Emirates Aviation College

INDEX

Introduction ……………………………………………………. 2

Composite materials used in B777 ………………………………………………… 3

Non Destructive Tests ………………………………………………………………….. 4

Magnetic Particle Inspection ………………………………………………………………… 5

Ultrasound Test ……………………………………………………………………………… 7

Dye Penetrant Test ………………………………………………………………………… 9

Coin Tap Test ………………………………………………………………………… 10

Types of Corrosion ……………………………………………………………….. 11

Galvanic Corrosion …………………………………………………………… 12

Microbial Corrosion ……………………………………………………….. 13

Stress Corrosion …………………………………………………………. 15

Conclusion ……………………………………………………………. 17

Reference …………………………………………………………… 18

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INTRODUCTION
This is an assignment which deals with different types of Non
Destructive Tests their advantages, disadvantages, different types of
Corrosion, their prevention. Apart from this I have also included
information on the composite materials used in B777. This assignment also
includes a lot of diagrams that helps you to understand the topic.

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COMPOSITE MATERIALS USED IN B777

The Boeing 777 is a long-range, wide body twin-engine jet airliner manufactured by
Boeing commercial airplanes. It is the world’s largest twinjet and is commonly referred
to as the “Triple seven”. The aircraft has seating for over 300 passengers and has a range
from 5235 to 9380 nautical miles (9695 to 17372 km) depending on model. Its
distinguishing features include the largest diameter turbofan engines of any aircraft, six
wheels on each main landing gear, a circular fuselage cross-section, and blade-shaped
tail cone.

Fig 1

Many components on 777 aircraft contain composite materials. Example include

fairings, floor beams, engine nacelles, movable and fixed wing trailing edge surfaces,
gear doors, and the empennage – including the horizontal and vertical stabilizers,
elevators and rudder. Composite materials are used primarily to reduce weight and
improve aircraft efficiency. For some components, composite materials are used
primarly to reduce weight and improve aircraft efficiency. For some components,
composite materials are appropriate, based on other requirements such as fatigue
resistance, surface complexity, corrosion resistance, or manufacturing preference.

The composite materials used in B777 are Toughened CFRP, CFRP, Hybrid, and
Fiberglass. The use of CFRP in 777 empennage structure follows developmental work
and commercial service from the early 1980s. The use of composite materials on the 777

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horizontal and vertical stabilizers originated as part of a company-funded program.

Some of the objectives for the use of composite materials are

 Weight reduction.
 Reduce manufacturing costs.
 Increase resistance to service threats.
 Design to maximize automated fabrication.

The 777 empennage consists of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers, elevators, and
rudder. The design team configured each stabilizer as a two-cell box, consisting of a
main structural box and an auxiliary or forward torque box, leading edges, tip, and
fixed trailing edges. The main torque boxes are made from CFRP composite material:
solid-laminate front and rear spars, honeycomb sandwich ribs, and integrally stiffened
laminate skin panels. The main box panels and spars feature a toughened-matrix CFRP
material from TORAY. The preimpregnated fiber/resin system is T800/3900-2. It
provides improved resistance to impact damage over previous brittle materials. The
auxiliary torque box and fixed trailing edges are glass or glass/CFRP sandwich panels
with aluminum ribs. The leading edge, tip, and auxiliary spar are aluminum
construction.

NON DESTRUCTIVE TEST (NDT)

In aircraft maintenance programme it is important to inspect the mechanical damage
and assess the extent of the repair work. But in schedule maintenance it is a difficult to
finding the defects rapidly, as the maintenance of aircraft must be accomplished within
scheduled time and same to be released in time for commercial operation.

During aircraft maintenance ‘NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT) is the most

economical way of performing inspection and this is the only way of discovering
defects. In simply we can say, NDT can detect cracks or any other irregularities in the
airframe structure and engine components which are obviously not visible to the naked
eye. Structures & different assemblies of aircraft are made from various materials, such
as aluminum alloy, steel, titanium and composite materials. To dismantle the aircraft
pieces and then examine each component would take a long time, so the NDT method
and equipment selection must be fast and effective.

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In the present trend of NDT application on aircraft 70 – 80% of NDT is performed on

the airframe, structure, landing gears and the rest carried out on engine & related
components. In order to maintain the aircraft defects free and ensure a high degree of
quality & reliability and as a part of inspection programme, usually following NDT
methods are applied;

 Magnetic particle inspection

 Ultra sound test
 Dye penetrant test
 Coin tap test

Fig 2

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle testing is a sensitive method of non destructive testing for surface
discontinuation in ‘Ferro-magnetic‘ materials.

The testing method is based on the principle that magnetic flux in a magnetized object
is locally distorted by the presence of discontinuity. This distortion causes some of the
magnetic field to exit & re-enter the test object at the discontinuity. This phenomenon is
called magnetic flux leakage. Flux leakage is capable of attracting finely divided
particles of magnetic materials that in turn form an ‘indication’ of discontinuity.
Therefore the test basically consists of three operations: a) Establish a suitable magnetic
flux in the test object by circular or longitudinal magnetization. b) Apply magnetic
particles in dry powder of a liquid suspension; and c) Examine the test object under
suitable lighting conditions for interpreting & evaluating the indications.

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Fluorescent or black oxide particles in the aerosol cans are used during critical areas of
aircraft structure/components inspection when using either permanent or
electromagnets. Fluorescent particles inspection method is evaluated by black light
(Black light consists of a 100 watt mercury vapor projection spot lamp equipped with a
filter to transmit wave length between 3200 to 3800 angstrom unit and absorb
substantially all visible white light).

Fig 3

Test procedure

 Part is cleaned of oil and other containments.

 Necessary calculations done to know the amount of current required to
magnetize the part.
 The magnetizing pulse is applied for 5 seconds during which the operator
washes the part with the particle, stopping before the magnetic pulse is
completed. Failure to stop prior to end of the magnetic pulse will wash away
indications.
 UV light is applied the operator looks for indications of defects that are 0 to +/-45
degrees from path the current flowed through the part.
 The part is either accepted or rejected based on pre-defined accept and reject
criteria.
 The part is demagnetized

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 Depending on requirements the orientation of the magnetic field may need to be

changed 90 degrees to inspect for defects that cannot be detected from step 3 to 5.
The most common way is change magnetic field orientation is to a use coil shot.

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

 Simplicity of operation and application.

 Quantitative
 Can be automated, apart from viewing

Disadvantages of Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

 Restricted to ferromagnetic materials.

 Restricted to surface or near surface flaws.
 Not fail safe in that lack of indication could mean no defects or process not
carried out properly.

Safety precautions

 To prevent injury to eyes, do not look directly into black light

 Prolonged direct exposure of hands to the filtered black light’s main beam may
be harmful. Suitable gloves shall be worn when exposing hands to the main
beam.
 Black lights generate considerable heat during use. Extreme care must be
exercised to prevent contacting the housing with any part of the body.

Ultrasound Test

Sound with a frequency above the limit of audibility is called ‘ultrasonic’. It ranges with
a frequency of 0.2MHz to 800MHz. Ultrasonic inspection provider a sensitive method of
non destructive testing in most materials, metallic, non metallic, magnetic or non
magnetic. It permits the detection of small flaws with only single surface accessibility of
the defect providing both surfaces are parallel, ultrasonic may be used for thickness
measurement, where only one surface is accessible. The effective result of an ultrasonic
test is heavily dependent on subject surface condition, grain size & direction and
acoustic impedance. Ultrasonic techniques are very widely used for the detection of
internal defects in materials.

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Ultrasonic inspection operates on the principle of ‘transmitted’ and ‘reflected’ sound

wave. Sound has a constant velocity in a given substance; therefore, a change in the
acoustical impedance of the material causes a change in the sound velocity at that point
producing an echo. The distance of the acoustical impedance (flaw) can be determined
if the velocity of the sound in the test material, and the time taken for the sound to reach
and return from the flaw is known. Ultrasonic inspection is usually performed with two
techniques (i) reflection (pulse echo) technique (ii) Through Transmission technique.
‘Pulse echo’ technique is most widely used in aircraft maintenance inspection.

Fig 4

Advantages of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

 Thickness and lengths up to 30 ft can be tested

 Position, size and type of defect can be determined
 Instant test result
 Portable
 Extremely sensitive if required
 Capable of being fully automated
 Access only to onside necessary
 No consumables

Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

 No permanent record available unless one of the more sophisticated test result
and data collection system is used.

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 The operator can decide whether the test piece is defective or not whilst the test
is in progress.
 Indications require interpretation (except for digital wall thickness gauges).
 Considerable degree of skill necessary to obtain the fullest information from the
test.

Dye Penetrant Test

This method is frequently used for the detection of surface breaking flaws in non-
ferromagnetic materials. The subject to be examined is first of all chemicals cleaned,
usually by vapour phase, to remove all traces of foreign material, grease, dirt, etc. from
the surface generally, and also from within the cracks.

Next the penetrant (which is very fine oil usually dyed bright red or ultra-violet
fluorescent) is applied and allowed to remain in contact with the surface for
approximately fifteen minutes. Capillary action draws the penetrant into the crack
during this period. The surplus penetrant on the surface is then removed completely
and thin coating of powdered chalk is applied.

After a further period (development time) the chalk draws the dye out of the crack,
rather like blotting paper, to form a visual, magnified in width, indication in good
contrast to the background. The process is purely a mechanical/chemical one and the
various substances used may be applied in a large variety of ways, from aerosol spray
cans at the most simple end to dipping in large tanks on an automatic basis at the other
end. The latter system requires sophisticated tanks, spraying and dying equipment but
the principle remains the same.

Test Procedure

 Pre-cleaning
 Application of penetrant
 Excess penetrant removal
 Application of developer
 Inspection
 Post cleaning

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Fig 5

Advantages of Dye Penetrant Testing

 Simplicity of operation.
 Best method for surface breaking cracks in non-ferrous metals.
 Suitable for automatic testing, with reservation concerning viewing.
 Quantitative.

Disadvantages of Dye Penetrant Testing

 Restricted to surface breaking defects only.

 Decreased sensitivity.
 Uses a considerable amount of consumables.

Coin Tap Test

Vibration techniques for non-destructive testing have been used for hundreds,
probably thousands, of years, yet the subject is still in its infancy. A standard

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technique for testing earthenware cooking pots has always been to tap them and
listen to the ring. A good pot will produce a sustained, clear not while a cracked pot
will sound ‘dead’. The same technique is used in the crystal glass industry. The
railway wheel tapper used to walk along the train trapping each wheel in turn.
Again, cracked wheels did not ring for as long as good ones.

A superficially very similar technique is regularly used for testing laminated

structures such as bonded panels. This is the coin tap test which involves tapping
each part of the panel with a coin. Again a defective area sounds ‘dead’. Defects
such as adhesive disbonds, delaminations in composite materials and defective
honey comb construction can be detected by a skilled operator. Disadvantage of coin
tap test is that it is not suitable for the detection of transverse cracks (i.e., cracks
running normal to the surface which is tapped). Another disadvantage is that coin
tap test is a local test which will only detect defects at the location of the tap.
Therefore if the whole structure is to be tested, each part of it must be tapped and
the test is much more time-consuming.

TYPES OF CORROSION
Corrosion is the disintegration of an engineered material into its constituent atoms
due to chemical reactions with its surroundings. In the most common use of the word,
this means electrochemical oxidation of metals in reaction with an oxidant such as
oxygen. Formation of an oxide of iron due to oxidation of the iron atoms in solid
solution is as well-known example of electrochemical corrosion commonly known as
rusting. Corrosion can also refer to other materials than metals, such as ceramics or
polymers, although in this context, the term degradation is more common. Many
structural alloys corrode merely from exposure to moisture in the air, but the process
can be strongly affected by exposure to certain substances. Corrosion can be
concentrated locally to form a pit or crack, or it can extend across a wide area more or
less uniformly corroding surface. Because corrosion is a diffusion controlled process,
it occurs on exposed surfaces. There are many types of corrosion some of them are

 Stress Corrosion
 Microbial Corrosion

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 Galvanic Corrosion

Fig 6

Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion also called dissimilar metal corrosion or wrongly electrolysis refers
to corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive
electrolyte. When galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple become the
anode and corrode faster than it would all by itself, while the other becomes the cathode
and corrodes slower than it would alone. For galvanic corrosion to occur, three
conditions must be present:

1) Electrochemically dissimilar metals must be present

2) These metals must be in electrical contact, and
3) The metals must be exposed to an electrolyte

The relative nobility of a material can be predicted by measuring its corrosion

potential. The well known galvanic series lists the relative nobility of certain materials
in sea water. A small anode/cathode area ratio is highly undesirable. In this case, the
galvanic current is concentrated onto a small anodic area. Rapid thickness loss of the
dissolving anode tends to occur under these conditions. Galvanic corrosion problems
should be solved by designing to avoid these problems in the first place. Galvanic
corrosion cells can be set up on the macroscopic level or microscopic level. On the micro
structural level, different phases or other micro structural features can be subject to
galvanic currents.

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Fig 7

Methods to control galvanic corrosion

 Select combinations of metals which will be in electrical contact from groups as

close together as possible in the galvanic series.
 Electrically insulate from each other metals from different groups, wherever
practical. If complete insulation cannot be achieved, paint or plastic coating at
joints will help
 If you must use dissimilar materials well apart in the series, avoid joining them
by threaded connections as the threads will probably deteriorate excessively.
Brazed or thermal joints are preferred, using a brazing alloy more noble than at
least one of the metals to be joined.
 Avoid making combinations where the area of the less noble, anodic metal is
relatively small compared with the area of the more noble metal.
 Apply coatings with judgment. Example: Do not paint the less noble metal
without also painting the moiré noble; otherwise, greatly accelerated attack may
be concentrated at imperfections in coatings on the less noble metal. Keep such
coatings in good repair.
 Consider use of cathodic protection.

Microbial Corrosion

Microbial corrosion also called microbiologically-influenced corrosion or MIC is

corrosion that is caused by the presence and activities of microbes. This corrosion can
take many forms and can be controlled by biocides or by conventional corrosion control
methods. There are a number of mechanisms associated with this form of corrosion.
Most MIC takes the form of pits that form underneath colonies of living organic matter
and mineral and biodeposits. This biofilms creates a protective environment where
conditions can become quite corrosive and corrosion is accelerated. The picture below

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shows a biofilm on a metallic condenser surface. These biofilms can allow corrosive
chemicals to collect within and under the films. Thus the corrosive conditions under a
biofilm can be very aggressive, even in locations where the bulk environment is
noncorrosive. Various corrosion inhibitors can be used to combat microbial corrosion.

Fig 8

MIC can be a serious problem in stagnant water systems such as the fire protection
system that produced the pits shown above. The use of biocides and mechanical
cleaning methods can reduce MIC, but anywhere where stagnant water is likely to
collect is a location where MIC can occur. Corrosion can only occur if some other
chemical is present to be reduced. In most environments, the chemical that is reduced is
either dissolved oxygen or hydrogen ions in acids. In anaerobic conditions, some
bacteria (anaerobic bacteria) can thrive. These bacteria can provide the reducible
chemicals that allow corrosion to occur.

Much microbial corrosion involves anaerobic or stagnant conditions, but it can also be
found on structures exposed to air. Microbial corrosion can also apply to plastics,
concrete, and many other materials. Two examples are Nylon-eating bacteria and
plastic-eating bacteria. Microbial corrosion can only be detected by an internal

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inspection of the tanks surfaces. A fuel sample will indicate the presence of microbes
and therefore the possibility of corrosion.

Methods to control microbial corrosion

Microbiologically influenced corrosion, or microbial corrosion or biological corrosion

can be prevented through a number of methods:

 Regular mechanical cleaning if possible

 Chemical treatment with biocides to control the population of bacteria
 Complete drainage and dry storage

Stress Corrosion

Stress corrosion may occur as a result of steady tensile loadings on metals in a

corrosive environment. This results in a breakdown of the anticorrosive treatment film
and subsequent corrosion attack. This weakening due to the corrosion causes stress
cracks in the metal. Corrosion pits are almost certain to result in cracking and failure.
The stress in the metal may also be caused by incorrect quenching after solution heat
treatment or by a fastener which is pressed into place. Since stress corrosion only
occurs in the presence of tensile stress it can be prevented in some heat treated
aluminum alloy parts by shot peening the surface to provide a uniformly compressive
stress in the surface. The stresses must be overcome by tensile forces before stress
corrosion can occur. Similarly fastener holes are often subjected to a work process to
place the surface of the hole in compression.

The combined effect of stress and corrosion can result in a special type of failure
known as Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC). This arises under a particular set of
circumstances for a given alloy: specific alloy condition plus specific corrosive media
and sufficient local tensile stress.

Fig 9

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Stress corrosion cracking results from the conjoint action of three components: 1) a
susceptible material; 2) a specific chemical species (environment) and 3) tensile stress.
For example, copper and its alloys are susceptible to ammonia compounds, mild steels
are susceptible to alkalis and stainless steels are susceptible to chlorides. The two
classic cases of stress corrosion are season cracking of brass and caustic embrittlement
of steel. Season cracking refers to the stress corrosion cracking failure of brass cartridge
cases.

Methods to Control Stress Corrosion

Stress corrosion cracking can be prevented through:

 Control of stress level (residual or load) and hardness.

 Avoid the chemical species that causes Stress Corrosion Cracking.
 Use of materials known not to crack in the specified environment.
 Control temperature and or potential.

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CONCLUSION
Doing this assignment I clearly understood what NDT is and also learned
about different types of corrosion, their cause and also the composites used
in B777.

In the end, I would just like to say that including the information in the
assignment there is still more information and details relating each topics
which is important to know in order to learn in more depths of the topics.

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REFERENCE
http://mae.ucdavis.edu/vlasaponara/boeing777_article.pdf

http://books.google.ae/books?
id=MM0sbR8skUwC&pg=PA151&dq=coin+tap+test&hl=en&cd=1#

http://www.turkndt.org/sub/makale/ornek/a%20brief%20description%20of
%20NDT.pdf

http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Forms-galvanic/galvanic-corrosion.htm
http://corrosion.ksc.nasa.gov/microbial.htm

http://www.corrosionclinic.com/types_of_corrosion/stress_corrosion_cracking.htm

http://www.azom.com/details.asp?articleid=102

http://www.swcomposites.com/Papers/777EmpCert.pdf

materials engineering text book

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