How to capture tacit knowledge?

Pentti Nikkanen Jouko Kantola

Adjunct professor Ph.D., Lecturer

University of Jyväskylä.
Institute for Educational Research and Department of Teacher Education

Abstract
Amongst researchers tacit knowledge is argued to be difficult to imitate, to
substitute, to transfer, etc. Although research information concerning tacit
knowledge is cumulating all the time, there is but little empirical research evidence
to support the already manifested theoretical propositions. Since Polanyi’s theory
we have not been able to operationalise the concept of tacit knowledge and measure
it. The present study started with literature surveys on the theoretical
conceptualisation and definition of ”tacit knowledge”. After these surveys further
information was collected through literature and experienced experts from various
occupational fields, in the form of concrete task descriptions considered to involve
utilisation of tacit knowledge. The descriptions concerned mostly technological
fields. In this connection also some methods were explored by means of which tacit
knowledge could be explicated. The descriptions were discussed not only with the
expert informant concerned but also with researchers and other experts. A primary
purpose of the study was to find information that would serve especially teachers
and students involved in technology education. Accordingly, the idea was to "open
up”, through expert interpretations, some aspects of tacit knowledge in association
with the activities concerned in the task descriptions. The aim was thus to make the
previously invisible, hidden knowledge more visible by various means as well as to
deepen the interpretation and understanding of tacit knowledge.
Keywords: tacit knowledge, dialogue, intuition, expertise.

1 Introduction

1.1 Widely valued tacit knowledge

The discourse on tacit knowledge initiated by Polanyi (1958) has gained notable
momentum in recent years. A key reason for its resurgence has been a mounting
interest in this area in the field of business economics and the business world in
general. Tacit knowledge is generally approached in literature within the framework of
corporate strategy and sustainable competitive advantage as being the most important
corporate resource for improving company performance (e.g. Lubit 2001; Nonaka 1991
and 1994). As numerous studies have shown, the vast majority of core resources
needed by a company can be purchased. However, researchers are also largely
unanimous in their view that the most important resource of all, tacit knowledge,
cannot be easily converted, imitated, copied, replaced, transferred or renewed (see e.g.

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Ambrosini & Bowman 2001; Nonaka 1991; Sobol & Lei 1994). Wilson (2002, 37) goes
further to state that “tacit knowledge cannot be captured“. Sobol and Lei (1994),
among others, state that knowledge and, in particular, tacit knowledge is one of the
most vital resources a company can possess. In general, tacit knowledge and fast
information processing will gain emphasis, because ”in today's society orientation is
based on short-term information and the temporal dimension of the grounds for
decision-making is diminishing” (Nurminen 2000).
Tacit knowledge is indeed widely valued as a unique and irreplaceable resource
in the work communities of companies and other organisations. The challenges and
demands externally imposed on enterprises and organisations today mean that success
can no longer rely solely on the ability of individual members of work communities to
learn and develop independently. Nowadays, communal or “collaborative” learning,
i.e. learning to learn from each other, is also needed. The essential aim is for work
communities to learn to share the expert knowledge they acquire equally among
themselves, so that all knowledge becomes common knowledge or a “shared vision”.
Through learning together and collaborating, the members of a work community can
improve their ability to influence their own future (See Nikkanen 2001, 63). The
objective of this study was to identify means of making implicit, hidden knowledge
more visible and to attempt to deepen the interpretation and understanding of tacit
knowledge.

1.2 Tacit knowledge defined

The essence of tacit knowledge encapsulated by Polanyi is in his phrase: ”We know
more than we can tell” (Polanyi 1966, 4; 1976, 336). Many researchers refer to Polanyi
(1958), who was the first to use the concept ”tacit knowledge”. An individual has got
tacit knowledge (Polanyi 1969, 144). According to Wilson (2002) tacit knowledge is
hidden knowledge even from the consciousness of the knower and it involves the
process of comprehension. Tacit knowledge is an inexpressible process (Wilson 2002,
37). According to Polanyi (1969), all knowledge is tacit knowledge or is based on tacit
knowledge. In using the term ’tacit knowing’, Polanyi emphasised the process of
knowing as distinct from knowledge itself. Tacit knowledge and skill are difficult to
express verbally because they are, according to Polanyi, rooted in feelings (see also
Choo 1998). Personal, unarticulated tacit knowledge is characteristic of the activities of
the expert. “Tacit knowledge is the immediate comprehension of something and of how
to act“ (Polanyi 1983).
Sobol and Lei (1994) approach the definition of tacit knowledge by first defining
objective knowledge: objective knowledge can be communicated from its owner to a
third party in symbolic form, can be easily written down, explained, understood and
shared with others through dialogue. In defining objective knowledge we can show
what tacit knowledge is not (see also Ambrosini & Bowman 2001). According to
Koivunen’s (1997, 78 - 79) definition tacit knowledge includes “all genetic, bodily,

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intuitive, mythical, archetypal, and experiential knowledge the individual ever has,
even though it cannot be expressed by means of verbal concepts“. According to Choon
(1998, 260), tacit knowledge is permanently bound up in peoples’ actions, ways of doing
things, routines, ideals, values and emotions. It consists, therefore, of highly personal
knowledge that is difficult to communicate and to share, i.e. difficult to explicate (see
also Lubit 2001, 166). Luukkainen (2000, 79 - 81) uses the concept “silent expertise“ in
reference to work skills that are manifested as practical and functional knowledge and
that form an integral part of the overall skill of the task, but are not necessarily
conscious. Other terms used to describe the concept of tacit knowledge include, e.g.
’wordless knowledge’, ’hidden knowledge’, ‘latent knowledge’, ’unexpressed knowledge’,
’unconscious knowledge’, ’bodily knowledge’, ’practical wisdom’ and ‘doer’s know-how’. A
definition of tacit knowledge common in literature is knowledge that one cannot or does
not wish to express in words, which is difficult to verbalise or which can be verbalised only in
part. Tacit knowledge is knowledge that we possess without realising it and which, as
soon as we become aware of it, becomes increasingly difficult to comprehend in terms
of what it is and how we came to know it (LaFemina 2002).
”In general, people from the same tradition and culture have more tacit knowledge
in common than have people from different traditions. Tradition, profession, and
organisational belongings all carry their own assumptions, and experiences – i.e. the
personal – are, the better from a knowledge sharing perspective.” (Stenmark 2002.)
According to e.g. Stenmark (2002), Tsoukas (1996) and Wilson (2002) many researchers
after Polanyi have based their research work on Polanyi’s theory but, nevertheless, some
of them ”use Polanyi’s term somewhat differently from what did Polanyi himself”.
Among others, Stenmark (2002) has given critic by stating that “there had perhaps been
less of confusion had Nonaka (1994) used the term implicit knowledge instead of tacit
knowledge (See also Wilson 2002). Wilson (2002) states that implicit knowledge is
expressible: tacit knowledge is not. Stenmark (2002) shares Polanyi’s opinion when
writing that “knowledge, which gives meaning to words and texts, is always tacit”. In
addition, he asks his reader: “What is the phrase ‘explicit knowledge’, then, supposed
to mean?” His own answer is that “explicit knowledge – there is no such thing”.

1.3 Personal knowledge, tacit knowledge and intuition

Intuition can be defined as knowledge attained without rational thought. According to

Anttila (2005a, 14), knowledge is said to be intuitive if it is independent of rational
thought and concepts and is impulsive. It is an internal perception that materialises in
the mind of the individual through convergent and/or divergent thought. The
individual is unable to trace the process of intuitive thought. Intuition is anticipatory
and subconscious cognition. It is often referred to as ”the sixth sense”, ”instinct” or
simply ”gut feeling”. Personal intuition can be consciously exploited: people leave an
unsolved problem to “simmer” over night, often with the end result that they awake in
the morning with a ready solution in mind. In this case, where the individual

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subconsciously processes the knowledge they have acquired, conjecture plays no part in
the intuition process. Nurminen (2000) defines this phenomenon as follows:

“Tacit knowledge and intuition enable an understanding of fundamental knowledge...This

understanding is generated in the individual as an inner feeling that is acquired through
respectful human encounters. Intuition brings tacit knowledge into a conscious awareness
in which objective scientific knowledge, practical knowledge, empirical knowledge and the
many forms of published information are combined. Empirical knowledge as a part of tacit
knowledge develops as professional expertise and life experience and is shaped through
temporal, social and cultural interaction.”

One characteristic of tacit knowledge is that it is individual, personal knowledge.

According to Bird (1994), the individual acquires tacit knowledge through intuition,
contemplation and feelings. In a similar way to Polanyi, Sveiby emphasises the view
that people constantly are “knowing”. We combine tacit knowledge with core
knowledge every second of our lives. This capacity to connect old, familiar knowledge
with new unanticipated knowledge is a fundamental human ability and one that is
essential to our survival in this world (see Sveiby 1997). Tacit knowledge consists of
mental models that a person uses in certain situations. The mental models are deep-
seated assumptions, generalisations, or images, which have to do with the way we
understand the world and how we behave (Senge 1990, 8-9, 174-204; cf. cognitive
schemata, representation, von Wright 1981, 27; see also Nikkanen 1986, 35). ”Mental
models help us to make sense of the masses of data we are faced with, to extract those
parts which are relevant, to formulate an understanding of problems, and to find
solutions” (Lubit 2001, 166). People tend to take their basic assumptions for granted
and, precisely for this reason, find it difficult to either express them or to question them.
It is clear, however, that intuition enables us to comprehend others (see Anttila 2005a, 14
- 15).
According to Lubit (2001, 166), tacit knowledge is acquired unconsciously via
experiences that the individual receives when immersed in a given environment. Lubit
describes how tacit knowledge develops when the learner’s unconscious, inductive
(transformed from individual knowledge to group knowledge) mental processes create
a representation of the structure of the environment, a so-called “mental model”, which
shows relationships between important variables. From the point of view of the creation
of tacit knowledge it is important that the individual receives significant, meaningful
experiences of operating within a context that supports their actions. For example,
according to Tasala (2006, 92) in many professions sensory perceptions and feelings are
an essential part of the working process and tacit knowledge plays a fundamental role
in the performance experts in all fields. This view is supported by both Stenmark (2002)
and Schön (1983, 49) who state that “our knowledge is in our actions“. According to
Schön, our knowledge is usually tacit knowledge, indirectly included in our actions and
our impressions of the target of our actions. ”Our knowledge is in our actions” (Schön
1983, 49).

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1.4 Tacit knowledge in a work community

Although individual learning is always important, “individual learning does not

guarantee organisational learning. But – without it no organisational learning occurs”
(Argyris & Schön 1978, 20; See Senge 1990, 139). Kim (1993, 68) noticed that
organisations can learn only through its members, but it is not dependent on any
specific member. Individuals, however, can learn without the organisation. Espejo,
Schuhman, Schwaninger and Bilello (1997, 190) stated that “crucial to organisational
learning is the transformation of individual learning into organisational learning”.
When individual mental models change into shared mental models of the work
community, single-loop learning changes into double-loop learning and thus the
individual learning cycle changes into an organisational learning cycle. (See Kim 1993;
Nikkanen 2001, 55 - 76.) “Shared mental models, therefore, are those that have been
internalised by many of the organisational members into a Weltanschauung (world
view) that informs their view of the world and organisational routines that are
consistent with that view” (See Kim 1993, 120).
Tacit knowledge can also be collectively possessed by a work community. Through
effective dialogue, members of the work community can achieve a common
understanding of a given issue. The source of the work community’s tacit knowledge is
the basic, deeply held assumptions within the organisational culture that are taken for
granted and, as such, are not questioned.

1.5 Some means to explicate tacit knowledge

A literature review gives different ways to explicate tacit knowledge. Some means like
e.g. metaphor, moving picture (videotape), dialogue, task description, reading and
writing, acting and exercise, guidance related to on-the-job learning, tutoring and
mentoring, anticipation, analogies, narratives and drawing are listed in Table 1 with
definitions and/or descriptions.
Metaphors such as drilling, mining and harvesting are used to describe how
knowledge is being managed (Stenmark 2002). Koskinen, Pihlanto, and Vanharanta
(2003) state, “…often the only ways of presenting tacit knowledge are through
metaphors”. Learning of various manual skills can be enhanced by means of videos,
since a video recording of certain motoric components that cannot be conceptualised
may reveal the tricky parts of skilful performances (see also Suonperä & Kari 1980a,b;
Suonperä 1982).

Table 1. Some means to explicate tacit knowledge

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 Means of Definition / description References
explication
Metaphor * Is a figure of speech, image. Ortony 1975; Stenmark 2002;
Koskinen, K., Pihlanto, P. &
Vanharanta, H. 2003
* ”Involves, or is, the transfer of Tsoukas 1991
meaning”; Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995
* It involves the transfer of information
from a relatively familiar domain to a
relatively unknown domain. Making an
individual's knowledge available to the
whole work community
Videotape, * An effective way to teach a skill and http://www.tkukoulu.fi/handmade
Animated images analyse the performance http://www.kaspaikka.fi/
Dialogue * “Dialogue means articulating and Stenmark 2002
Task description in making tacit understanding explicit”. Nonaka & Konno 1998;
written form + * Conscious development of discussion Nikkanen 1992; 2001
dialogue culture
Reading, Writing * Learning by reading relevant literature.
Acting, exercising, * ”Acting/exercising is the best way of Tasala 2006; Koskinen, Pihlanto &
learning tacit knowledge.” Vanharanta 2003
* Tacit knowing-in-action Anttila 2005b, 57; Schön 1983, 49)
Workplace * Related to on-the-job learning Tynjälä, P., Nikkanen, P., Volanen,
instruction, * an apprentice learns from the master M. V. & Valkonen, S. 2005.
Apprentice-master * Learning by model Koivunen 1997; Tuomi, J., Wallin, O.
setting, & Äimälä, A-M. 2005
Tutoring, Mentoring Nikkanen & Mehtäläinen 1983
Analogies * Finding similarities, making Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995
comparisons Vaahtio, E.-L. 2004
Narratives * Sharing narratives i.e. knowledge that is Stenmark 2002
tacitly understood within own Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995
community
Drawing, art * ”…artistic activity, relies largely on Anttila 2005a
intuition in the interaction between the Koskinen, Pihlanto & Vanharanta
individual and the community.” 2003

The results of the study by Koskinen, Pihlanto and Vanharanta (2003, 1, 285 – 289)
“suggest that the situations, where the members of a project team can interact face-to-
face with each other, reinforces tacit knowledge sharing.” Sharing knowledge by e.g.
narratives happens best in learning work companies which can be characterised by all-
win conversation culture, listening and helping of each other, freedom, openness and
transparency, flat in hierarchical terms and an encouraging atmosphere (See e.g.
Nikkanen 1992; 2001, 62). Also used language, mutual trust and proximity are factors
which affect the grade of tacit knowledge utilisation in project work. Approaching tacit
knowledge through literature is problematic in the sense that there are no specific
concepts for all aspects of human performance, neither can these aspects always be

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described by means of familiar concepts. Action and practise help a person in acquiring
knowledge by experiences.

1.6 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was twofold: to identify means of making tacit, unseen
knowledge more visible, and to deepen the interpretation and understanding of tacit
knowledge. The goal was to understand how the tacit knowledge of experts can be
transferred to novices.

The core questions investigated by the study were:

1. How can tacit knowledge be explicated?
2. What methods can be used to facilitate the explication of tacit knowledge?

2 Methods

The present study builds on qualitative research orientation so as to gain insight into
tacit knowledge. The research orientation and the researcher's position in this
endeavour were defined in terms of a four-way model presented by Anttila (2005b, 54 –
62). The particular section chosen from the model is called subjective-theoretical, and it
accommodates interpretative methods, which aim at making sense of things and
establishing their meanings. The underlying scientific view arises from hermeneutic
phenomenology.
Answers to these questions were sought with the help of a series of task
descriptions written by nominated experts representing different professions. The task
descriptions were applied on the basis of a theoretical framework drawn up for the
study. The chosen experts were non-randomly selected by the researchers to provide a
description of a task related to their field. The idea for two of the task descriptions was
taken from literature. Half of the task descriptions also included a video presentation
which helped the experts and researchers to focus group discussions and to identify key
points for examination. The task descriptions, the number of experts interviewed per
description and the fields to which the tasks are related are shown in Table 2.
The researchers selected from a numerous range of task descriptions nine
examples, which they estimated to be sufficiently concrete, clear-cut and discussion
inspiring, for further examination. These chosen descriptions were used as the material
for group discussions, dialogue and interviews with the experts in an attempt to deepen
the interpretation and understanding of tacit knowledge. The method used in data
collection was expert interview (e.g. Flick 1998, 91–93).

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Table 2. Task descriptions

Task description Experts Occupational field

interviewed (n)
a) Wooden ball turning (+ video presentation) 4 • technical work
• carpentry
b) Carving a rococo clock (+ video presentation) 4 • technical work
• carpentry
c) A surgeon as a carpenter's mate 4 • house building
d) Coiling a bandsaw blade 4 • carpentry
(+ video presentation)
e) Tapping a hammer head tighter on to its shaft and 3 • house building
“jiggling” the hammer for optimal grip (Bouncing the • smithery
hammer)
f) Arc welding (+ video presentation) 3 • technical work
• metal work
g) Hardening of steel (+ video presentation) 3 • technical work
• metal work
h) Knitting 3 • textile work
• clothing
i) Specialised work routine of a wall installation 4 • furniture
crew manufacturing
• house building

The nine expert interviewees (2 women, 7 men) constituted a selected sample.

Their ages ranged from 27 to 61 years. The research data consisted of interview and
discussion memos. Complementary information was gathered through further
discussions with the interviewees where necessary. The concise set of interview data
was analysed by means of qualitative categorisation. In the following, each of the
chosen task descriptions are presented in the same written form as they were given to
the nine expert interviewees:

a) Wooden ball turning. The choice of wood raw material for turning depends on the
end use of the finished piece. The lathe settings, such as rotation speed and the height
and distance of the tool rest in relation to the workpiece, must be correct. The correct
choice of tools and tool sharpening are also essential for successful turning. A gouge is
usually used for initial rounding over of the workpiece. A flat chisel gives the best
finish. Work the surface of the ball with a flat chisel or gouge so that the blade edge
follows the desired form.
b) Carving a rococo clock. When carving a rococo clock, the skilled woodcarver
changes tools frequently. This is an integral aspect of the skill of the decorative
woodcarver. The woodcarver is also familiar with the different properties and working
methods of different wood species, their suitability for different applications, the correct
tools to use, the right way to handle the tools and the workpiece and how to finish the
piece. In addition to technical skill, the woodcarver must be knowledgeable about
different decorative styles and furniture styles.

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c) A surgeon in the role of joiner's assistant. A surgeon hired a joiner to install a
wooden boarded floor at his summerhouse. The surgeon had no prior experience of
laying a floor, but through his own profession was familiar with using different tools
flexibly in response to changing conditions. The surgeon was therefore able to assist the
joiner surprisingly well in handing him the tools he needed during the different stages
of the job.
d) Coiling a bandsaw blade. Here the skill described involves coiling up a band saw
blade for storage and transportation purposes. When coiled correctly, the 4–5 metre
long blade coils down neatly into three concentric loops, each around 50 cm in
diameter. Coiling is typically carried out so that the handler grips the open blade in
front of them and bends it over to form a loop, while keeping the bottom of the blade
firmly pinned to the floor with their foot. Next, the handler pushes the blade
downwards while turning it, so that the top loop of the open coil turns towards the
handler. From this position the handler carefully lowers the open coil to the floor, upon
which the blade slips into a closed coil on its own accord. The procedure is difficult to
explain.
e) Tapping a hammer head tighter onto its shaft and “jiggling” the hammer for
optimal grip. ”I was about to hammer flat some steel wire while two students stood
observing the procedure. I instinctively tapped the base of the hammer shaft on the
anvil to tighten the join between the shaft and the head. The students immediately
asked me why I did it.”
f) Arc welding. The certified proficiency levels for arc welding are strictly defined, with
qualification requiring passing of a practical examination. Relatively few people are
capable of carrying out the most demanding welding due to the specific skills the work
requires, including the ability to concentrate and high eye/hand coordination and
steadiness of hand when manoeuvring the rod. Master welders have their own
characteristic working style or “signature“ by which the welder’s work can often be
identified. However, welders find it difficult to explain this welding style to others.
g) Hardening of steel. The hardening and tempering of steel has long been an essential
art of the blacksmith. The precise temperature required to achieve the correct hardening
is based on the smith’s experience. As highly valued and guarded knowledge, the
technique was in the past often shrouded in secrecy and mysticism. Hardening of steel
essentially involves a process of heating and cooling. The same applies to the tempering
stage, during which the hardened steel is heat-treated at a lower temperature to
increase the toughness of the metal (see Kantola, 1978, 407).
h) Knitting. Knitting is a needlework technique performed either manually using yarn
and knitting needles, or automatically or semi-automatically using a knitting machine.
Basic plain knitting is a three-step process. In the first step, the right-hand knitting
needle is taken through the stitch and the yarn is taken onto the needles. In the second
step, the yarn is drawn through the stitch. In the third step, the old stitch is released
from the left-hand needle and the new stitch made on the right-hand needle is
tightened as necessary.

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i) Specialised work routine of a wall installation crew. The crew usually works closely
with a crane operator. The crane operator typically raises the entire wall element to
within reach of the installation crew with no direct view of the point of installation itself
– the entire procedure is carried out on the basis of hand signals given by one of the
crew members. The other crew members station themselves appropriately, each
equipped with the right tools needed to perform the task of guiding the element into
position and fitting it in place.

3 RESULTS

3.1 Verbal explication of experts’ tacit knowledge

The interviews and discussions clearly supported Schön's (1983, 49) notion: ”a
practitioner’s tacit knowledge is always richer in information than any description of it,
and his/her knowledge is implicitly found in the patterns of his/her actions”. The range
of concepts used in the dialogue of an expert is likely to be richer and the relationships
between concepts clearer than in the dialogue of a novice. These factors provided the
basis for the selection of experts to provide task descriptions and to be interviewed for
this study. In the following, each of the task descriptions is analysed on the basis of the
experts' interpretations:

a) Wooden ball turning. The ability to create a wooden sphere or, even more
demanding, a series of absolutely identical spheres by woodturning is a skill that takes
a long time to acquire. Some people never pick it up in spite of their best efforts. At one
time, qualification as a master woodturner in Finland required the ability to turn
wooden billiard balls, which were measured and placed on a levelled glass plate to
assess their roundness.

“When turning a spherical surface, the correct positioning of the flat chisel during the
finishing phase is the most essential skill and also the most difficult to master.”

“The wrong cutting angle results in a bad job – while a true angle gives a faultless,
immaculate finish.”

“The right angle of contact must be chosen between the chisel and the workpiece. There’s
only one correct position, which is basically found through trial and error.”

“For example, the amount of force applied by the turner in different situations is based on a
certain “gut instinct“ which he/she receives as a kind of kinaesthetic memory linked feeling
between the workpiece and the chisel blade. If the tool is blunt more force has to be applied,
so the master craftsman never works with blunt tools.”

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 In precision work, such as producing a billiard ball, the shape and dimensions of
the workpiece must also comply with the design specifications. The work involves
numerous stages, each of which entails situational cues that are provided through
intuition and tacit knowledge.

“The expert can visualise the end result – something the novice, being insufficiently
experienced to be able to deal with unanticipated events, is not yet capable of.”

b) Carving a rococo clock. The master woodcarver does not need to stop to consider
which tool to use next, rather the selection is made on the basis of the desired form at
the point of carving. In fact, it would be difficult for the woodcarver to attempt to
describe exactly what influences his choice of tool. According to Lempinen (1953, 254),
the tasks involved in carving a rococo clock are “so complex that any detailed
description of them would require an entire volume in itself.“

“When I’m carving my thoughts often wander, just as they often do when I’m driving.
When I re-focus on the carving, I notice that I’ve subconsciously switched chisels. I also
subconsciously register the direction of the wood grain, which affects the carving and the
piece’s susceptibility to splitting.”
c) Surgeon in the role of joiner's assistant. Tacit knowledge can also entail a so-called
transfer effect. In this case, the “experience of collaboration” with the surgeon, who is
accustomed through his own professional work to involving himself in a third party's
actions and co-ordinating his own actions accordingly, created “transferable know-how.“

“The surgeon was clearly familiar with the tools, even though he had seldom used them
before. He was, through his work, accustomed to situations that require cooperation.”

d) Coiling a bandsaw blade. In this example we return to Polanyi’s (1966, 4) aphorism

“We know more than we can tell”. It is highly improbable that any reader of the task
description would be able to execute the task straight off. University students have
considerable difficulties in performing the task correctly the first time round, even if the
procedure is demonstrated several times and in slow-motion.

“The observers should also be positioned behind the task demonstrator so that they can
view the procedure from the right direction and angle. Any observers stood in front of the
demonstrator would have to mentally invert the procedure in order to view it from the
demonstrator’s perspective, which would make learning process considerably more
difficult. Not everybody possesses sufficiently developed spatial abilities to be able to carry
out the task.”

Upon interviewing other individuals who had mastered this skill, it became
apparent that another alternative technique also exists. In comparison to the above

11
procedure this method seemed even more difficult to perform. The technique also
seemed to be more hazardous as the blade was allowed to slip freely into a coil after
bending it over.

“In reality, many routine tasks performed by experts appear in the “layman’s“ eyes to be
impressive or dangerous feats of skill. When an expert deciphers and interprets the skills of
a colleague, s/he is able to identify nuances and cues related to the operating situation
which the layperson is unable to pick up on.”

“It is difficult to provide written instructions or descriptions of the technique of coiling a

bandsaw. You can only learn it by experimenting. It’s rather like learning to ride a bike.
Once you’ve learned it, you never forget it.”

Nuances such as these are characteristically difficult explicate. Tacit knowledge

appears to be explicated best in cases where the concrete working methods of a
particular skilled activity are clearly visible to the observer. However, it does not follow
that simply witnessing a demonstration should enable the external observer to carry out
the activity directly him/herself. This is because mastering a skill often requires an
extensive period of practice or experience.

e) Tapping a hammer head tighter onto its shaft and “jiggling” the hammer for
optimal grip. Whether hammering nails, the experienced worker always grips the
hammer at a certain point along its shaft to ensure delivery of a blow of optimal force.
Each time the worker picks up the tool, s/he jiggles the shaft in the hand in order to
achieve just the right grip on the shaft. In the example description, the hammer user
will have paid no heed to this routine action.

“I just felt I didn’t have a proper grip on the shaft.”

Measurements carried out on a test group showed the desired point of grip along
the shaft to fall within a range of variation of just a few millimetres. The tool handler is
unable to verbally describe why that particular point of grip was chosen. The
inexperienced user, on the other hand, typically holds the hammer too close to the head.

f) Arc welding. Arc welding is a demanding professional skill that requires familiarity
with the properties of the tools and materials used and mastery of welding techniques.

“When gauging the optimum arc distance when I’m welding, it feels like there’s a point of
contact between the base material and the rod, even though the two mustn’t touch. When
the arc is right I can see, but also hear, that the welding is going correctly.”

g) Hardening of steel. In the past, the skill and knowledge this work entails would have
been impossible to convey to an observer simply through demonstration. Whether the

12
skilled smith would have even been prepared to do so is questionable, as such trade
secrets would have been closely guarded. In the hands of the expert, the quenching or
cooling stage entails a technique of manoeuvring the piece in the relevant cooling
medium correctly, depending on whether water, oil, ash or air is used. The cooling
medium must also be maintained at just the right temperature in order to achieve the
desired result. The same applies to the tempering stage, during which the hardened
steel is specially heat-treated to increase its toughness (see Kantola, 1978, 407).
Nowadays, however, a variety of specialised temperature gauges can be used for
precise control of the temperatures needed for the heat-treatment of steels. Thus, a skill
that was long held in the form of tacit knowledge can nowadays be explicated.

h) Knitting. The knitting of plain knit stitches is the fundamental basis of the art of
knitting. Even though the process of plain knitting can be described in words, moving
images of the technique carried out in practice are far more enlightening than a verbal
description alone. Moreover, both techniques work best when combined.

i) Specialised work routine of a wall installation crew. Practical tacit knowledge also
occurs in teams or groups of people who work together to attain a common goal. It is
easy for an external observer who is familiar with the working procedure to pick up on
the different aspects of the team’s activities. Construction teams such as this are needed
wherever the building task extends beyond the capability of a single pair of hands.

“The installation crew consists of exactly the right number of members. When all the crew
members share similar skills and experience, the team in a way becomes “one person” as it
works. The members do not need to communicate verbally among themselves even when
carrying out demanding tasks. Gestures, or simply “being in the right place at the right
time“, provide sufficient communication to other team members that the process can
proceed safely and smoothly.”

“The installation work can be pretty intensive because the wall elements are usually
installed directly as they are unloaded from the transport lorry. The working atmosphere
has to be good to get the best results. The team members each intuitively know how the
work is progressing throughout the process with respect to their workmates.

Circumstances of this kind are situational and contextual. They are situational
because the situations are always unique and place-dependent. Their contextuality, on
the other hand, lies in the application of the skills in practice, i.e. their application
within a meaningful context. What started out as internalized, intuition-based
knowledge is combined and built on to form a more complex knowledge or skill entity.
When, for example, the same team has worked together over a long period of time, the
level of work is of a highly professional standard. The work of the professional can be
described as rational, in which all actions are considered (see also Anttila 2005b). One
interview revealed that the employees' on-the-job learning success rate was largely

13
dependent on how they experienced or perceived their working conditions. According
to Evans and Kersh (2004, 65) “in an expansive workplace, members feel that they
belong to a team. This sense, in turn, promotes workplace learning. ”

3.2 Means of explicating the tacit knowledge of the described tasks

The second question of this study seeks to identify possible means (procedures, tactics,
strategies) that can be employed to help explicate tacit knowledge. The use of video
can facilitate the analysis of the actions of both the expert and the novice. It can be used
to assist the learner in attempting to adopt a given skill such as the “silent skills”
referred to by Luukkainen (2000, 79 - 81). The performance of the novice can also be
analysed and possible errors worked on and corrected. However, it is worth noting
that not all learning situations follow this pattern.

Table 3. Experts' suggestions for means of explication regarding task description

Task describtion Experts' suggestions for means of explication

Wooden ball turning Videotape, animated images, demonstration, close
supervision, reflection, dialogue
Carving a rococo clock Videotape, animated images, demonstration, dialogue
Surgeon in the role of joiner’s assistant Dialogue, creating opportunities for new knowledge
construction; (e.g. Nonaka & Konno 1998; interacting ba)
Coiling a bandsaw blade Videotape, animated images, demonstration, close
supervision, reflection, dialogue
Tapping a hammer head tighter onto its demonstration, reflection, dialogue
shaft and ”jiggling” the hammer for
optimal grip
Arc welding Videotape, animated images, demonstration, close
supervision, reflection, dialogue
Hardening of steel Writing and reading, teacher demonstration, animated
images, videotape, dialogue
Knitting Reading, teacher demonstration, videotape, animated
images,, dialogue, a sequence of still images
Specialised work routine of a wall Mentoring, tutoring
installation crew

In many cases the task or action in question does not require any high-level,
professional skill. It is often more a case of simply possessing a certain skill that others
do not have. In cases such as this, the skill in question can also be easily transferred.
Stage-by-stage analysis of a work task using video, with each second of video
containing 25 individual images, is an effective method of both teaching a skill and
conducting post-analysis of a learner’s performance. The video recording must be
skilfully produced to ensure that each of the key details can be analysed. The work
task must always be viewed from the angle of vision of the performer of the task.

14
During the video editing stage, analysis of the video content and consultation with
external experts are recommended in order to achieve a good final result.
Although e.g. knitting a right side stitch can be described verbally, an animation
(or video) on such knitting is much more informative. Together these methods are even
more effective. Textile work teachers have produced virtual learning material, which
makes use of animated images and also a sequence of still images
(http://www.tkukoulu.fi/handmade ; http://www.kaspaikka.fi/).
The most effective methods of transferring tacit know-how include
demonstrations, videoing, discussions and/or a combination of these. The key
drawback entailed in transferring skills and knowledge through writing or speaking is
a lack of ready concepts. In many cases either no concepts exist at all for a given skill or
the skill cannot be described using familiar concepts. Indeed, some concepts are so
abstract that they offer the learner very little or nothing to go on. Many concepts also
have scores of closely synonymous meanings – as is the case with tacit knowledge itself.
Choosing precisely the right concept from among these can prove difficult.
The transfer of tacit skills can also be an extremely slow process. In many cases
mastering a skill requires a long phase of maturing and development, only after which
does the learner begin to “get” the essence of the skill in question. This maturing stage
includes gaining a general understanding of the field in question and the acquisition of
empirical knowledge (see Koivunen 1997, 78 - 79). Examples include knowledge of the
materials, tools and equipment of a given occupation. Other psychological factors such
as self-confidence often also play a part in the process. For instance, the learner must be
confident that the skill is possible to learn. At first sight many skills appear to be so
beyond our abilities that the novice easily becomes daunted by the task and convinced
that they will never be capable of learning it. The example of decorative carpentry given
above is a good example of this. Conversely, other skills require no training whatsoever.
In such cases the skill in question is based more on comprehending a central idea or
simply having the ability to mirror the actions of another, such as in the case of coiling
the bandsaw blade. In this case the person demonstrating the skill reveals the content of
the tacit skill in a simplified manner.
We often have no idea how we do many of the actions we perform with ease.
These actions include perception, recognition, attentiveness, information recall and
motor coordination related skills, all of which are clearly tacit forms of competences. If
these actions do entail any rules, we are certainly unaware of them. Computers, on the
other hand, are incapable of recognising e.g. odours or human faces at anywhere near
the same level of complexity as humans. For instance, faces appear different in different
lighting and when viewed from different angles and odours change with temperature
and humidity (Riikonen 1996, 7).
Tacit knowledge appears to be most effectively explicated in cases where the
concrete working methods of a particular skilled activity are clearly visible to the
observer. However, it does not follow that having seen a demonstration of the activity,
the external observer would then be capable of directly carrying out the activity
him/herself. This is because mastering a skill often requires an extensive period of

15
practice or experience. For example, when hammering nails, the experienced worker
always grips the hammer at a specific point along the shaft which will enable them to
deliver of a blow of optimal force. Each time the worker picks up the tool, s/he jiggles
the shaft in the hand to find precisely the right grip on the shaft. Measurements carried
out on a test group showed that the desired point of grip along the shaft fell within a
range of variation of just a few millimetres. The tool handler is, however, unable to
verbally describe why that particular point of grip was chosen. The inexperienced user,
on the other hand, typically holds the hammer too close to the head.
Other examples include skills that can neither be learned from textbooks nor
wholly on the basis of demonstrations. Skilled actions always partly involve tacit
knowledge (and skill) that is usually acquired through practice. Some skills, such as the
abovementioned face recognition, can be “learned” extremely quickly as they involve
no training or practice. Such skills as these thus clearly contain elements that cannot be
explicated.

4 Conclusions

Knowledge of the existence of tacit knowledge is both necessary and valuable. In the
educational context in particular, it is of benefit to the learner to appreciate that the
teacher or instructor is unable to, and should not be expected to, convey all of his/her
expertise. In turn, the teacher or instructor should aim to apply methods that make the
teaching/learning interaction as effective as possible while allowing the learners to focus
on the core content of the teaching.
The authors of this study were able to test a number of the examples presented in
the task descriptions in the class in cooperation with trainee class teachers. When the
existence of tacit knowledge was known, it was possible to more consciously come up
with optimal solutions for different learning situations.
The expert has the ability to visualise the bigger picture or end result, something
that the novice, who is inexperienced in coping with unanticipated events, is incapable
of. The abilities of the expert also include anticipation of the different stages of the task
and “listening” while performing the task to receive continuous feedback on its
progress. This listening can be based on all of the individual’s senses, and the expert
often finds it difficult to explain the skill even to him/herself – let alone attempting to
explicate it to others.
In Anttila’s view (2005a, 14 – 15), with the help of intuition it does seem to be
possible to pass this understanding on to others to some extent. Intuition thus brings
knowledge into conscious awareness. This is evident, for example, in the way in which
a work group’s level of skill improves when the group works together for a long period
of time. Time alone, however, does not create professionals.
The results of this study also support the findings of Koskinen and colleagues
(2003, 281–290), according to which ”the situations, where the members of a project
team can interact face-to-face with each other, reinforce tacit knowledge sharing”.

16
Simply “knowing too much” can also be a block to new learning if the learner is
convinced that they have nothing to learn. This is commonly encountered among
students of in-service education or extension training. However, also the working
atmosphere bears an influence on the explication of intuitive understanding (see Evans
& Kersh 2004, 65). The quality of the working atmosphere is also connected with the
occurrence of creative activities (cf. Ambrosini & Bowman 2001, 812).
Further ideas for workplaces to preserve valuable data in a working community
are as follows: 1) Debriefing meetings with retiring colleagues at workplace, 2) End of
career memos about best practices, 3) A column for seniors in workplace bulletins, 4)
Database for valuable information, skills and experience, 5) Gradually gathered
information on expert practices and 6) Demonstration videos from experienced
specialists.
In sum, tacit know-how seems to be usually located in a so-called grey area
beyond objectively communicated and readily explicable skills and knowledge. Tacit
knowledge can be explored by the above-described methods, for example, but
considering the immeasurable amount of fundamental knowledge, it is just like
scratching the surface. As Wilson (2002, 5) puts it: ”in other words, we seem to have
very little control over ’what we know’”.

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