Generation of computers

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations
of computing devices. A generation refers to the state of improvement in the product
development process. This term is also used in the different advancements of new computer
technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than
the previous generation before it. As a result of the miniaturization, speed, power, and computer
memory has proportionally increased. New discoveries are constantly being developed that affect
the way we live, work and play.

Each generation of computers is characterized by major technological development that

fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper,
more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about each generation and the
developments that led to the current devices that we use today.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire
rooms. A magnetic drum,also referred to as drum, is a metal
cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data
and programs can be stored. Magnetic drums were once use das a
primary storage device but have since been implemented as
auxiliary storage devices.

The tracks on a magnetic drum are assigned to channels located

around the circumference of the drum, forming adjacent circular
bands that wind around the drum. A single drum can have up to
200 tracks. As the drum rotates at a speed of up to 3,000 rpm, the
device's read/write heads deposit magnetized spots on the drum
during the write operation and sense these spots during a read operation. This action is similar to
that of a magnetic tape or disk drive.

They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers
relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time. Machine languages are the only languages understood by computers. While easily
understood by computers, machine languages are almost impossible for humans to use because
they consist entirely of numbers. Computer Programmers, therefore, use either high level
programming languages or an assembly language programming. An assembly language
contains the same instructions as a machine language, but the instructions and variables have
names instead of being just numbers.

Programs written in  high level programming languages retranslated into assembly language or
machine language by a compiler. Assembly language program retranslated into machine
language by a program called an assembler (assembly language compiler).
Every CPU has its own unique machine language. Programs must be rewritten or recompiled,
therefore, to run on different types of computers. Input was based onpunch card and paper tapes,
and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The
UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census
Bureau in 1951.

Acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, the world's first operational
electronic digital computer, developed by Army Ordnance to compute World War II ballistic
firing tables. The ENIAC, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and consisting
of 18,000 vacuum tubes,1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors,capacitors, and
inductors, was completed in 1945. In addition to ballistics, the ENIAC's field of application
included weather prediction, atomic-energy calculations, cosmic-ray studies, thermal
ignition,random-number studies, wind-tunnel design, and other scientific uses. The ENIAC soon
became obsolete as the need arose for faster computing speeds.

Second Generation - 1956-1963:

Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in

the second generation computer. Transistor is a
device composed of semiconductor material that
amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit.
Invented in 1947 at Bell Labs, transistors have
become the key ingredient of all digital circuits,
including computers. Today's latest
microprocessor contains tens of millions of
microscopic transistors.

Prior to the invention of transistors, digital circuits

were composed of vacuum tubes, which had many disadvantages. They were much larger,
required more energy, dissipated more heat, and were more prone to failures. It's safe to say that
without the invention of transistors, computing as we know it today would not be possible.

The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late
50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube,allowing computers to become smaller,
faster, cheaper,more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors.
Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage,
it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on
punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or

assembly, languages,which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in
their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated

Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the

hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on
silicon chips, called semiconductors, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of
computers.

A nonmetallic chemical element in the carbon

family of elements. Silicon - atomic symbol "Si" -
is the second most abundant element in the earth's
crust, surpassed only by oxygen. Silicon does not
occur uncombined in nature. Sand and almost all
rocks contain silicon combined with oxygen,
forming silica. When silicon combines with other
elements, such as iron, aluminum or potassium, a
silicate is formed. Compounds of silicon also occur in the atmosphere, natural waters, and many
plants and in the bodies of some animals.

Silicon is the basic material used to make computer chips, transistors, silicon diodes and other
electronic circuits and switching devices because its atomic structure makes the element an ideal
semiconductor. Silicon is commonly doped, or mixed, with other elements, such as boron,
phosphorous and arsenic, to alter its conductive properties.

A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material (usually silicon) on which an integrated
circuit is embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inches and can contain millions of
electronic components(transistors). Computers consist of many chips placed on electronic boards
called printed circuit boards. There are different types of chips. For example, CPU chips (also
called microprocessors) contain an entire processing unit, whereas memory chips contain blank
memory.

Semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor of electricity (like copper) nor a
good insulator (like rubber). The most common semiconductor materials are silicon and
germanium. These materials are then doped to create an excess or lack of electrons.

Computer chips, both for CPU and memory, are composed of semiconductor materials.
Semiconductors make it possible to miniaturize electronic components, such as transistors. Not
only does miniaturization mean that the components take up less space, it also means that they
are faster and require less energy.
 Related Article: History Behind It All

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through
keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to
run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory.
Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller
and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present:

Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation

of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
we rebuilt onto a single silicon chip. A silicon
chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal
computers,the terms microprocessor and CPU are
used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal
computers and most workstations sits a
microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the
logic of almost all digital devices, from clock
radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

 Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.

 Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.

 Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many
instructions per second the processor can execute.

In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit
microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bitmicroprocessor that runs at
25MHz.

What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel
4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central
processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.

Abbreviation of central processing unit, and pronounced as separate letters. The CPU is the
brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central processor, the
CPU is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power,the CPU is the most
important element of a computer system.

On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and
small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a microprocessor.

Two typical components of a CPU are:

 The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.

 The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes
them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many
areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form
networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers
also saw the development of GUI's, the mouse and handheld devices

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond:

Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on

artificial intelligence, are still in
development,though there are some applications,
such as voice recognition, that are being used
today.

Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer

science concerned with making computers behave
like humans. The term was coined in 1956 by
John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Artificial intelligence includes:

 Games Playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers

 Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for

example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)
  Natural Language: programming computers to understand natural human languages

 Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the

types of physical connections that occur in animal brains

 Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli

Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human
behavior). The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing. The best computer
chess programs are now capable of beating humans. In May,1997, an IBM super-computer called
Deep Blue defeated world chess champion Gary Kasparov in a chess match.

In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but they are capable
only of very limited tasks. Robots have great difficulty identifying objects based on appearance
or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily.

Natural-language processing offers the greatest potential rewards because it would allow people
to interact with computers without needing any specialized knowledge. You could simply walk
up to a computer and talk to it. Unfortunately, programming computers to understand natural
languages has proved to be more difficult than originally thought. Some rudimentary translation
systems that translate from one human language to another are in existence, but they are not
nearly as good as human translators.

There are also voice recognition systems that can convert spoken sounds into written words, but
they do not understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation. Even these systems are
quite limited -- you must speak slowly and distinctly.

In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent the future of artificial intelligence
and of computers in general. To date, however, they have not lived up to expectations. Many
expert systems help human experts in such fields as medicine and engineering, but they are very
expensive to produce and are helpful only in special situations.

Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving successful
in an umber of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language processing.

There are several programming languages that are known as AI languages because they are used
almost exclusively for AI applications. The two most common are LISP and Prolog.

Related Article: Discover Computer History

Voice Recognition

The field of computer science that deals with

designing computer systems that can recognize
spoken words. Note that voice recognition implies
only that the computer can take dictation, not that
it understands what is being said. Comprehending
human languages falls under a different field of
computer science called natural language
processing. A number of voice recognition
systems are available on the market. The most
powerful can recognize thousands of words.
However, they generally require an extended
training session during which the computer
system becomes accustomed to a particular voice and accent.Such systems are said to be speaker
dependent.

Many systems also require that the speaker speak slowly and distinctly and separate each word
with a short pause. These systems are called discrete speech systems. Recently, great strides have
been made in continuous speech systems -- voice recognition systems that allow you to speak
naturally. There are now several continuous-speech systems available for personal computers.

Because of their limitations and high cost, voice recognition systems have traditionally been used
only in a few specialized situations. For example, such systems are useful in instances when the
user is unable to use a keyboard to enter data because his or her hands are occupied or disabled.
Instead of typing commands, the user can simply speak into a headset. Increasingly, however, as
the cost decreases and performance improves, speech recognition systems are entering the
mainstream and are being used as an alternative to keyboards.

The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a
reality. Parallel processing is the simultaneous use of more than one CPU to execute a program.
Ideally, parallel processing makes a program run faster because there are more engines (CPUs)
running it. In practice, it is often difficult to divide a program in such a way that separate CPUs
can execute different portions without interfering with each other.

Most computers have just one CPU, but some models have several. There are even computers
with thousands of CPUs. With single-CPU computers, it is possible to perform parallel
processing by connecting the computers in a network. However, this type of parallel processing
requires very sophisticated software called distributed processing software.

Note that parallel processing differs from multitasking, in which a single CPU executes several
programs at once.

Parallel processing is also called parallel computing.

Quantum computation and molecular and nano-technology will radically change the face of
computers in years to come. First proposed in the 1970s, quantum computing relies on quantum
physics by taking advantage of certain quantum physics properties of atoms or nuclei that allow
them to work together as quantum bits, or qubits, to be the computer's processor and memory. By
interacting with each other while being isolated from the external environment,qubits can
perform certain calculations exponentially faster than conventional computers.

Qubits do not rely on the traditional binary nature of computing. While traditional computers
encode information into bits using binary numbers, either a 0or 1, and can only do calculations
on one set of numbers at once, quantum computers encode information as a series of quantum-
mechanical states such as spin directions of electrons or polarization orientations of a photon that
might represent a 1 or a 0, might represent a combination of the two or might represent a number
expressing that the state of the qubit is somewhere between 1 and 0, or a superposition of many
different numbers at once. A quantum computer can doan arbitrary reversible classical
computation on all the numbers simultaneously, which a binary system cannot do, and also has
some ability to produce interference between various different numbers. By doing a computation
on many different numbers at once,then interfering the results to get a single answer, a quantum
computer has the potential to be much more powerful than a classical computer of the same
size.In using only a single processing unit, a quantum computer can naturally perform myriad
operations in parallel.

Quantum computing is not well suited for tasks such as word processing and email, but it is ideal
for tasks such as cryptography and modeling and indexing very large databases.

Nanotechnology is a field of science whose goal is to control individual atoms and molecules to
create computer chips and other devices that are thousands of times smaller than current
technologies permit. Current manufacturing processes use lithography to imprint circuits on
semiconductor materials. While lithography has improved dramatically over the last two decades
-- to the point where some manufacturing plants can produce circuits smaller than one
micron(1,000 nanometers) -- it still deals with aggregates of millions of atoms. It is widely
believed that lithography is quickly approaching its physical limits. To continue reducing the size
of semiconductors, new technologies that juggle individual atoms will be necessary. This is the
realm of nanotechnology.

Although research in this field dates back to Richard P. Feynman's classic talk in 1959, the term
nanotechnology was first coined by K. Eric Drexler in1986 in the book Engines of Creation.

In the popular press, the term nanotechnology is sometimes used to refer to any sub-micron
process,including lithography. Because of this, many scientists are beginning to use the term
molecular nanotechnology when talking about true nanotechnology at the molecular level.

The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language
input and are capable of learning and self-organization.

Here natural language means a human language. For example, English, French, and Chinese are
natural languages. Computer languages, such as FORTRAN and C,are not.
Probably the single most challenging problem in computer science is to develop computers that
can understand natural languages. So far, the complete solution to this problem has proved
elusive, although great deal of progress has been made. Fourth-generation languages are the
programming languages closest to natural languages.

System software

LANGUAGE/SOFTWARE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous lesson we discussed about the different parts and configurations of computer. It
has been mentioned that programs or instructions have to be fed to the computer to do specific
task. So it is necessary to provide sequence of instructions so that your work can be done. We
can divide the computer components into two major areas, namely, hardware and software.
Hardware is the machine itself and its various individual equipment. It includes all mechanical,
electronic and magnetic devices such as monitor, printer, electronic circuit, floppy and hard disk.
In this lesson we will discuss about the other part, namely, software.

3.2 OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson you will be able to

 explain the concept of software

 distinguish between different types of software
 differentiate application software from system software
 define a language
 differentiate between different types of language
 distinguish between compiler and interpreter

3.3 WHAT IS SOFTWARE?

As you know computer cannot do anything without instructions from the user. In order to do any
specific job you have to give a sequence of instructions to the computer. This set of instructions
is called a computer program. Software refers to the set of computer programs, procedures that
describe the programs, how they are to be used. We can say that it is the collection of programs,
which increase the capabilities of the hardware. Software guides the computer at every step
where to start and stop during a particular job. The process of software development is called
programming.

You should keep in mind that software and hardware are complementary to each other. Both
have to work together to produce meaningful result. Another important point you should know
that producing software is difficult and expensive.

3.4 SOFTWARE TYPES

Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.

 Application Software
 System software

Application Software: Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations for a
specific application. For example, payroll is an application software for an organization to
produce pay slips as an output. Application software is useful for word processing, billing
system, accounting, producing statistical report, analysis of numerous data in research, weather
forecasting, etc. In later modules you will learn about MS WORD, Lotus 1-2-3 and dBASE III
Plus. All these are application softwares.

Another example of application software is programming language. Among the programming

languages COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language) is more suitable for business
application whereas FORTRAN (Formula Translation) is useful for scientific application. We
will discuss about languages in next section.

System Software: You know that an instruction is a set of programs that has to be fed to the
computer for operation of computer system as a whole. When you switch on the computer the
programs written in ROM is executed which activates different units of your computer and
makes it ready for you to work on it. This set of program can be called system software.
Therefore system software may be defined as a set of one or more programs designed to control
the operation of computer system.

System software are general programs designed for performing tasks such as controlling all
operations required to move data into and out of the computer. It communicates with printers,
card reader, disk, tapes etc. monitor the use of various hardware like memory, CPU etc. Also
system software are essential for the development of applications software. System Software
allows application packages to be run on the computer with less time and effort. Remember that
it is not possible to run application software without system software.

Development of system software is a complex task and it requires extensive knowledge of

computer technology. Due to its complexity it is not developed in house. Computer manufactures
build and supply this system software with the computer system. DOS, UNIX and WINDOWS
are some of the widely used system software. Out of these UNIX is a multi-user operating
system whereas DOS and WINDOWS are PC-based. We will discuss in detail about DOS and
WINDOWS in the next module.

So without system software it is impossible to operate your computer. The following picture is
shown in Fig. 3.1 relation between hardware, software and you as a user of computer system.
 Fig. 3.1 Relation between hardware, software.

Top

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 1

1. What are program, programming and software?

2. Differentiate between system software and application software.
3. Write True or False.
a. The set of instructions given to the computer is called programming.
b. Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations for a specific
application.
c. UNIX is a multi-user operating system.

Top

3.5 WHAT IS LANGUAGE?

You are aware with the term language. It is a system of communication between you and me.
Some of the basic natural languages that we are familiar with are English, Hindi, Oriya etc.
These are the languages used to communicate among various categories of persons. But how you
will communicate with your computer. Your computer will not understand any of these natural
languages for transfer of data and instruction. So there are programming languages specially
developed so that you could pass your data and instructions to the computer to do specific job.
You must have heard names like FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL etc. These are programming
languages. So instructions or programs are written in a particular language based on the type of
job. As an example, for scientific application FORTRAN and C languages are used. On the other
hand COBOL is used for business applications.

3.5.1 Programming Languages

There are two major types of programming languages. These are Low Level Languages and
High Level Languages. Low Level languages are further divided in to Machine language and
Assembly language.

3.5.2 Low Level Languages

The term low level means closeness to the way in which the machine has been built. Low level
languages are machine oriented and require extensive knowledge of computer hardware and its
configuration.

(a) Machine Language

Machine Language is the only language that is directly understood by the computer. It does not
needs any translator program. We also call it machine code and it is written as strings of 1's (one)
and 0’s (zero). When this sequence of codes is fed to the computer, it recognizes the codes and
converts it in to electrical signals needed to run it. For example, a program instruction may look
like this:

1011000111101

It is not an easy language for you to learn because of its difficult to understand. It is efficient for
the computer but very inefficient for programmers. It is considered to the first generation
language. It is also difficult to debug the program written in this language.

Advantage

The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no translation
program is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages

1. It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know details
of hardware to write program.
2. The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which results in
program errors.
3. It is difficult to debug the program.

(b) Assembly Language

It is the first step to improve the programming structure. You should know that computer can
handle numbers and letter. Therefore some combination of letters can be used to substitute for
number of machine codes.

The set of symbols and letters forms the Assembly Language and a translator program is
required to translate the Assembly Language to machine language. This translator program is
called `Assembler'. It is considered to be a second-generation language.

Advantages:

1. The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves a lot
of time and effort of the programmer.
2. It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
3. Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level language.
Because this is one-to-one translator between assembly language program and its
corresponding machine language program.

Disadvantages:

1. One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent. A

program written for one computer might not run in other computers with different
hardware configuration.

LESSON 4

COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORK

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Today computer is available in many offices and homes and therefore there is a need to share
data and programs among various computers with the advancement of data communication
facilities. The communication between computers has increased and it thus it has extended the
power of computer beyond the computer room. Now a user sitting at one place can communicate
computers of any remote sites through communication channel. The aim of this chapter is to
introduce you the various aspects of computer network.

4.2 OBJECTIVES

After going through this lesson you will be in a position to:

 explain the concept of data communication

 understand the use of computer network
  identify different components of computer network
 identify different types of network
 explain communication protocols
 understand what is internet and email and its uses in modern communication
 appreciate the use of satellite communication.

4.3 DATA COMMUNICATION

We all are acquainted with some sorts of communication in our day to day life. For
communication of information and messages we use telephone and postal communication
systems. Similarly data and information from one computer system can be transmitted to other
systems across geographical areas. Thus data transmission is the movement of information using
some standard methods. These methods include electrical signals carried along a conductor,
optical signals along an optical fibers and electromagnetic areas.

Suppose a manager has to write several letters to various clients. First he has to use his PC and
Word Processing package to prepare his letter. If the PC is connected to all the client's PCs
through networking, he can send the letters to all the clients within minutes. Thus irrespective of
geographical areas, if PCs are connected through communication channel, the data and
information, computer files and any other program can be transmitted to other computer systems
within seconds. The modern form of communication like e-mail and Internet is possible only
because of computer networking.

Basic Elements of a Communication System

The following are the basic requirements for working of a communication system.

1. A sender (source) which creates the message to be transmitted.

2. A medium that carries the message.
3. A receiver (sink) which receives the message.

In data communication four basic terms are frequently used. They are

 Data: A collection of facts in raw forms that become information after processing.

 Signals: Electric or electromagnetic encoding of data.

 Signaling: Propagation of signals across a communication medium.
 Transmission: Communication of data achieved by the processing of signals.

4.3.1 Communication Protocols

You may be wondering how do the computers send and receive data across communication
links. The answer is data communication software. It is this software that enables us to
communicate with other systems. The data communication software instructs computer systems
and devices as to how exactly data is to be transferred from one place to another. The procedure
of data transformation in the form of software is commonly called protocol.
The data transmission software or protocols perform the following functions for the efficient and
error free transmission of data.

1. Data sequencing: A long message to be transmitted is broken into smaller packets of

fixed size for error free data transmission.
2. Data Routing: It is the process of finding the most efficient route between source and
destination before sending the data.
3. Flow control: All machines are not equally efficient in terms of speed. Hence the flow
control regulates the process of sending data between fast sender and slow receiver.
4. Error Control: Error detecting and recovering is the one of the main function of
communication software. It ensures that data are transmitted without any error.

4.3.2 Data Transmission Modes

There are three ways for transmitting data from one point to another

1. Simplex: In simplex mode the communication can take place in one direction. The
receiver receives the signal from the transmitting device. In this mode the flow of
information is Uni.-directional. Hence it is rarely used for data communication.
2. Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode the communication channel is used in both directions,
but only in one direction at a time. Thus a half-duplex line can alternately send and
receive data.
3. Full-duplex: In full duplex the communication channel is used in both directions at the
same time. Use of full-duplex line improves the efficiency as the line turn-around time
required in half-duplex arrangement is eliminated. Example of this mode of transmission
is the telephone line.

Fig. 4.1

4.3.3 Digital and Analog Transmission

Data is transmitted from one point to another point by means of electrical signals that may be in
digital and analog form. So one should know the fundamental difference between analog and
digital signals. In analog signal the transmission power varies over a continuous range with
respect to sound, light and radio waves. On the other hand a digital signal may assume only
discrete set of values within a given range. Examples are computer and computer related
equipment. Analog signal is measured in Volts and its frequency in Hertz (Hz). A digital signal is
a sequence of voltage represented in binary form. When digital data are to be sent over an analog
form the digital signal must be converted to analog form. So the technique by which a digital
signal is converted to analog form is known as modulation. And the reverse process, that is the
conversion of analog signal to its digital form, is known as demodulation. The device, which
converts digital signal into analog, and the reverse, is known as modem.

Fig 4.2:Analog Signal

Fig 4.3 :Digital Signal

 

4.3.4 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

Data transmission through a medium can be either asynchronous or synchronous. In

asynchronous transmission data is transmitted character by character as you go on typing on a
keyboard. Hence there is irregular gaps between characters. However, it is cheaper to implement,
as you do not have to save the data before sending. On the other hand, in the synchronous mode,
the saved data is transmitted block by block. Each block can contain many characters.
Synchronous transmission is well suited for remote communication between a computer and
related devices like card reader and printers.

Following are the major communication devices used to day.

1. Wire Pairs: Wire pairs are commonly used in local telephone communication and for
short distance digital data communication. They are usually made up of copper and the
pair of wires is twisted together. Data transmission speed is normally 9600 bits per
second in a distance of 100 meter.
2. Coaxial Cables: Coaxial cable is groups of specially wrapped and insulted wires that are
able to transfer data at higher rate. They consist of a central copper wire surrounded by an
insulation over which copper mesh is placed. They are used for long distance telephone
lines and local area network for their noise immunity and faster data transfer.
3. Microwave: Microwave system uses very high frequency radio signals to transmit data
through space. The transmitter and receiver of a microwave system should be in line-of-
sight because the radio signal cannot bend. With microwave very long distance
transmission is not possible. In order to overcome the problem of line of sight and power
amplification of weak signal, repeaters are used at intervals of 25 to 30 kilometers
between the transmitting and receiving end.
4. Communication Satellite: The problem of line-sight and repeaters are overcome by
using satellites which are the most widely used data transmission media in modern days.
A communication satellite is a microwave relay station placed in outer space. INSAT-1B
is such a satellite that can be accessible from anywhere in India. In satellite
communication, microwave signal is transmitted from a transmitter on earth to the
satellite at space. The satellite amplifies the weak signal and transmits it back to the
receiver. The main advantage of satellite communication is that it is a single microwave
relay station visible from any point of a very large area. In microwave the data
transmission rate is 16 giga bits per second. They are mostly used to link big metropolitan
cities.

Top

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 1
1. What is communication protocol?

2. What is the difference between asynchronous and synchronous transmission?

3. State whether True or False

(a) The basic requirements for working of a communication system are sender medium and
receiver.

(b) Electric or Electromagnetic encoding of data is called Transmission.

(c) In full duplex the communication channel is used in both directions at the same time.

(d) Analog signal is measured in Volts and its frequency in Hertz

(e) The technique by which a digital signal is converted to analog form is known as modulation.

Top

4.4 COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network is an interconnection of various computer systems located at different

places. In computer network two or more computers are linked together with a medium and data
communication devices for the purpose of communicating data and sharing resources. The
computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known as server. In the
network the individual computers, which access shared network resources, are known as
workstations or nodes.

Computer Networks may be classified on the basis of geographical area in two broad categories.

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Wide Area Network (WAN)

4.4.1 Local Area Network

Networks used to interconnect computers in a single room, rooms within a building or buildings
on one site are called Local Area Network (LAN). LAN transmits data with a speed of several
megabits per second (106 bits per second). The transmission medium is normally coaxial cables.

LAN links computers, i.e., software and hardware, in the same area for the purpose of sharing
information. Usually LAN links computers within a limited geographical area because they must
be connected by a cable, which is quite expensive. People working in LAN get more capabilities
in data processing, work processing and other information exchange compared to stand-alone
computers. Because of this information exchange most of the business and government
organisations are using LAN.

Major Characteristics of LAN

 every computer has the potential to communicate with any other computers of the
network
 high degree of interconnection between computers
 easy physical connection of computers in a network
 inexpensive medium of data transmission
 high data transmission rate

Advantages

 The reliability of network is high because the failure of one computer in the network does
not effect the functioning for other computers.
 Addition of new computer to network is easy.
 High rate of data transmission is possible.
 Peripheral devices like magnetic disk and printer can be shared by other computers.

Disadvantages

If the communication line fails, the entire network system breaks down.

Use of LAN

Followings are the major areas where LAN is normally used

 File transfers and Access

 Word and text processing
 Electronic message handling
 Remote database access
 Personal computing
 Digital voice transmission and storage

4.4.2 Wide Area Network

The term Wide Area Network (WAN) is used to describe a computer network spanning a
regional, national or global area. For example, for a large company the head quarters might be at
Delhi and regional branches at Bombay, Madras, Bangalore and Calcutta. Here regional centers
are connected to head quarters through WAN. The distance between computers connected to
WAN is larger. Therefore the transmission medium used are normally telephone lines,
microwaves and satellite links.

4.4.3 Characteristics of WAN

Followings are the major characteristics of WAN.

1. Communication Facility: For a big company spanning over different parts of the
country the employees can save long distance phone calls and it overcomes the time lag
in overseas communications. Computer conferencing is another use of WAN where users
communicate with each other through their computer system.
2. Remote Data Entry: Remote data entry is possible in WAN. It means sitting at any
location you can enter data, update data and query other information of any computer
attached to the WAN but located in other cities. For example, suppose you are sitting at
Madras and want to see some data of a computer located at Delhi, you can do it through
WAN.
3. Centralised Information: In modern computerised environment you will find that big
organisations go for centralised data storage. This means if the organisation is spread
over many cities, they keep their important business data in a single place. As the data are
generated at different sites, WAN permits collection of this data from different sites and
save at a single site.

4.4.4 Examples of WAN

1. Ethernet: Ethernet developed by Xerox Corporation is a famous example of WAN. This

network uses coaxial cables for data transmission. Special integrated circuit chips called
controllers are used to connect equipment to the cable.
2. Aparnet: The Aparnet is another example of WAN. It was developed at Advanced
Research Projects Agency of U. S. Department. This Network connects more than 40
universities and institutions throughout USA and Europe.

Difference between LAN and WAN

 LAN is restricted to limited geographical area of few kilometers. But WAN covers great
distance and operate nationwide or even worldwide.

 In LAN, the computer terminals and peripheral devices are connected with wires and
coaxial cables. In WAN there is no physical connection. Communication is done through
telephone lines and satellite links.

 Cost of data transmission in LAN is less because the transmission medium is owned by a
single organisation. In case of WAN the cost of data transmission is very high because
the transmission medium used are hired, either telephone lines or satellite links.

 The speed of data transmission is much higher in LAN than in WAN. The transmission
speed in LAN varies from 0.1 to 100 megabits per second. In case of WAN the speed
ranges from 1800 to 9600 bits per second (bps).

 Few data transmission errors occur in LAN compared to WAN. It is because in LAN the
distance covered is negligible.
4.5 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

The term topology in the context of communication network refers to the way the computers or
workstations in the network are linked together. According to the physical arrangements of
workstations and nature of work, there are three major types of network topology. They are star
topology, bus topology and ring topology.

4.5.1 Star topology

In star topology a number of workstations (or nodes) are directly linked to a central node (see,
Fig. 4.3). Any communication between stations on a star LAN must pass through the central
node. There is bi-directional communication between various nodes. The central node controls
all the activities of the nodes. The advantages of the star topology are:

 It offers flexibility of adding or deleting of workstations from the network.

 Breakdown of one station does not affect any other device on the network.

The major disadvantage of star topology is that failure of the central node disables
communication throughout the whole network.

Fig. 4.3: Star Topology

4.5.2 Bus Topology

In bus topology all workstations are connected to a single communication line called bus. In this
type of network topology there is no central node as in star topology. Transmission from any
station travels the length of the bus in both directions and can be received by all workstations.
The advantage of the bus topology is that

 It is quite easy to set up.

 If one station of the topology fails it does not affect the entire system.

The disadvantage of bus topology is that any break in the bus is difficult to identify.
 

Fig. 4.4: Bus Topology

4.5.3 Ring Topology

In ring topology each station is attached nearby stations on a point to point basis so that the entire
system is in the form of a ring. In this topology data is transmitted in one direction only. Thus the
data packets circulate along the ring in either clockwise or anti-clockwise direction. The
advantage of this topology is that any signal transmitted on the network passes through all the
LAN stations. The disadvantage of ring network is that the breakdown of any one station on the
ring can disable the entire system.

Fig. 4.5: Ring Topology

Top

IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 2
 1. Differentiate between LAN and WAN.
2. What are the different types of network topology?
3. State True or False

(a) Networks used to interconnect computers in a single room, rooms within a building or
buildings on one site are called Wide Area Network (WAN).

(b) The term Wide Area Network (WAN) is used to describe a computer network spanning a
regional, national or global area.

(c) The speed of data transmission is much higher in WAN than in LAN.

(d) In star topology a number of workstations (or nodes) are directly linked to a central node.

(e) The advantage of the bus topology is that, If one station of the topology fails it does not affect
the entire system.

Top

4.6 INTERNET

The Internet is a network of networks. Millions of computers all over the world are connected
through the Internet. Computer users on the Internet can contact one another anywhere in the
world. If your computer is connected to the Internet, you can connect to millions of computers.
You can gather information and distribute your data. It is very much similar to the telephone
connection where you can talk with any person anywhere in the world.

In Internet a huge resource of information is accessible to people across the world. Information
in every field starting from education, science, health, medicine, history, and geography to
business, news, etc. can be retrieved through Internet. You can also download programs and
software packages from anywhere in the world. Due to the tremendous information resources the
Internet can provide, it is now indispensable to every organisation.

Origin of Internet

In 1969 Department of Defence (DOD) of USA started a network called ARPANET (Advanced
Research Projects Administration Network) with one computer at California and three at Utah.
Later on other universities and R & D institutions were allowed to connect to the Network.
APARNET quickly grew to encompass the entire American continent and became a huge
success. Every university in the country wanted to become a part of ARPANET. So the network
was broken into two smaller parts MILNET for managing military sites and ARPANET
(smaller) for managing non-military sites. Around 1980, NSFNET (National Science Foundation
Network) was created. With the advancement of modern communication facilities, other
computers were also allowed to be linked up with any computer of NSFNET. By 1990 many
computers were looking up to NSFNET giving birth to Internet.

How Internet functions

Internet is not a governmental organisation. The ultimate authority of the Internet is the Internet
Society. This is a voluntary membership organisation whose purpose is to promote global
information exchange. Internet has more than one million computers attached to it.

E-mail

E-mail stands for electronic mail. This is one of the most widely used features of Internet. Mails
are regularly used today where with the help of postage stamp we can transfer mails anywhere in
the world. With electronic mail the service is similar. But here data are transmitted through
Internet and therefore within minutes the message reaches the destination may it be anywhere in
the world. Therefore the mailing system is excessively fast and is being used widely for mail
transfer.

5.1 INTRODUCTION

When the computer starts, it starts the operating system that takes the control of the machine. An
Operating System is a set of programs that help in controlling and managing the Hardware and
the Software resources of a computer system. A good operating system should have the
following features;

1. Help in the loading of programs and data from external sources into the internal memory
before they are executed.

2. Help programs to perform input/output operations, such as;

o Print or display the result of a program on the printer or the screen.

o Store the output data or programs written on the computer in storage device.

o Communicate the message from the system to the user through the VDU.

o Accept input from the user through the keyboard or mouse.

5.2 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you would be able to;

 explain the concept operating system

 discuss the functions of operating system
 understand the procedures of loading operating system into the memory
  use file management features of operating system
 create separate locations for logically related files
 copy files from one computer to another
 use Windows for File Management

5.3 DISK OPERATING SYSTEM

As the name suggests, the operating System is used for operating the system or the computer. It
is a set of computer programs and also known as DOS (Disk Operating System). The main
functions of DOS  are to manage disk files, allocate system resources according to the
requirement. DOS provides features essential to control hardware devices such as Keyboard,
Screen, Disk  Devices,  Printers, Modems and programs.

Basically, DOS is the medium through which the user and external devices attached to the
system communicate with the system. DOS translate the command issued by the user in the
format that is understandable by the computer and instruct computer to work accordingly. It also
translates the result and any error message in the format for the user to understand.

(a) Loading of DOS

The BOOT Record into the computer memory loads DOS. BOOT Record in turn is triggered by
ROM program already there in the computer.

The system start-up routine of ROM runs a reliability test called Power On  Self Test (POST)
which initializes the chips  and  the standard equipment attached to the PC, and check whether
peripherals connected to the computer are working or not. Then it tests the  RAM memory. Once
this process is over, the ROM  bootstrap loader attempts to read the Boot record and if
successful, passes the  control  on  to it. The instructions/programs  in  the  boot record  then
load the rest of the program. After  the  ROM  boot strap  loader  turns the control over to boot
record,  the  boot tries to load the DOS into the memory by reading the  two hidden  files
IBMBIO.COM and IBMDOS.COM. If these two are  found, they   are   loaded  along with  the
DOS command interpreter COMMAND.COM. COMMAND.COM contains routines that
interpret what is typed  in through the keyboard in the DOS command mode. By comparing  the
input with the list of command, it acts by  executing the  required routines/commands or by
searching for the  required routine utility and loads it into the memory.

5.4 COMPUTER FILES IN DOS

A  file may contain a program or any other kind  of  information. Generally, a file must be given
a name that can be used to  identify it. DOS permits the user to assign a name consisting of  two
parts  to a file - primary and secondary names. Primary name  can be  of  a maximum of eight
characters consisting  of  Characters, Alphabets, Number  and Hyphen), and the  Secondary
name  should consist of three characters, which is optional. The primary  name and the secondary
(or extension) name, if any, are to be separated  by  a  dot (.).

Primary name can be linked  to  proper  name, whereas  extensions are like surnames of people.
Using an  extension with the file name is preferable, though optional.  However, once the
extension is specified, using the complete name (primary name and extension, with the period
separating them can only refer the file). Using extensions can be an excellent way of naming a
file so that it can be identified easily.

Examples:

Filename   Primary Name Separator Secondary Name

Employee Employee    
Employee.Exe  Employee   . Exe
Employee.Dbf  Employee   . Dbf

DOS  has a way of showing which disk drive is  currently  active. The floppy disk drives are
assigned alphabets A and  B,  whereas the hard disk drive is assigned the alphabet C. If your PC
has  a single floppy drive, the drive would be A and if it has two,  they would  be  termed as A
and B. If your PC includes a  hard  disk,  besides a  FDD (Floppy  Disk Drive),  the  drive names
would be A and C. If the prompt is  A, then  it  implies  that the first floppy disk  drive  is active.
Where as the DOS prompt would be C, if the hard disk is active. Data as well as instructions
reside in a file stored in a  disk.

5.5 DIRECTORY STRUCTURE IN DOS

The files in the computer come from  various sources.  Some files come with DOS, while other
come  with publications such as a word processor. These files contain  codes and  other
information that is necessary to  make  the  computer application operational. Before long, there
will be hundreds  or even thousands of files in the computer, which can make it difficult to locate
specific files.

The  names of all the files created in a disk are stored  in  its directory. Directory is just like a file
folder, which contain all the logically related files. DOS  files  are organized in a  hierarchical or
an inverted tree-like structure. The general analogy is with a file cabinet containing a number of
drawers, which in turn may contain folders. The content of these folders is the needed
information.

The file cabinet here is the ROOT DIRECTORY, the drawer is  INDIVIDUAL
DIRECTORY, the folders are SUBDIRECTORY and the  information in these folders may in
turn be classified as FILES.
Otherwise,  the large number of files that get created for  various purposes in a disk can make the
directory huge and  difficult to view and manage. Therefore, DOS enables the user to organize
the files in a disk into directories and sub-directories  in a hierarchical structure. Directories can
contain other  directories. A directory within another directory is called  a  sub-directory.

Of course, there may be sub-directories of sub-directories, but  a file name  is the furthest you
may descend down  the  (inverted) tree of directories and files. Thus, a file name corresponds to
a tree  leaf, a sub-directory to a branch, the  directory  to  the trunk, and the root directory to the
root of the tree, hence  the name ROOT DIRECTORY.

Sample of Directory Structure

The directory/sub-directory is represented in bold letters.

5.6 DIRECTORY COMMAND

The content of each of the sub-directory cannot be viewed  unless it is made active, or a sub-
directory is specified as  part  of the DIR command. Doing either of these requires an
understanding of the concepts of navigating around the disk.

The directory, the user is in at any point of time, is called the

WORKING/PRESENT/CURRENT directory. DOS indicates which directory you are in by
displaying the directory's name in the command prompt. For example, the following command
prompt indicate  that you are in the DOS directory: C:\DOS>. Knowing which directory is
current  helps  you find files, and to  move  from  one directory  to another more easily.
Typically, the ROOT  DIRECTORY (\)  is the initial working directory. The entire
specification of directory from  root  is called  a PATH. By itself, the DIR command is
applicable  to  the working/present directory. The names of the sub-directories  at adjacent levels
are separated by backslash (\), while  specifying the path to be followed while traveling to a sub-
directory.

5.7 USING PATH TO SPECIFY THE LOCATION OF FILES

A  path  is the route that leads from the root  directory  of  a drive to the file you want to use.

For example, to access the NOS.LET file in the LETTER  subdirectory of NOS directory, DOS
must go from the ROOT (\) directory through  the NOS directory to  the LETTER directory, as
shown  in  the  following figure:

To specify the same path at the command prompt, you would type it as shown in the following
illustration:

C:\NOS\LETTER\NOS.LET

This is the path or route to the file NOS.LET. The first letter and the colon (C:) represent the
drive the file is on. The  first  back slash (\) represents the root directory. The  second  backslash
separates the NOS directory from the LETTER sub-directory.  The third  backslash separates the
LETTER sub-directories  from  the file name, NOS.LET.

Note: MS-DOS recognizes path up to 67 characters long (including the Drive letter, colon, and
backslash).

5.8 DIR COMMAND

The DIR command gives the list of is there on the disk  that is mounted on the active drive.

Syntax : C:\> DIR A:\> DIR

Example

A:\> DIR

Volume in drive A has no label

Directory of A:\
COMMAND COM 23612 10-20-88 11.30a
DISKCOPY COM 4235 10-20-88 12.00p
FORMAT COM 15780 03-12-89 12.00p
3 files 325012 bytes free

A:\>

As can be seen, on typing DIR followed by <Enter> key at DOS  prompt, five  columns of data
followed by the number of files  and  bytes that are free in the disk are displayed. The first
column  contains the primary name of each file resident on the disk.  However,  most files are
named with an extension, which appear in  the second column. Whereas, the third column
contains the size of the file in bytes, and the fourth and fifth columns show the date and time  on
which the files was created or last modified.  The  last line displays the number of file(s) and
remaining disk space  free in  bytes.  It is important to note that the  DIR  command  only
displays  the names of the files and not their contents.

5.9 CHANGING A DIRECTORY

All  the names displayed using DIR command that have <DIR>  besides them  are directories.
You can see the list  of  files  in another directory by changing to that directory and  then  using
the DIR command again.

The  Change Directory (CHDIR) or CD command enables the  user  to travel  around the
directories in a disk. Type the CD command  at the command prompt.

Syntax:

A:\> CHDIR {path} or a:\> CD {path}

Examples : (Refer to the figure)

# 1. A:\>CD \NOS

This  command  makes the NOS sub-directory  under  the  root directory (\) active.

# 2. A:\>CD \NOS\LETTERS

The  backslash indicates the root, and LETTERS, which is a sub-directory under the NOS
directory, becomes the working directory.

# 3. A:\> CD \

The  root directory becomes the working directory; i.e.  you  will change  back  to the root or
main directory. The slash  typed  in this command is a backslash (\). No matter which  directory
you are in, this command always returns you to the root directory  of a  drive. The root directory
does not have a name, it  is  simply referred to by a backslash (\).

5.10 MAKING OR CREATING DIRECTORY

As  the  number of files increases in a disk, a need is  felt  to organize them in a meaningful way
by creating sub-directories  to store a group of logically related/similar files.

To create a directory, DOS provides the MKDIR (Make Directory) or MD command.

Syntax:

A:\>MKDIR [drive:] {pathname} or A:\>MD [drive:] {pathname}

Square brackets indicate that [drive:] entry is optional.

The MD or MKDIR command creates a new empty directory whose  name is the  last item
specified in the pathname,  in  the  specified drive. If active, the drive need not be specified. If
the  directory is to be created as a sub-directory of the working directory on the active drive,
typing MD {directory name} at the DOS prompt or command prompt is sufficient.

Examples:

# 1. A:\> MD \ACCT\SALARY

makes a SALARY directory in the: drive, under ACCT directory.

# 2. A:\> MD C:\> SALARY

Makes a salary directory in the C: drive, under root directory.

5.11 DELETING A DIRECTORY

You  may  want to delete or remove a directory to  simplify  your directory structure. DOS
provides RD (Remove Directory) to delete a directory.

Example:

# 1. A:\> RD \ACCT\SALARY

removes the SALARY sub-directory in ACCT directory.

NOTE: You cannot delete a directory if you are in  it.  Before you can  delete a directory, you
must type cd.. at  the  command prompt. At the same point of time, the directory to  be  deleted
should be empty.

5.12 COPYING FILES

To copy a file, DOS provides `COPY' command. When you  use `copy' command, you must use
the following two  parameters;  the location  and the  name of the file you want  to  copy,  or  the
source;  and the location and the file name to which you want  to copy the  file  or the target
(destination).  You  separate  the source and the destination or target with a space. The syntax of
the `COPY' command is

COPY {source} {destination} or,

COPY [drive:] [path] [filename] [drive:] [path] [filename]

i.e.  the  first set of drive, path and filename  refers  to  the source  file,  and  the second set of
drive,  path  and  filename

refers to the destination file.

(a) Copying Single File

To  copy the DEBUG.EXE file from the DOS directory to  the  NOS

directory

1. Return to the root directory by typing the following command prompt: CD\

2. Change to the DOS directory by typing the following commands at the DOS prompt: CD DOS

3. To copy the file DEBUG.EXE file from the DOS directory to the
NOS, directory type the following at the command prompt:

Copy c:\dos\debug.exe c:\nos and the following message appears: 1 file (s) copied

Examples:

# 1. A:\> copy a:\letter\office.doc \letter\office.bak

makes  a  copy of the office.doc file in the current  or  working directory with a new name
office.bak

# 2. A:\> copy office.doc a:\letters\nos.mem

copy the file office.doc from the root directory to the sub-directory LETTER under root directory
with a new name nos.mem.

If the target drive is not specified, the copied file will reside in the disk mounted on the active
drive.

5.13 USE OF WILDCARD CHARACTERS

If you want to carry out a task for a group of files whose  names have something  in common,
you can use  wildcard  characters  to specify groups of files. DOS recognize two wildcard
characters: asterisk  (*) represents one or more characters that a  group  of files  has  in common;
and the question mark  (?)  represents  a single character that a group of files has in common.
You can use wildcards  to replace all or part of a file's name or its  extension. The following table
shows examples of wildcards:

Wildcard What it Represents Example

JULY.TXT
*.TXT All files with a .TXT extension
LETTER.TXT

REPORT.TXT
REPORT.* All files named REPORT with any extension  REPORT.LET
REPORT.WRI

M MEMO.TXT
M*.* All files beginning with letter regardless of their extension
MARCH.XLI

SUN.BMP
???.* All files having 3 letter names, with any or no extension
WIN.LET

You can include the wildcard in the command.

Use of wildcard characters in COPY command

# 1. A:\>COPY \letters\*.COB B:

It means, copy all files with extension *.COB from the  directory LETTERS under the ROOT
directory to the working or ROOT directory of the `B' drive.

# 2. A:\> COPY B:\COMPANY\OPEL.*

The  command is to copy all files with primary name  OPEL  (irrespective  extension) in the
directory COMPANY under ROOT  of  the drive `B' into the current working directory of the
disk  mounted in `A' drive. Incase  of one drive, the system will ask for the  source  and

target drive.

The command,

#3.A:\>COPY C:\*.*

copies all files of the ROOT directory of the 'C' drive into the working directory of the 'A' drive.

# 4. A:\> COPY LETTE?.* B:

copies  all files with primary name consisting of 6  characters in total and LETTE as the first five
characters (irrespective of extension name) into drive `B'.

# 5. A:\> COPY B:\?.DOC

copies  all files having a primary name of one character with  an extension .DOC from ROOT
directory of 'B' to the ROOT directory  of `A' drive.

5.14 RENAMING FILES

To  rename  a  file, DOS provides REN command.  The  REN  command stands  for  "Rename".
When you use the REN  command,  you  must include two parameters. The first is the file you
want to rename, and the second is the new name for the file. You separate the two names with a
space. The REN command follows this pattern:

REN oldname newname

Example: REN NOS.DOC NOS.MEM

Rename the old filename NOS.DOC to a new filename NOS.MEM.

5.15 DELETING FILES

This  section explains how to delete or remove a file that is  no longer  required  in the disk. DOS
provides  DEL  command,  which means to delete.

Syntax : DEL {drive:} {path} {filename}

Example:

# 1. DEL \DOS\EDIT.HLP

delete the EDIT.HLP from the DOS directory under ROOT directory.

5.16 PRINTING A FILE

The  `PRINT' command of DOS works more or less like  `TYPE'  com

mand, but at the same time, it enables the content of a text file

to be printed on a paper.

Syntax:

A:\> PRINT [drive:] {path} {filename}

Example:

A:\> PRINT \AIAET\LETTER\AIAET.LET