METAL: WEEK 9

LECTURE CONTENT
1. Introduction
2. Ferrous metals
2.1 Iron
2.2 Steel
3. Types of steel used in construction
4. Steel tensile test (Concrete Workshop)
5. Steel protection
6. Structural steel
7. Structural connections
7.1 Riveting
7.2 Welding
7.3 Bolts
7.4 High strength bolts
8. Reinforcement
9. Other metals: Aluminium, Brass, Copper
 INTRODUCTION
• Most metals have to be mined and refined from their
geologically based ores.

• The refining processes vary greatly and have developed the

science of metallurgy.

• For building purposes, most metals are alloys, although

the base metal is sometimes 99% or more the mix.

• Alloys involves the incorporation of other minerals to

produce certain desirable qualities not available in the
parent metal alone.

• The major base metal used in building work are iron,

copper, lead, aluminium and zinc.
 INTRODUCTION

• The metals using iron as their base are referred to as

“ferrous” and include the important building materials
known as structural steel, mild steel, stainless steel,
corrugated iron, sheet steel, etc.

• The “non-ferrous” metals include brass and bronze.

• Another way of categorizing these material could be as

structure and non-structural metals.
 METAL TYPES

1. Metals can be divided into two types: (1) Ferrous

and (2) Non-ferrous.

2. Ferrous metals are those composed primarily of

iron and iron alloys.

3. Nonferrous metals are those composed primarily

of some element or elements other than iron.
Nonferrous metals or alloys sometimes contain a
small amount of iron as an alloying element or as
an impurity
 METAL TYPES
Metals

Ferrous Nonferrous

1.Cast Iron 1.Brass

2.Wrought Iron 2.Copper
3.Aluminium
 FERROUS METALS

1. Ferrous metals include all forms of iron

and steel alloys.

2. Examples include wrought iron and cast iron.

3. Ferrous metals are iron-base alloys with small

percentages of carbon and other elements added to
achieve desirable properties. Normally, ferrous
metals are magnetic and
nonferrous metals are nonmagnetic.
 IRON

• Iron, like many metals, occurs in the form of an

ore, generally iron oxide, together with earthy
material, such as silica and alumina.

• 1st stage in the production of iron involves blast

furnace.

• In this process, iron oxide is reduced to iron by

carbon monoxide produced from ignition of coal
and limestone, combustible gases provides
necessary heat.
 IRON AND PIG IRON

• Impurities and calcium oxide from the limestone

collect as a slag on top of the liquid iron. It then
run off.

• The iron itself is run into moulds, forming pigs

which contain between 2 and 4 percent carbon and
quantities of silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and
manganese.
 PIG IRON

1. Pig iron is composed of about 93% iron, from 3% to

5% carbon, and various amounts of other elements.

2. Pig iron is comparatively weak and brittle; therefore,

it has a limited use and approximately ninety percent
produced is refined to produce steel.

3. Cast-iron pipe and some fittings and valves are

manufactured from pig iron.
 PRODUCTS OF FERROUS METAL
WROUGHT IRON

1. Wrought iron is made from pig iron with some slag mixed in
during manufacture.

2. Almost pure iron, the presence of slag enables wrought iron to

resist corrosion and oxidation.

3. The chemical analyses of wrought iron and mild steel are just
about the same. The difference comes from the properties
controlled during the manufacturing process.

4. Wrought iron can be gas and arc welded, machined, plated, and
easily formed; however, it has a low hardness and a low-
fatigue strength.
 PRODUCTS OF FERROUS METAL
CAST IRON

1. Cast iron is any iron containing greater than 2% carbon alloy.

2. It is formed by pouring the molten metal into prepared sand

mould. When cool, the sand is cleaned away and the iron
remains. It however, very brittle and difficult to work with.

3. Cast iron has a high compressive strength and good wear

resistance.

4. Alloying it with nickel, chromium, molybdenum, silicon or

vanadium improves toughness, tensile strength and hardness.
 PRODUCTS OF FERROUS METAL
CAST IRON (Cont’d)

1. Cast iron pipes are however, still in favour for the construction of
water pipes and sewerage, mainly due to their resistance to
‘corrosion’. Process of manufacturing are as follow:
 STEEL
HOW STEEL IS PRODUCED:
1. Iron is a metal extracted mainly from the iron ore.
2. It oxidizes readily in air and water to form Fe2O3 and is
rarely found as a free element.
3. In order to obtain elemental iron, oxygen and other
impurities must be removed by chemical reduction.
4. The properties of iron can be modified by alloying it
with various other metals and some non-metals, notably
carbon and silicon to form steels.
Steel is manufactured from pig iron by decreasing the
carbonamount and other impurities and adding spec
ific amounts of alloying elements.
 STEEL
METAL/IRON ORE/IRON/ALLOYING/STEEL

1. Steel is an alloy of iron with about 1 percent carbon.

2. Whereas pure iron is a relatively soft metal that rusts

easily, steel can be hard, tough, and corrosion-
resistant.

3. Used to make almost everything from skyscraper

girders, automobiles, and appliances to thumb tacks
and paper clips, steel is one of the world's most vital
materials.
 STEEL MAKING
1. Three primary installations in an integrated steel plant
are the blast furnace, the steel furnaces, and the rolling
mills.

2. The blast furnace converts iron ore to pig iron; the

steel furnaces convert the pig iron to steel; and the
rolling mills shape the steel into sheets, slabs, or bars.

SOW
 PIG IRON??
Pig Iron: Because blast furnaces produced increased quantities of iron from the
ore, the molten iron was cast into bars, called pig iron, for later
remanufacturing. The furnaces were built and operated for the purpose of
extracting iron from the native iron ores. The objective was to form bars of cold
cast iron for transfer to a foundry for later remanufacture. These were made in
molds pressed in the very dry sandy floor. A main trench directed the molten
iron to a distribution trench from which many side branches were formed. The
molten iron was cast into bars called "pigs"; hence, the common name of "pig
iron." The name pig iron is meaningless to non-farm people, as it is a figment of
the imagination of the blast furnace workers--all of whom were very familiar with
the keeping of pigs. Workers before World War I were, in almost all cases,
required to have a kitchen garden, and keep cows, chickens and pigs. This was a
matter of survival and considered part of the compensation in a company town
or village. The workers were very familiar with the appearance of a mother pig,
called a sow, and her dozen or more nursing piglets. As they looked at the
molten iron flowing from the hearth in the base of the furnace stack, the trench
of red iron with the many short side branches made them think of a sow (the
large feeder trench) and pigs (the end result).
 STEEL MAKING

Blast furnace

A blast furnace is a chimney-like structure in which iron ores

(mainly FeO, Fe2O3, and Fe3O4) are converted into iron metal.

Iron ore, coke, and limestone are loaded into the top of the
furnace, while air is blown in from below. The coke is converted
to carbon monoxide (CO), which then acts as the reducing agent:

2 C + O2 → 2 CO
3 CO + Fe2O3 → 2 Fe + 3 CO2
 STEEL MAKING
Blast furnace (Cont’d)

The molten iron falls to the bottom of the furnace, and the
limestone reacts with silicate impurities to form a molten
slag, which floats on top of the iron.

The two layers are drawn off separately, and the iron is
poured into molds. Because the molten iron yields ingots that
resemble little pigs, the product is referred to as "pig iron."
TURNING ORE TO PIG IRON
TURNING ORE TO PIG IRON
 STEEL MAKING
Steel furnaces

In the steel furnace, sulfur and phosphorus impurities

and excess carbon are burned away, and manganese
and other alloying ingredients are added.
 STEEL MAKING
Molten iron from the blast
furnace is sent to a basic oxide
furnace, which is used for the
final refinement of the iron into
steel. High purity oxygen is blown
into the furnace and combusts
carbon and silicon in the molten
iron. The basic oxide furnace is
fed with fluxes to remove any
final impurities. Alloy materials
may be added to enhance the
characteristics of the steel.
The resulting steel is most often
cast into slabs, beams or billets.
Further shaping of the metal may
be done at steel foundries, which
re-melt the steel and pour it into
molds, or at rolling facilities,
depending on the desired final
shape.
 STEEL MAKING

ENERGY OPTIMIZING
FURNACE or EOF

Was developed to replace the

electric arc and other steelmaking
furnaces. The EOF is an oxygen
steelmaking process. Carbon and
oxygen react to preheat scrap
metal, hot metal and/or pig iron.
These furnaces reduce capital and
conversion costs, energy
consumption and environmental
pollution, while increasing input
flexibility (Chattergee, 1995).
STEEL MAKING
 STEEL MAKING
Finishing processes

A final step in processing steel is shaping. There are hot rolling

mills and cold rolling mills. Various kinds of steel slabs are
rolled into sheets, strips, bars, or other kinds of products.

Sometimes the steel is forged into shape with hammers or

presses, or the hot steel is extruded through dies to give it some
desired shape. For example, steel wire is made by drawing hot
steel rods through smaller and smaller dies. Some steel is
finished by grinding or polishing, and some is coated with zinc
or electroplated with tin.
STEEL MAKING: ROLLING MILLS
TYPES OF STEEL USE IN CONSTRUCTION - Form

Rolled structural sections

1. These sections are made by shaping a red hot billet of steel

into predetermined forms by passing it through a series of
rollers.

2. The common shapes available are now widely standardized

into I, C and L forms and a range of different sizes and
weights.

3. Normally identified as UB, UC. I section will normally make

up column and beam, C and L will make up purlin for roof
or other roof structural members.
Rolled structural sections
TYPES OF STEEL USE IN CONSTRUCTION - Form

Rolled steel plate

• Rolled steel plates are often used in conjunction with the I

and L sections to make up large structural components, such
as column bases, plate, girder by means of riveting, bolting or
welding the pieces together.
TYPES OF STEEL USE IN CONSTRUCTION - Form

High tensile steel

• These alloys are often used for rods and or wire strands in
pre-stressed and post-tensioned members where they need to
resist the high stresses applied.
High tensile steel –
Pre-stressing
TYPES OF STEEL USE IN CONSTRUCTION - Form

Rust-resistant structural steel

• Specially rolled structural member can be ordered in rust-

resistant steel which includes a small percentage of copper.
• This steel takes on overall rust colored appearance, but does
not corrode beyond the initial oxidation.
• Corrosion resistance is the property of a metal that gives it
the ability to withstand attacks from atmospheric,
chemical, or electrochemical conditions. Corrosion,
sometimes called oxidation, is illustrated by the rusting
of iron.
 PROTECTION OF STEEL
1. Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a
material due to chemical reactions with its surroundings.

2. In the most common use of the word, this means a loss of

electrons of metals reacting with water and oxygen.

3. Weakening of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms is a well-

known example of electrochemical corrosion.

4. This is commonly known as rust. This type of damage usually

affects metallic materials, and typically produces oxide(s) and/or
salt(s) of the original metal.

5. Metal may be protected by: (1) Coating with an impervious

coating, (2) Cathodic protection and (3) Passivation or
inhibitors.
 PROTECTION OF STEEL
Protection by impervious coating

• Very common method of protection since it is cheap.

• Normally coats of metal priming and finishing coat
are needed to protect metal from atmospheric
conditions. Nonetheless, regular maintenance must
be performed.
• Example from Nippon paint: 1 coat Nippon Red
Oxide Primer or Zinc Chromate Primer, followed by
1 coat Nippon 9000 Undercoat, before applying 2
coats Nippon 9000 Gloss Finish.
• Please read further about cathodic protection and
inhibitors.
 STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS

Jointing Methods

Riveting

• This method requires steel

angle pieces to connect
plates at right angles to
each other and was very
cumbersome, slow and
noisy compared with
modern welding
techniques.
STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS

Jointing Methods

Riveting

• Widely used before the

introduction of welding
techniques.
• Hot riveting techniques
requires rivet head to be
pre-heated before being
forced to connect structural
members.
 STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS
Jointing Methods

Bolting

• For on site fixing of major

components, steel bolts and
nuts are often fitted into
pre-drilled holes and
tightened to a pre-
determined stress.
• Many structural members
are assembled this way,
such as column base plates
to foundations, trusses to
column.
 STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS: Welding

There are many techniques used in welding metal together.

The two most common welding processes in the construction
industry fall under the categories of gas welding and arc
welding.
Gas Welding

Gas welding is a process in which heat is produced with an

electric arc formed between a metal electrode and the metal
being welded. An inert gas, usually helium or argon usually
shields the arc from contamination. Common gas techniques are
MIG (Metal Inert Gas) and TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas)
TIG –
Tungsten
Inert Gas
welding
MIG – Metal
Inert Gas
welding
TIG – Tungsten Inert
Gas welding TIG – Tungsten Inert
Gas welding (sample)
 STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS: Welding
Arc Welding

Carbon arc welding is a puddling process in which the heat from

an electric arc creates a small pool of molten metal that can be
added to using metal from a filler rod. This is sometimes
referred to as stick welding. Welding techniques for shop
fabrication or field erection of steel are similar.
Arc Welding
 STRUCTURAL CONNECTIONS
Jointing Methods

Connectors

• A wide variety of specially form connectors for use with

standardized steel products.
• These includes:
• Screw-threaded connections for pipes.
• Clamp type connections for scaffolding and wire rope.
• Bolts, nuts and washer.
• Pop rivet for light gauge steel.
 STEEL FOR STRUCTURAL USES
• Steel sections are favorable for structural uses due to
the following reason:

1. Steel is admirably suited for ‘fast-track’ construction. Sections are

manufactured and fabricated under factory conditions and be rapidly
assembled on site without the need of scaffold.

2. Problem of tolerance can be hindered due to strict factory standard.

3. Wider range of section types with new forming techniques has greatly
increased steel versatility. Steel is now featured as architectural materials
in their own right.

4. Available as structural form i.e. in Framing, medium or large span. Most

widely available structural members are hot rolled structural steel
sections (UB,UC, angles, channels) and structural hollow section.
 STEEL FOR REINFORCEMENT
• Steel reinforcement may be used due to the following
reason:

1. To take the tensile stresses in concrete beams or slabs.

2. To withstand shear stresses in beams. Mostly in the form of stirrups.

3. To carry a proportion of the compressive stress and to withstand tensile

stresses which may arise due to eccentric loading as in columns.

4. In some cases, secondary reinforcement is used to prevent spalling of

concrete surfaces due to fire.
 OTHER METALS
Aluminium
1. Aluminum or aluminium, is the most abundant element in the
Earth's crust and third most abundant in every layer thereafter.

2. Aluminum makes up about 8% of the Earth's total weight of

the solid surface.

3. Because of aluminum's reactive nature, it is not found

naturally by itself, but combined with over 270 other minerals
including: silicon, fluorine, and the chief source of aluminum,
bauxite ore.

4. Aluminum is currently the most widely used non-ferrous (lead

based) metal on Earth.
 OTHER METALS
Brass (copper zinc alloy)
1. Brass is a buttery yellow alloy of zinc and copper which has
been manufactured for thousands of years all over the world.

2. The uses of brass vary depending on the percentages of zinc

and copper, and which other metals have been added to alloy
to bring out specific properties.

3. The color of the alloy will also vary, depending on the

amount of zinc: brass gets lighter in color with additional
zinc, and can reach a pale yellow stage.

4. Basic brass has approximately 67% copper and 33% zinc,

making it stronger and more durable than copper, although
not as strong as metals like steel.
 OTHER METALS
Copper

1. The name for the metal comes from Kyprios, the Ancient Greek
name for Cyprus, an island which had highly productive copper
mines in the Ancient world.

2. The atomic number of copper is 29, placing it among the

transition metals. The metal is highly conductive of both
electricity and heat, and many of copper's uses take advantage of
this quality.

3. Copper can be found in numerous electronics and in wiring.

Copper is also relatively corrosion resistant, since it forms a
patina which resists oxidation. For this reason, copper is often
mixed with other metals to form alloys such as bronze and brass.
 OTHER METALS
Uses Copper in building construction

• By far the most important use of copper is in electrical wiring;

it is an excellent conductor of electricity (second only to
silver), it can be made extremely pure, it corrodes very slowly,
and it can be formed easily into thin wires—it is very ductile.

• Also being used widely as material in alloys:

Copper + Zinc = Brass
Copper + Tin = Bronze

• Because it resists corrosion and conducts heat well, copper is

widely used in plumbing and heating applications. Copper
pipes and tubing are used to distribute hot and cold water
through houses and other buildings.
 OTHER METALS
Uses of metal in building construction – generally

1. Fencing: chain link fencing, barb wire, lattice screen,

baluster.

2. Flooring: Decking for casting slab, permanent formwork.

3. Guttering: Gutter, RWDP, bracket

4. Framing: Wall frame, studs

5. Roofing: Roof covering

6. Reinforcing: BRC, steel reinforcement, wire strand.

OK, THE END