to 20/12 pitch) are acceptable.
Structure: Although most roofs can support the added weight of a solar energy system, you
should check the condition of the rafters. The roof must be able to safely support the added dead
load of the solar array and mounting rack and the temporary live load imposed by the installation
crew. The solar array and mounting rack will add approximately 3 pounds per square foot of
dead load to the roof. A structural engineer should be consulted if there is doubt that the roof can
handle the additional load.
Access to wiring (solar electric) or plumbing (solar water heat): Ideally, the south-facing roof
should be near the main electrical service entrance if you are installing a solar electric system. To
minimize wiring runs, the breaker panel containing the building’s main disconnect switch and
then household’s electrical end-use breakers should be easily accessible and relatively close to
the solar array. The breaker panel should have space available for installing a 120/240V breaker;
this is the solar system’s connection to the electrical grid. If you are installing a solar water-
heating system, you will have to have access to the connections to the existing water heater, and
there should be room near the existing water heater for the solar water storage tank.
The further a home is turned from south, the less its ability to collect solar energy in the
winter.
Solar energy systems can be designed to heat water or living spaces, or to provide electricity.
Solar electric systems can be connected to the existing utility grid or can be separate, stand-alone
systems.
The following information summarizes common types of solar energy systems. Solar water-
heating and solar electric systems will be addressed in more detail later in this course.
Passive solar designs are those that collect the sun’s energy using no moving parts. Passive
systems can provide over half the space heating energy by using windows to allow more sun into
the home in the wintertime, increased levels of insulation to help to keep the house warm, and
added thermal mass—such as concrete, tile, or brick.
Windows also are an important component of passive solar
designs. Effective passive solar designs for most U.S.
climates, including Pennsylvania, use windows to maximize
solar heat gain in winter and minimize it in summer.
Solar water-heating systems can reduce the cost to heat domestic water by as much as half. The
challenge in northern climates such as Pennsylvania is freeze protection, but there are a number
of systems on the market that provide freeze protection.
Off-grid—or remote—systems are those that are completely independent of the utility grid.
They require batteries to storage the energy they collect during sunny times for use at night or
when the sun isn’t shining. Since off-grid systems generally provide electricity for the entire
home, they require storage batteries and usually have some kind of backup generator. This
course covers only the installation of grid-connected solar electric systems without batteries.
Most residential solar collectors are flat panels that can be mounted on a roof or on the ground.
Called flat-plate collectors, these are typically fixed in a tilted position correlated to the latitude
of the location. This allows the collector to best capture the sun. These collectors can use both
the direct rays from the sun and reflected light that comes through a cloud or off the ground.
Because they use all available sunlight, flat-plate collectors are the best choice for many northern
states.
PVWatts (www.pvwatts.org) is a useful on-line calculator that helps to understand the solar
resource at a given location. The table below shows summer, winter, and annual solar resources
for Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania. PVWatts can help you determine the solar resource available at
your specific site, and also help you estimate the size of solar system needed to provide the
necessary solar energy for either solar water-heating or solar electric systems. (Tip: To convert
from Kilowatt-hours to Btu, multiply by 3413. To convert square meters to square feet, multiply
by 10.76).
Different communities have different restrictions and requirements in place regarding the
installation of solar energy systems. Before installing any solar energy system, contact your local
building code officials to learn about required permits, as well as codes and covenants that could
affect where and how you install a solar energy system.
It is wise to investigate all requirements prior to beginning your project to ensure that installation
is fully in compliance.
Lesson 1 Questions
1. What’s the most important step to ensuring that a PV system provides the highest fraction
of total energy used in a home?
2. What is a "phantom" load?
3. What building characteristics must be present in a home in order to be a good candidate
for a solar energy system?
4. What is direct gain passive design?
5. Describe a Trombe wall.
6. What is a grid-connected PV system?
Photovoltaics (PV) System Basics
• Overview
• Types of PV systems
• PV System Components
• Grid-Connected PV System Components
• System Components
o Solar Cells
o Arrays
o Mounting Structures
o Combiner Box
o Inverters
• Questions
• Answers
Overview
Photovoltaic (PV) systems convert sunlight to electric current. You are already familiar with
some simple PV applications in today’s society, such as calculators and wristwatches. More
complicated systems provide power for communications satellites, water pumps, and the lights,
appliances, and machines in homes and workplaces. Many road and traffic signs along highways
are now powered by PV.
PV systems produce some electric current any time the sun is shining, but more power is
produced when the sunlight is more intense and strikes the PV modules directly (as when rays of
sunlight are perpendicular to the PV modules). While solar thermal systems use heat from the
sun to heat water or air, PV does not use the sun's heat to make electricity. Instead, electrons
freed by the interaction of sunlight with semiconductor materials in PV cells create an electric
current. PV modules are much less tolerant of shading than are solar water-heating panels. When
siting a PV system, it is most important to minimize any shading of the PV modules.
Types of PV Systems
Net-Metered Systems
Stand-alone Systems
In remote areas where existing utility lines are a considerable distance away, PV is often the least
expensive way to provide electricity to a building. The expense of installing the power line can
be at least $25,000.00 per mile and can be as much as $60,000.00 per mile. A remote solar
electric system can be less expensive than the line extension.
Off-grid systems have the same components as grid-connected systems, except that they do not
need a grid-tie inverter, and they do need storage batteries. Also, off-grid systems may have
additional components such as an auxiliary generator, or even a wind turbine.
PV System Components
Specific PV system components may include a DC-AC power inverter, battery bank, system and
battery controller, auxiliary energy sources, and sometimes the specified electrical load
(appliances). In addition, an assortment of balance-of-system hardware, including wiring, over-
current, surge protection and disconnect devices, and other power processing equipment may be
included. The following diagram illustrates the relationship of individual components.
PV modules are mounted on mounting racks and are attached to a structure or may be mounted
on a pole. A number of modules assembled together is called an array. Individual modules
produce electric current and voltage that depends upon the specific module. The electric output
wires of the modules are wired together in a combiner box in order to get the voltage and
current required by the inverter. The array output can be disconnected by a DC disconnect
switch. In order for the system to be disconnected from the grid by utility workers, a utility
accessible AC disconnect switch is installed on the inverter output. The inverter may have two
connections to the breaker panel.
Pole-mounted PV system array.
Tantare Residence, Townsend, MT.
Semiconductor
The primary material used to convert sunlight to electricity is called a semiconductor. There are
two basic types of semiconductors: p-type and n-type. The p-type semiconductor material has an
abundance of “holes” with a positive electrical charge, while the n-type semiconductor material
has an abundance of electrons with a negative electrical charge. When these two semiconductors
come into contact with each other, a p/n junction is created at the interface. At this junction,
excess electrons move from the n-type side to the p-type side, resulting in a positive charge along
the n-type side and a negative charge along the p-type side. This creates an electric field much
like a battery with one side having a positive charge and the other a negative charge.
Modules are commonly connected in series and parallel strings to form what is called an array.
The output of an array can be designed to meet almost any electric requirement, large or small.
The picture below shows an array that has a peak DC rating of 4.5 kilowatts.
Generally, solar modules do not have the structure needed to withstand wind loading, and so
must be mounted on a mounting structure. Mounting structures are usually made of steel or
aluminum and may be attached to the roof of the home in a fashion similar to that for solar
water-heating panels (see Lesson 4). Mounting structures may be fixed mount, may allow the
array to be tilted seasonally, or may, on pole mounts, be able to track the sun.
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PV cells, modules, and arrays produce direct current (DC). Electric loads that are not connected
to the utility grid can use the PV-generated power if they are designed to operate on direct
current. Using a charge controller, PV-generated power can charge a bank of storage batteries
which can power DC loads when the sun is not shining on the array. Most appliances and
equipment found in the home are designed to operate on alternating current (AC) which is
generated by electric utility companies. The device that converts DC to AC for use in the home is
called an inverter. In stand-alone or grid-connected PV system installations, inverters are
commonly used to power household appliances, tools and other equipment. These inverters do
not need the utilities voltage and frequency reference to produce AC with electrical
characteristics much like utility-generated AC. Inverters that are connected to the utility grid
produce AC that is identical to the power produced by the utility. These inverters sense the
utility’s generated voltage and wave form
characteristics and produce AC of the same
form.
Questions
The first step in designing a PV system is to decide whether to install a PV system that is
connected to the local utility grid or a remote system that functions without a utility connection.
For either PV system type, the amount of shade-free roof area available from roughly 9 a.m. to 3
p.m. for mounting the PV array must be determined. If a ground- or a pole-mount is considered
rather than a roof-mount, these optional sites need to be shade-free also during the same time
period. A remote PV system’s array size is determined after determining the building’s average
daily electrical demand and sizing other components in the total system. For a grid-connected PV
system the array size can be simply sized to fit within the amount of mounting area and the
budget for the project. Most of the discussion in this lesson will focus on grid-connected PV
systems, with some tidbits on remote
site installations
For most grid-connected PV system installations, the estimated peak array output is used as the
basis for specifying the inverter needed for the PV system. In some cases, the building’s
electrical demand may be determined and used to specify the inverter. In a remote or stand-alone
PV system installation, the average daily electric load of the building needs to be calculated first.
The building’s electric demand should include the Watt demand of all ac loads running at the
same time, plus the wattage from the surge of starting motors, plus all dc loads operating at the
same time; this demand is further increased by 1.2 to account for inverter losses. In both the grid-
connected and remote site situations, the initial estimate of the inverter’s capacity may be
changed by making a decision that at some point in the future you plan to increase the size of PV
array.
There are two basic types of
inverters to consider for this course
– those that produce a modified sine
wave and those that produce a true
sine wave. Although modified sine
wave inverters are less expensive
than true sine wave models, they
can not produce the quality
waveform required by some
equipment. Utility companies
produce electricity that is a true sine
wave. A modified sine wave
inverter produces a slightly squared
off electrical waveform, but
computers, power tools,
refrigerators and most all equipment
can use this generated electricity. Pure sine wave inverters produce a true sine wave that is the
same as utility generated waveforms and is needed by high-end audio equipment and other
specialized equipment that are electrically sensitive such as life support equipment. All inverters
should be UL 1741 listed. In grid-connected installations the inverter must shut down rapidly in
situations where the utility goes down – this is called anti-islanding and is a safety function for
utility personal and electricians who may be working in the area.
Sine Wave and Modified Sine Wave Electric Power Forms
Graphic: NCAT
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Inverters designed for remote site and grid-connected installations are available that are designed
to use nominal 12-, 24-, or 48-volt DC electricity from the PV array and some grid-connected
inverters are designed to operate with input voltages ranging from 139 up to nearly 600 volts
DC. The higher-voltage strings carry low current levels; this allows the use of smaller diameter
wire in the circuit between the inverter and the modules.
Once you have identified the type and the output capacity of the inverter for a grid-connected
system, you can determine the PV modules you’ll need. Using module maximum working
voltage and amperage values, you can use series and parallel calculations to match the inverter’s
input electrical requirement with the proposed array output electrical characteristics. You will
have to be aware of the open circuit voltage and amperage of the module strings to not exceed
the normal input range for the inverter chosen. Matching modules with the inverter will most
likely be an iterative process. Inverters using high voltage inputs are best matched with PV
modules using a computer program provided by each inverter manufacturer. The computer
programs use a database of specific module electrical characteristics to identify the appropriate
number of modules in each string and the number of strings feeding the specified inverter.
Programs for several brands can be found at the links below:
• Xantrex: www.xantrex.com/support/gtsizing/disclaimer.asp?lang=eng
• Sunnyboy: www.sma-america.com/stringsizing.html
• PV Powered: www.pvpowered.com/string_sizing.php
• Beacon Power: www.beaconpower.com/StringCalc/
• Fronius: www.fronius.com/solar.electronics/downloads/configurator.htm
In Lesson 3, you learned that the amount of solar insolation
incident on surfaces with tilt angles between 10 and 50
degrees up from horizontal and orientations plus/minus 30
degrees of true south varies only about 6 percent on an
annual basis. Mounting the array on a sloped roof at the
optimum 40 degree tilt angle is most likely not worth the
added cost for tilting the rack up to hold the array. A slight
advantage of tilting the array at 40 degrees is wintertime
shedding of snow. real disadvantage of the added tilt is the
potential of damage from strong winds. And another
consideration is the aesthetic appearance of a skylight-like
structure on the roof compared to an off-angle array
installation. Given the small annual insolation variation, the
decision to mount the PV array three to four inches above
(parallel to) the roof is the best method to use. On a flat
roof, and for a ground- or a pole-mount, the array should be
installed at a 40-degree tilt angle. The pictures to the right
and below show grid-connected PV systems mounted on a
flat roof, a pole, and on a railroad tie foundation (ground
mount).
The National Electric Code (NEC) has a significant impact on the design of and the components
used in a PV system. Sandia National Laboratories' Photovoltaic Center has posted the following
wire coding and sizing information from The Stand-Alone PV System Handbook on its website.
Note: The use of NMB (Romex) is not recommended except for ac circuits as
in typical residential wiring. Although commonly available, it will not
withstand moisture or sunlight.
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In the United States, the size of wire is categorized by the American Wire Gage (AWG) scale.
The AWG scale rates wires from No. 18 (40-mil diameter) to No. 0000 (460 mil diameter).
Multiple conductors are commonly enclosed in an insulated sheath for wires smaller than No. 8.
The conductor may be solid or stranded. Stranded wire is easier to work with particularly for
sizes larger than No. 8. Copper conductors are recommended. Aluminum wire is less expensive,
but can cause problems if used incorrectly. Many different materials are used to make the sheath
that covers the conductors. You must select a wire with a covering that will withstand the worst-
case conditions. It is mandatory that sunlight resistant wire be specified if the wire is to be
exposed to the sun. If the wire is to be buried without conduit it must be rated for direct burial.
For applications such as wiring to a submersible pump or for battery inter-connections, ask the
component dealer for recommendations. Often the dealer or manufacturer will supply
appropriate wire and connectors.
Selecting the correct size and type of wire for the system will optimize performance and increase
reliability. The size of the wire must be capable of carrying the current at the operating
temperature without excessive losses. It is important to derate the current carrying capacity of the
wire if high temperature operation is expected. A wire may be rated for high temperature
installations (60-90°C), but this only means that the insulation of the wire can withstand the rated
temperature — it does not mean that ampacity is unaffected.
The current-carrying capability (ampacity) depends on the highest temperature to which the
wires will be exposed when it is carrying the current. According to Table 310-16 in the NEC, a
UF-type wire operating at 55°C can safely carry only 40 percent of the current, or 30°C — a
significant derate. If the ampacity of the wire is exceeded, it could result in overheating,
insulation break-down, and fires. Properly sized fuses are used to protect the conductors and
prevent this kind of damage.
Loss in a DC circuit is equal to I2R, where I is the current and R is the resistance of the wire. For
100 ampere current, this means 10,000 times the loss in the circuit compared to a one amp load.
It is easy to see why resistance must be kept small. Also, the voltage drop in the circuit is equal
to IR. Voltage drop can cause problems, particularly in low-voltage systems. For a 12-volt
system, a one-volt drop amounts to more than 8 percent of the source voltage. Avoid long wire
runs or use larger wire to keep resistance and voltage drop low. For most applications, AWG No.
8, No. 10, and No. 12 are used.
An abbreviated wire sizing table for a 12-Volt DC system is shown below. The table indicates
the minimum wire size that should be used if the voltage drop is to be limited to 3 percent for
any branch circuit. (This table can be adjusted to reflect different voltage drop percentages or
different system voltages by using simple ratios. For example, a 2-percent loss can be calculated
by multiplying the values in the table by 2/3. For a 24-Volt DC system, the values can be
multiplied by two. For a 120-volt system multiply by 10.) The calculations show one-way
distance, taking into account that two wires, positive and negative, are used in an electrical
circuit.
As an example, assume the array is 30 feet from the controller and the maximum current is 10
amperes. The table shows that No. 8-size wire can be used up to a one-way distance of 30 feet
(no temperature derate included). While the general rule is to limit the voltage drop for any
branch circuit to 3 percent, there may be some applications, particularly those operating at or
below 12 Volts, where the loss should be limited to 1 percent or less. For the total wire run on
any path from source to load, the loss should be no greater than 5 percent.
One-way Wire Distance (feet) for 3% voltage drop - 12 volt system - copper wire
AWG Wire Size
14 12 10 8 6 4
Amperes
1.0 71 113 180 286
2.0 35 56 90 143 278 362
5.0 15 24 38 60 95 150
10.0 7 12 19 30 47 75
20.0 6 9 15 23 36
30.0 4 6 10 17 24
The NEC requires certain conventions for color of conductors and specifies requirements for
disconnecting the power source (code reference for each condition is given in brackets).
Specifically:
• The grounded conductor is to be white. [200-6]. Convention is for the first ungrounded
conductor of a PV system to be red, and the second ungrounded conductor black
(negative in a center tapped PV system).
• Single-conductor cable is allowed for module connections only. Sunlight resistant cable
should be used if the cable is exposed. [690-31b]
• Modules should be wired so they can be removed without interrupting the grounded
conductor of another source circuit. [690-4c]
• Any wiring junction boxes should be accessible. [690-34]
• Connectors should be polarized and guarded to prevent shock. [690-33]
• Means to disconnect and isolate all PV source circuits will be provided. [690-13]
• All ungrounded conductors should be able to be disconnected from the inverter. [690-15]
• If fuses are used, you must be able to disconnect the power from both ends. [690-16]
• Switches should be accessible and clearly labeled. [690-17]
The purpose of grounding any electrical system is to prevent unwanted currents from flowing
(especially through people) and possibly causing equipment damage, personal injury, or death.
Lightning, natural and man-made ground faults, and line surges can cause high voltages to exist
in an otherwise low-voltage system. Proper grounding, along with over-current protection, limits
the possible damage that a ground fault can cause. Consider the following and recognize the
difference between the equipment grounding conductor and the grounded system conductor:
• One conductor of a PV system (>50 volts) must be grounded, and the neutral wire of a
center tapped three wire system must also be grounded. [690-41]. If these provisions are
met, this is considered sufficient for the battery ground (if batteries are included in the
system). [690-73]. A ground is achieved by making a solid low resistance connection to a
permanent earth ground. This is often done by driving a metallic rod into the earth,
preferably in a moist location. [250-83].
• A single ground point should be made. [690-42]. This provision will prevent the
possibility of potentially dangerous fault current flowing between separate grounds. In
some PV systems where the PV array is located far from the load, a separate ground can
be used at each location. This will provide better protection for the PV array from
lightning surges. If multiple ground points are used, they should be bonded together with
a grounding conductor.
• All exposed metal parts shall be grounded (equipment ground). [690-44]
• The equipment grounding conductor should be bare wire or green wire. [210-5b]
• The equipment grounding conductor must be large enough to handle the highest current
that could flow in the circuit. [690-43]
Because the module frames are usually aluminum and bare copper wire is used for the ground
conductor, you must use the module grounding location and the manufacturers specified
hardware to assure a low-resistance connection to provide long-term protection from shocks and
fire hazards. The grounding conductor must be sized to safely carry the current of the over-
current device protecting the circuit.
It is important that the installation crew includes a certified electrician knowledgeable about
applicable codes and a person knowledgeable about the equipment used in the PV system
installation. Article 690 of NEC addresses electrical requirements and the equipment for
installing a PV system. The electrician must know the codes and be present to answer questions
during the electrical inspection.
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Questions
1. During the initial site visit to check a single story building’s acceptability for a PV
system, you note that the asphalt-shingled roof has a 4/12 slope and is oriented 10
degrees to the west of true south. The south-facing roof is a rectangle that is 30 feet wide
and 20 feet from the eaves to the roof top. Is this building a good candidate for a PV
installation? If it is and given that the roof can support the PV system and a 3-person
installation crew, what would you suggest to the building owner as the largest, safe array
(peak output) to install?
2. For the same building described in question 1, what conditions might you encounter that
would make you reject the site for a system installation?
3. What estimated cost would you tell the building owner for an installed PV system with a
peak output of 3000 Watts?
4. Why is an inverter needed in a grid-connected PV installation?
5. Why is an inverter needed in a remote or stand-alone PV system?
6. How would you size the inverter for a grid-connected PV system?
7. What is the color of the grounded conductor in a PV installation and how is it sized?
8. What is the color of the equipment/frame ground wire in a PV installation and how is it
sized?
9. What function does the equipment/frame ground perform?
10. Given that a PV system uses modules outputting a nominal 12 volts at 5 amperes, the
modules are 30 feet from a combiner box, and you can only tolerate a 2% voltage drop,
what gauge of wire should be used to connect the modules with the combiner box? What
gauge of wire if the modules strings were 24 volt at 5 amps?
PV System Installation
• Questions
• Answers
In the initial site visit, the approximate locations for the inverter, disconnect switches, the
combiner box(es), and the junction box(es) are identified. The distance between each device and
from the inverter to the building’s electric panel is noted. Using the PV system’s peak DC
voltage and current output, the inverter’s AC electrical characteristics, and the distances between
the equipment the appropriate size of wire for each run can be determined (see the voltage drop
table in Lesson 6).
Given that the building has passed the site survey and is a good candidate for installing the solar
electric system, it is time to start the paper work. Keep in mind that various municipalities across
Pennsylvania enforce different codes and may have restrictive covenants that need to be checked
and cleared with the local officials. The building and electrical permits need to be obtained
before proceeding with the PV system installation.
Safety
Common electrical accidents result in shocks and/or burns, muscle contractions, and traumatic
injuries associated with falls after the shock. These injuries can occur any time electric current
flows through the human body. The amount of current that will flow is determined by the
difference in potential (voltage) and the resistance in the current path. At low frequencies (60 Hz
or less) the human body acts like a resistor but the value of resistance varies with conditions. It is
difficult to estimate when current will flow or the severity of the injury that might occur because
the resistivity of human skin varies from just under a thousand ohms to several hundred thousand
ohms depending primarily on skin moisture.
If a current greater than 0.02 amperes (only 20 milliamperes) flows through your body, you are
in serious jeopardy because you may not be able to let go of the current-carrying wire. This small
amount of current can be forced through sweaty hands with a voltage as low as 20 volts, and the
higher the voltage the higher the probability that current will flow. High voltage shock (>400
volts) may burn away the protective layer of outer skin at the entry and exit points. When this
occurs, the body’s resistance is lowered and lethal currents may cause instant death. The data in
the following table shows the reaction of the human body to various levels of current flow.
Electrical shock is painful and a potentially minor injury is often aggravated by the reflex
reaction of jumping back away from the source of the shock. Anytime a PV array contains more
than two PV modules, a shock hazard should be presumed to exist.
To avoid shock, always measure the voltage from any wire to any other wires, and to ground.
Use a clamp-on ammeter to measure the current flowing in the wires. Never disconnect a wire
before you have checked the voltage and current. Do not presume everything is in perfect order.
Do not trust switches to operate perfectly and do not trust that schematics will always tell
everything you need to know. Use a voltmeter often—it could save your life.
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On the roof, the physical site for the PV array needs to be chosen and within this area, the rafters
must be located. The composition of the roof will dictate how the mounting rails or rack—which
hold the modules in the array—should be installed. The mounting procedure is basically the
same as for the solar water-heating installation. You have the choice of using lag screws into the
center of the rafters; using the J-bolt next to the rafter; or using a spanner board, all thread, and
compression block to mount the clips for holding the rack system which holds the modules
securely in place.
Locating the rafters and their centers from up on the roof could involve using a stud finder,
tapping with a hammer, using the fascia board/rafter nail connection, or a combination of these
methods.
If you cannot locate the rafters from the roof, you will have to get into the attic space. Once you
get oriented in the attic space, use a long 1/16th inch drill bit to drill a hole up through the roof
right next to one of the rafters that you will be using to attach the mounting clips. If you do not
have someone on the roof to note where the drill bit comes up through the roof, push a piece of
wire up through the hole to allow you to easily see the hole when you go back up on the roof.
Drill two holes, one at the upper level of the mounting rack’s location and one at the lower level
of the rack. Be sure to measure the distance between the rafters at each level of the drilled hole—
this will allow you to locate the center of rafters, including those that were not installed parallel
to each other.
For a roof covered with masonry or ceramic tiles, the installation process needs some
adjustments. The roof structure is commonly designed near the limit of the dead load of the tiles.
In this case, the rafters must be enhanced to support the additional dead load of the PV system
and the live load associated with the installation. An alternative is to remove the tiles where the
PV system is to be installed and transition to a roof of asphalt or composition shingles. Doing
this should allow the installation of the PV system without enhancing the roof structure.
Install the mounting clips according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Use a sealant that is UV-
resistant to prevent leaks when screwing down the mounting clips. If you had to drill up through
the roof to locate the rafters, be sure to force sealant into those holes also. For an installation with
the array installed parallel to the roof slope, the mounting clips should be such that the PV
modules are situated 3 to 4 inches above the roof. This allows cooling air to circulate below the
modules, allows rain to run off under the array, and helps prevent ice dams from forming during
freezing conditions. Depending on the mounting equipment, rails are commonly attached to the
mounting clips and serve as a secure structure for attachment of the modules and sub-arrays.
Connect all dissimilar metals (such as steel and aluminum) using non-conductive washers to
prevent galvanic corrosion. Make sure that all connections of the mounting clips and mounting
rails are tight—once the modules or sub-arrays are attached, it might not be possible to get to the
nuts and bolts.
Visually check the modules for any cracked glazing, and check that the frame, wiring box, and
the back’s potting material are intact. Check the open circuit voltage and current of each module
before hauling them up onto the roof. Depending on the mounting technique and the inverter’s
input voltage, you may be able to assemble a group of modules into a sub-array on the ground.
The modules can be connected with the proper size, color, and type of wiring to form the sub-
array, and then the sub-array’s open circuit voltage and current can be checked before being
moved to the roof as a unit. Label the each wire pair for connection in the junction—this is used
to document and identify the string and circuit going to the inverter and can be used for
troubleshooting purposes at some point in the future. To prevent shocks, be sure to use wire nuts
and/or electrician’s tape to cover the ends of wires coming off the modules or sub-array. When
the modules are exposed to sunlight, they are electrically hot and are capable of providing the
closed-circuit (normal) operating voltage and current levels to any material that can become a
circuit. Before closing the electrical connector box on each module, check that the wiring
connections are tight.
Getting the modules or sub-array to the roof can be as simple as one man on a step-ladder lifting
a module up to a second person on the roof of a single story building. In the case of a sub-array,
two people could be on the roof using ropes or straps to pull the sub-array up a ladder or two
with another person below stabilizing and pushing the sub-array upward. In the picture below, an
articulated manlift is used to move sub-arrays to the roof of a three-story building.
Note two points of interest:
1) there are two people on the left-facing roof—they are in harness and tied off and will move to
the south roof to attach the sub-array when it ispositioned near the mounting rails; and
2) the table to the right of the white truck is used to assemble the modules into sub-arrays.
Before the module or sub-array is attached to the mounting rack on the roof, the frame ground
wire needs to be attached. Modules have a designated spot to attach the equipment ground wire.
You’ll need to procure the correct type of stainless steel fastener and connector (sometimes
supplied with the module). The wire for the equipment ground shall be bare copper. The ground
needs to be continued to the common DC equipment ground bus. This can be accomplished by
transitioning to a green THHN ground wire in the roof junction box which is carried thru the
steel conduit to the PV DC disconnect or inverter. The bare copper wire can be run outside the
conduit to the junction box, then the combiner box and on to the inverter or other disconnect
means where it is connected to a equipment-grounding screw. The size of the equipment
grounding wire is dictated by the rating of the overcurrent device (breaker/fuse) protecting the
circuit. If for example the overcurrent breaker is rated at 30 amps, the grounding conductor
should be AWG #10 copper. Check the tightness of the equipment ground connection and
tighten as necessary – you probably will not be able to reach all of them later when the modules
or sub-arrays are mounted securely on the rails.
The locations for the junction box(es) and
combiner box(es) were determined during the
initial site survey. Re-evaluate the sites, install
the hardware, and connect the pieces of
equipment with conduit. The combiner box is
basically a device that connects the input PV
strings in parallel to produce one circuit.
Remember that paralleling electric circuits
increases the current flow in the downstream
circuit. The combiner box output wire must be
sized larger for the higher current and to
minimize voltage drop and line losses of the
PV generated DC power going to the inverter.
The conduit between the junction box(es) and the combiner box(es) must be sized to safely hold
the number of module or sub-array wire pairs passing through.
Note: steel conduit is recommended for PV source circuits and required per National Electric
Code section 690.xx.
In the fused combiner box(es), the fuses should be removed and the appropriate number of
properly sized wire pairs should be fished from the combiner box(es) to the junction box(es).
Each wire pair should be labeled at each end for connection in the combiner and junction boxes.
Connect the wire pairs in the combiner box(es) first and then connect them to the wires from
modules or sub-arrays in the junction box(es).
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The very last connection should be the plugging together these series connections. In this way,
you will never be exposed to the lethal voltages involved. The junction box(es) should be sized
larger than required for the number of wire pairs to be connected in them. Over sizing allows
safe connection of the wire pairs outside the box and then the long leads are coiled neatly inside
the box. The combiner box above has 10 input strings (this box is installed in an attic space -
note the green equipment ground wires). Before you close up the junction box(es) make sure that
the wire connections between the PV strings and the extension wires to the combiner box(es) are
tight.
The conduits between the combiner box(es), DC disconnect switch, and the inverter must be
sized to accommodate the size and number of wires passing through them. With the fuses out of
the combiner box(es), the inverter and the DC disconnect switch in the off position, and the
appropriate wires can be pulled through the conduit and connected to the combiner box(es),
disconnect switch, and the appropriate inverter inputs. Note that only the positive wire is
switched by the disconnect. The equipment ground wire can also be connected at the combiner
box(es), the DC disconnect switch, and the inverter.
A DC grounding electrode should be
installed that connects with the
equipment ground at the inverter. This
ground should in turn be connected to
the existing AC grounding system in the
building’s electric panel. The size of this
equipment grounding should be #8
Copper minimum. Conductor size for
the DC output is determined by the amp
rating of the circuit protection from the
combiner box(es) and the DC disconnect
switch. The grounding wire size for the
AC side of the inverter to the building’s electric panel is determined by the amp rating of the
circuit breaker and must be #8 copper at a minimum.
If the installation crew is large enough, the inverter and disconnect switches can be installed in
the building while the modules are being installed on the roof. The meter that looks like a utility
meter is the building owner’s way of keeping track of the number of kWhs produced by the PV
system installed on the roof. This inverter does not have the capability to display the number of
kWhs produced by the PV system.
The AC output from the inverter must be connected to an overcurrent device that is rated at 1.25
times the maximum continuous output current of the inverter. Run conduit from the inverter to
the AC disconnect switch and to the building’s electric panel. The utility may require a separate,
lockable utility disconnect switch be installed near the utility’s meter. This disconnect switch is
for utility personnel use to take the PV system off line when utility work is done in the area. The
wire size for these runs is determined by the inverter’s AC current output and the distance to the
breaker being back-fed in the electric panel.
Turn the electric panel breaker(s) to the off position, check the disconnect switches to be sure
they are in the off position, then fish the appropriate wires to each device back to the inverter.
Connect the wires securely to the panel breakers, switches, and the inverter. The installation is
ready for a final check before the system is turned on.
Although it is probably not possible to check the rooftop connections, check the tightness of all
electrical connections and tighten as necessary. In the process of checking the electrical
connections, check that the conduit runs are supported according to code, and check the tightness
of all mounting screws and bolts used to mount the inverter, disconnect switches, conduit, and
the equipment grounding connections.
Use the voltmeter to check the polarity and the open circuit voltage and current of each string
coming into the combiner box(es). Write down the open circuit volt and current values for each
string. These will be used as reference numbers to check the performance of each string and help
in the troubleshooting process. Check the open circuit DC voltage at the inverter when the DC
disconnect switch is closed. The open circuit current in this circuit is probably more than can be
checked with a digital voltmeter (they usually max out at 10 amps), so use a DC ammeter to
determine the current level. Record this value for future reference. Check the utilities line-to-
line-and line to-ground voltage at the breakers in the electric panel and label the front of the
electric panel and the breakers to identify the solar circuits.
Once the final physical and electrical inspections are complete, follow the inverter
manufacturer’s instructions to get the inverter turned on. If all is installed correctly, the PV
system should start to produce power. Turn off the inverter, the panel breakers, and all the
disconnect switches and contact the inspector to schedule the final system inspection.
Finally, you will need to prepare a general electrical schematic to give to the building owner (and
the electrical inspector), along with copies of the equipment descriptions, operating and
troubleshooting instructions, and warranties. On the electrical schematic, include a drawing of
the PV array layout with the specific circuits going to the combiner box(es) labeled.
Questions
1. Why is the equipment ground necessary between the modules and the inverter? Can the
same reason be used for installing the equipment ground between the inverter and the
electric panel?
2. Why is low-voltage power dangerous?
3. Does a PV module with an open circuit voltage and amperage of 27 and 3.5 respectively
under full sun conditions, present a shock hazard for someone who comes in contact with
the wires? Explain your answer.
4. What is the function of the combiner box?
5. Why is there disconnect switch between the inverter and the PV array?
6. Why is there a disconnect switch between the inverter and the building’s electric panel?
7. What are the two factors used to determine the size of wire to install in the PV system?
8. Why is it important to evaluate the voltage drop in DC circuits?
9. What three methods are commonly used to locate the rafter centers when on the roof?
10. Why mount the PV array at a level 3 to 4 inches above the roof?
PV System Maintenance
• Maintenance Steps
1. At the inverter
2. On the Roof
3. At the Combiner Box(es)
4. Inside
5. Back at the Inverter
• System Troubleshooting
1. Load Problem
2. Inverter Problem
3. Array Problem
• Questions
• Answers
Schedule maintenance twice a year. Around noon on a sunny day is an ideal time to perform
maintenance. A homeowner with neither the necessary instrumentation nor the electrical
knowledge might consider contracting with an electrician to perform maintenance and inspection
of the PV system.
Maintenance Steps
Remove all sources of shade on the array and rinse the array to remove the accumulated dust,
dirt, and other debris. Some debris, such as bird droppings, may need to soak a bit to fully
remove it.
Step 4: Inside
Open all disconnect switches. Use the ohmmeter section of the voltmeter to check the grounding
system connections. Greater than 25 ohms indicates that corrosion or a poor connection is
present, which must be located and corrected. If opening the disconnect switch breaks the
ground, you need to rewire the switch to correct the problem. Check each of the disconnected
sections for a ground-fault condition any that are found.
Step 5: Back at the Inverter
Turn the inverter off and check for dirty, loose, or broken wires and connections. Check for and
repair any ground faults. Power the system up. Check for normal start up operation and that the
inverter produces AC electricity.
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System Troubleshooting
A qualified electrician should check and correct electrical problems in a PV system, since
homeowners are unlikely to be qualified to perform such work.
Check for broken wires and any loose connections. Clean all dirty connections and replace all
bad wiring. With the power off, check for and repair any ground faults. Replace the fuses and
reset the switches. If they blow or trip again, there is a problem short, which must be located and
repaired.
If the load does not operate properly, check the system’s voltage at the load’s connection. Low
voltage could mean that the wire feeding the circuit is too small and too long and needs to be
upgraded to reduce the voltage drop. The load also could be too large for the wire size in the
circuit. Reduce the load on the circuit or run larger wire that is sized for the current load.
The utility’s voltage and frequency are sensed by the inverter, which normally produces AC
electricity at the same voltage and frequency. The AC current output from the inverter fluctuates
with the level of solar insolation on the array. Low or high utility voltage sensed by the internal
disconnects will cause the inverter to shut down. Contact the utility to correct the problem on its
side.
Inverter problems could also be caused by a problem on the array side of inverter that trips one
of the internal disconnects.
Visually check the array for obvious damage to the modules and wiring. Repair as needed and
replace all damaged wiring.
Having a fused combiner box can save a lot of time when checking each module or sub-array
string. Remove the fuses and then check and record the open-circuit voltage and current reading
for each circuit string.
If the output voltage is low, it could indicate that some modules in the series string are defective
or disconnected and need to be replaced. Defective blocking or bypass diodes in the modules
may need to be replaced. Low voltage also could be caused by the wrong wiring connecting the
modules in the string to the junction box or combiner box or the inverter. The wiring could be
either sized too small or the wire run is too long for the string’s output current level. Upgrading
the wire size for the current level should correct this problem.
Low current output could be caused by cloudy conditions, a defective blocking or bypass diode,
a damaged module, one or more parallel connection between modules in the string is broken,
loose, or dirty, or some parallel connections the module are broken, loose, or dirty. Replace a
damaged module or one with internal parallel connection problems. Replace defective diodes
and clean and tighten all connections. Some of the array may be shaded, significantly reducing
the array’s current output. Remove the shade source to regain the string’s full current output.
Dirty modules also could cause reduced current output. Wash the modules to restore the array’s
current output.
Questions
1. What are the two instruments needed to properly perform the maintenance and
troubleshooting tasks for a PV system?
2. During routine maintenance why is it important to check the voltage and current level at
various points in the PV system?
3. Where is a good place to check the open-circuit electrical characteristics of the strings in
the PV array?
4. What are the characteristics that should be measured and recorded in Question 3 and how
are they determined?
5. If you open a disconnect switch while checking the continuity of the grounding system
and the ground is broken, what needs to be done and why?
6. Give three sources or causes of damage to roof top components of a PV system.
7. During maintenance you discover that one string in the combiner box has a much lower
open-circuit current level compared to the other strings from the PV array. Give what
could be two causes and how do you fix the problems?
8. When checking the array string open-circuit voltages, what are two conditions that would
cause a low voltage reading compared to the other strings from the array?
9. If you were measuring the open-circuit current level of a string and the level dropped
suddenly, stayed low for 10 seconds or so and then jumped back to the level you first
measured, what is the most probable explanation for the event?
10. Why should you wash the PV modules whenever maintenance is scheduled?
Economics
• Solar Domestic Water-Heating Systems
• Photovoltaic Systems
• Questions
• Answers
Both solar electric and solar water-heating systems provide useful forms of energy for
consumption in the home, but at a different cost. This lesson provides simple economic
comparison between the systems — the amount of time required to payback the cost of the
system and its installation.
To make economic calculations, we’ll use the same example we used in Lesson 3: a family of
four consuming 80 gallons of hot water a day. The hot water temperature is set at 120 degrees F,
the cold water inlet temperature is 55 degrees F, and the hot water tank has a heat loss of 2,147
Btus a day. The total daily heat energy demand was calculated in Lesson 3 to be 45,081 Btus.
Given that the energy in 3,413 Btus of heat is equal to the energy in 1 kWh of electricity, we can
compare the cost of using fuel oil, natural gas, or electricity as the energy source to heat the daily
hot water demand in this example. Fuel oil is sold by the gallon and on average contains 139,000
Btus per gallon. Natural gas is sold sometimes by the MCF (thousand cubic feet) and sometimes
by DekaTherm (DKT). For the purposes of this example, both are 1,000,000 Btus.
Keep in mind that the efficiency of converting from one source of energy to another is not
usually 100%. For this example, the use of electricity to heat water can be considered to be 100%
efficient because all of the energy from electric resistance heating goes into heating the water, so
there are no losses. Fuel-burning appliances must be vented, and some of the energy from
burning the fuel carries the products of combustion out of the house. About 70% of the energy
content of both natural gas and fuel oil is used to heat the water in the water tank, and the
remaining 30% escapes up the flue. Because some energy is lost up the flue, more Btus of gas or
oil must be purchased than Btus of electricity.
The following table shows the annual cost of providing the example hot water demand for
various fuel prices. The annual Btu demand for heating the hot water in the example is
16,454,565 Btus.
16,454,565 Btu / 3413 Btu per KWh = 4,821 KWh 16,454,565 Btu/70% Efficiency = 23,506,521
Btu input of natural gas, propane, or fuel oil.
Electricity Cost Natural Gas (16.5 Mcf CostFuel Oil (118 gallons Cost
(4,821 kWh needed) needed) needed)
Purchased at $482 23.5 purchased at $235 169 purchased at $423
$0.10/kWh $10/Mcf $2.50/gal.
Purchased at $723 23.5 purchased at $306 169 purchased at $465
$0.15/kWh $13/Mcf $2.75/gal.
Purchased at $964 23.5 purchased at $376 169 purchased at $507
$0.20/kWh $16/Mcf $3.00/gal.
In Lesson 3’s example, the solar energy system provides 3.54 MWh per year to the hot water.
3.54 MWh*3413000 Btu per MWh is 12.08 million Btu per year, which provides 12.08/16.5 or
73 percent of the heating fuel on an annual basis. The following table provides the savings for
each fuel and the calculated simple payback for a solar water-heating system that costs $5,200 to
install. The simple payback is calculated as the cost of the solar system divided by the cost
savings per year.
Electric example: Annual Savings = 12,080,000 Btu/3413 Btu per KWh*$0.10 per KWh =
$353.94 savings per year.
$5200.00 installed cost /$353.94 annual savings = 14.7 years simple payback
Natural gas example: Annual Savings = 12,080,000 Btu * $10.00 per DKT/1,000,000 Btu per
DKT * .70 Efficiency = $172.57 savings per year.
$5200.00 installed cost /$172.57 annual savings = 30.1 years simple payback.
Fuel oil example: Annual Savings = 12,080,000 Btu * $2.50 per gallon of fuel oil/130,000 Btu
per gallon of fuel oil * .70 Efficiency = $331.86 savings per year.
$5200.00 installed cost /$331.87 annual savings = 15.7 years simple payback
Electricity Savings Payback Natural Savings Payback Fuel Oil Savings Payback
Gas
$0.10/kWh $354 14.7 yr $10/Mcf $173 30.0 yr $2.50/gal $331 15.7 yr
$0.15/kWh $531 9.8 yr $13/Mcf $224 23.2 yr $2.75/gal $365 14.2 yr
$0.20/kWh $708 7.34 yr $16/Mcf $276 18.8 yr $3.00/gal $398 13.1 yr
A federal tax credit of 30% of the system cost (up to a limit of $2,000) is available to
homeowners or businesses installing a solar water-heating system. For this example, the federal
tax credit reduces the cost of the system by $1,560. The table below reflects the after-tax
paybacks using the cost for the solar water-heating system as $3,640.
Electricity Savings Payback Natural Savings Payback Fuel Oil Savings Payback
Gas
$0.10/kWh $354 10.3 yr $10/Mcf $173 21.0 yr $2.50/gal $331 10.9 yr
$0.15/kWh $531 6.9yr $13/Mcf $224 16.3 yr $2.75/gal $365 9.97 yr
$0.20/kWh $708 5.1 yr $16/Mcf $276 13.2 yr $3.00/gal $398 9.1 yr
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Photovoltaic Systems
Calculating the simple payback for a solar electric system is less complicated than running the
numbers for a solar water-heating system. If a 2-kilowatt (peak) DC system is installed and it
produces 2,300 kWh a year for consumption in the building, the simple payback is calculated as
follows:
Simple Payback = (Cost of the PV system installation) divided by (the cost of electricity times
the number of kWh produced by the system)
The installed cost of a PV system ranges from $8 to $10 per DC watt of capacity. For a 2-
kilowatt system, the cost ranges from $16,000 to $20,000. Using electricity costs of $0.10, $0.15,
and $0.20 per kilowatt-hour, the annual savings from producing 2,300 kWh is $230, $345, and
$460 respectively.
$16,000.00 system cost/ 2300KWh per year*$0.10 per KWh = 69.6 years simple payback
$14,000.00 system cost/2300KWh per year*$0.10 per KWh = 60.9 years simple payback
There are other reasons that people install solar energy systems, such as reducing greenhouse
gases, reducing the need for more power plants, reducing consumption fossil fuels, and reducing
environmental destruction.
There are other economic analysis methods that can tell you more about the value of installing a
solar energy system, but the final analyses are only as good as the input data. For example, it is
difficult, if not impossible, to estimate what the future cost for fuels and interest rates will be. In
the long run, the simple payback comparison is a quick, easy way to compare between systems
using present day costs for fuel and equipment.
Questions
1. Would a solar water-heating system be more cost-effective for a homeowner with electric
resistance heat, or a homeowner with natural gas heat?
2. What is the payback period range for the 2 kW PV system example (given above) that is
connected to a utility that charges $0.08 per kWh? For $0.25/kWh?
3. What are the payback period changes for the conditions given in question 2 when the
federal tax credits are factored into the calculations?
4. How does switching from electricity to natural gas or fuel oil change the simple payback
for a solar water-heating system?