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march 2011
The Politics of
Policy Coherence
Brian Tomlinson
The notion that policies affecting development new global agreement setting out a normative
should all be consistent with and promote framework for development effectiveness.
fundamental development objectives
such as human rights, gender equality and The expression of “policy coherence for
sustainability is crucial. At the global level development” is highly relevant to these global
these interests lead to proposals to establish policy goals because they can be systemically
an equitable and inclusive development linked to existing Conventions on human rights
cooperation architecture, based on existing UN norms and standards. However, the politics of
Conventions and Covenants, as well as on a “policy coherence” at the country level poses
Brian Tomlinson is the Executive Director of AidWatch Canada, a newly formed organization in Canada, which will monitor and analyze Canadian and
global aid policies and practices, promoting international cooperation based on human rights, social justice and ending global poverty. He can be reached
at brian.t.tomlinson@gmail.com
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The Reality of Aid
very different questions and potential outcomes. a very different political regime, based more on
Here the determination of “policy coherence” corporatism than the interest-based politics of
will become highly political. most donor countries.
The articulation of policy coherence as Policy coherence for development assumes
an overarching framework for CSO policy that development policy is itself coherent,
goals for development cooperation in donor even among aid actors, and that the intent of
countries should be a strategic question rather all is to focus on rights and poverty reduction.
than a universal proposal. The changing But surely it is the struggles over these policies
political dynamics in these countries may result as they relate to development outcomes that
in unintended practical implications arising are still very much in play in donor countries.
from a global agenda of policy coherence for How rights criteria may be embedded in each
development policy. policy area in relation to the drivers for these
policies is a highly contested political process.
The demand for “policy coherence for
development” at the country level leaves the field “Coherence” will only emerge politically
wide open for governments and other interests when non-aid policies (particularly trade and
that affect policy. These interests may have very investment, but also other areas) are developed
different expressions of development policy, within a human rights framework, which in
and give rise to politically defined coherence most countries is far more challenging than
linked to their own development ends. There achieving a rights approach in aid policy.
are indeed a number of donors, primarily Nordic
countries, which have comprehensive laws A key problem is that these other policy
governing international cooperation arising from areas have both state and non-state drivers
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RealityCheck March 2011
particularly within the private sector, but also Political interests and power dynamics in
other interests, such as farmers’ organizations or donor/developed countries are not weighed
environmental associations, etc. The pressures in favour of rights-based development
on national trade or international climate change cooperation, which remains relatively weak
policies can be highly diverse, some of which and highly dependent upon the nature of
articulate interests in policy outcomes which are the political regime in power. On the other
seen by the majority population to be legitimate hand, forces that support, either directly or
“national interests”, but which may challenge or indirectly, neo-liberal policy coherence has
reformulate the meaning and consequences of more permanency in domestic interest groups
“policy coherence for development” in a given and is often politically stronger across different
donor country. political regimes. In this context, a call for
“policy coherence for development” is more
While international CSOs assert that a wide likely to lead in practice to strengthening
range of policies should be assessed against neo-liberal influences on aid policies, thus
development interests, even if this were to undermining an area where we might make
happen, and it is truly rare, such assessments progress for a rights-based policy, albeit in a
will likely be at best one among other context that is incoherent.
expressions of interests in a given country.
The growing strength of neo-liberal/
The analysis in this Reality Check seems to foreign policy driven policy coherence for
largely ignore these other drivers of policy, other development is certainly the case in Canada
than to assert that democracy, and its embedded and is emerging more strongly in Europe with
institutions and processes, will be the foundation changing political regimes. There are policy
for a more rights approach. But such expressions interests in these governments that also call
of democracy in policy processes in donor for policy coherence for development (e.g.
countries at least often accentuate competing the whole-of-government approach). They
policy interests in which development outcomes reinforce trends and bring to bear government
are not seen to be crucial. departments (defense or trade) that work
against CSO strategic interests in achieving
The advantage of official development development effectiveness with aid resources.
assistance with respect to policy drivers is that
it is a much more discretionary development So while there is no disagreement about the
resource, which in many instances (clearly analysis of incoherence, the strategic approach
not all) can be relatively untied to domestic to achieving greater coherence is still an
interests. It often forms a counter-point to the unsettled question. For now, it may be more
expression of other policies and can strengthen important to sustain greater “incoherence”
counter-forces, either in civil society or in with respect to the aid regime, allowing
international forums, which push for strong national political space to grow for a deeper
development outcomes for trade or investment development of and commitment to rights-
for developing countries. This is certainly the based approaches for development policy.
motivation for those who wish to promote
a coherence agenda in donor countries. But But clearly international CSOs in donor
the practical ability of aid actors to do so may countries need to work for development-
depend upon a high degree of “incoherence” in friendly trade policy, or with respect to debt,
overall development cooperation policy. climate change or investment policies, and
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The Reality of Aid
to seek ways to balance various political Calling for “policy coherence for development”
interests affecting these policies. Rather than is an essential ultimate goal, but as a policy
overarching calls for policy coherence by “ask”, it is strategically weak and perhaps
development activists, in each country there counter-productive. As suggested above, given
should be an assessment of policy checks the current and foreseeable political realities
and balances and concerted engagement with in several donor countries, it may indeed lead
various interests affecting policy. At the same to a reinforcement of neo-liberal influences
time, CSO insistence on more principled in determining national development policy,
processes for international negotiation and which ultimately is the decision of changing
human rights accountability for the policy governments with corresponding changing
outcomes create ways of inserting a rights “politics of coherence”.
approach in various areas of policy affecting
development. A strong human rights-based normative
framework for a global Compact or
Convention on Development Effectiveness,
In this regard, a well-articulated human initiated either from the Busan High Level
rights framework should be the overarching Forum later this year, together with proposals
influence on policy proposals, rather than from within the United Nations system, would
a vague notion of “policy coherence for create an important counter-veiling instrument
development”, open to other and perhaps to strengthen the hand of development actors
negative interpretations. at the country level.
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RealityCheck March 2011
Poland MFA
Policy coherence refers to the overall policy For example, as ownership in a program
for development that includes economic country is developed through strong inclusive
cooperation and development cooperation. national strategies that are recognized and
Policy coherence must be premised on supported by development partners, policy
fundamental development objectives such as coherence is improved. In the same vein,
human rights, gender equity, and sustainability if there is alignment – where participatory
enshrined in covenants that all governments country systems and programs are acceded
signed. However, policy coherence is often and supported by partners – then it is more
confused with harmonization or coordination, difficult to be incoherent. It is also in the same
but it should be clear that policy coherence, context that if there is harmonization, which
though related to aid effectiveness, is not aid is not division of labor but harmonization that
effectiveness. signifies a country-led coordination of partner
Tony Tujan Jr. is IBON International Director, Chairperson of Reality of Aid Asia/Pacific and Co-chair of Better Aid. This article is based on his presentation
during the UN-DCF High-Level Symposium on Coherent Development Cooperation held in Helsinki, Finland, 3-4 June 2010.
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The Reality of Aid
Poland MFA
participation and action, then policy coherence policies in those countries will be their own
is easier. development. At present, there are a number
of countries leading the effort on policy
But in totality, what is important to coherence for development, but at the same
stress about policy coherence is that it is time there are also laggards.
meant to achieve the development goals
in a thoroughgoing way, which is what Working on concrete practice
development effectiveness is all about. In a
nutshell, having policy coherence is having the The possibility of progress in policy coherence
focus of achieving international development in all donor countries through partnership and
goals while ensuring a coherent development better relationship, where donor countries will
process and effective poverty reduction enhance and promote programs and strategies
strategies. on country development goals on the premise
of and operate under mutual benefit, needs to
It is very well recognized that the road to be worked on.
achieving policy coherence is not easy and it
goes to the heart of the question of mutuality. Economic relations must be scrutinized if
In donor countries, the starting point of they promote development or if they do harm.
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RealityCheck March 2011
IBON Foundation
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The Reality of Aid
enhancing policies such as the Structural in place, such as the G-20, to address policy
Adjustment Programs of the World Bank fragmentation in climate, trade, investment,
and the International Monetary Fund. and development finance. An international
Several provisions in the Uruguay Round norm-setting mechanism for development
that gave birth to the WTO are actually not policy is undeniably crucial at this point.
coherent to development, and the European
Commission trade policy is not coherent with In the midst of challenges to achieve
its development policy. development effectiveness and policy
coherence, Better Aid – an open platform
The issue with multilateral organizations is that with thousands of civil society organizations
they constrict policy space, which has been from more than 80 countries around the
the position of many civil society activists in world that came together in Accra and is now
relation to the Uruguay Round agreements strengthening its efforts towards the United
– they prevent developing countries from Nations Development Cooperation Forum
creating policies that are attuned to their levels process as well as the High Level Forum in
and requirements of development. Busan – is studying the feasibility of proposing
a convention on development effectiveness
Policy coherence can be achieved better focusing on development cooperation.
when civil society and parliaments are able
to play their full role in ensuring that such The proposed convention highlights the
policy coherence exists or is promoted. need to address common standards and
There is thus a strong need to promote and commitments of adherence to internationally
strengthen the essential roles that CSOs and agreed development goals and covenants. The
parliaments play in advocacy and pushing international community must address the
for policy coherence for development. It is need for commitment to policy coherence
a disservice that in many countries, CSOs for development by strengthening global
face problems in bringing issues to the table policy frameworks. There is also a need
and the fact that many policies are made to strengthen international coordination
without the concurrence or the review of and voluntary mechanisms, the hallmark
parliaments. of development cooperation of all actors
including new donors and private funds
New aid architecture and covenant towards effective responses to both the
immediate and long-term development
Aid architecture reform is urgently needed, challenges and demands.
but at present, only ad hoc mechanisms are
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RealityCheck March 2011
In a country where 45 percent of the policies that perpetuate it, the controversial
population live on less than $2 a day, while CCT program of Philippine President Benigno
more than 15 percent of school children Aquino III – called Pantawid Pamilyang
are not able to enroll in primary level and Pilipino Program (roughly, Helping Filipino
almost 28 percent suffer from stunting child Families to Cope Program) or 4Ps – may just
malnutrition, the conditional cash transfer end up wasting the already scant resources of
(CCT) program is deemed by most policy the national government.
makers and economists as a welcome tool for
poverty alleviation.i At the same time, it also serves as a cover
for the wrong policies being promoted by
Amid lack of real reforms to address the international funders like the World Bank and
structural roots of poverty and to reverse the the Asian Development Bank (ADB), which
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The Reality of Aid
ii Data from the World Bank’s webpage on Conditional Cash Transfers accessible at web.worldbank.org
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RealityCheck March 2011
of the Philippines (LBP) automated teller Initially, the 4Ps targeted poor households
machines (ATMs) or over the counter at rural in 140 of the poorest municipalities and 10
banks. cities with estimated total beneficiaries of only
380,000 households, to be covered for a period
To access the grant, a household must be of five years (2009 to 2013). By the end of
identified as poor based on the National 2009, the number of target beneficiaries was
Household Targeting System for Poverty expanded to 700 municipalities in 80 provinces
Reduction (NHTS-PR) using the Proxy Means covering 1 million households.4
Test of the DSWD. This type of survey
determines the socioeconomic category of the Under the Aquino administration, the
families by looking at certain proxy variables program’s coverage has been substantially
like ownership of assets, type of housing, further expanded with the DSWD now
livelihood, etc. planning to extend the cash grant to 2.3
million beneficiaries by the end of 2011.5
To remain a beneficiary, a household’s children
and pregnant women must visit health centers Consequently, the Executive asked Congress
to get regular preventive health checkups and for a budget of P21.9 billion ($464.71 million)
immunizations. Children must also enroll in for the CCT program for 2011, a whopping
schools and attend more than 85 percent of 119-percent increase from its current allocation
school classes. of P10 billion ($221.13 million).6 Despite
iii Based on the current exchange rate of P45 per US dollar, according to data from the Philippine central bank, accessed at www.bsp.gov.ph
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The Reality of Aid
questions on the capacity of the DSWD and declined by around 120,000 in 2003 before
the CCT program to absorb the sudden and increasing by 650,000 in 2006. (See Table 1.)
drastic increase, the rise in the 4Ps budget was
eventually left untouched by Congress.7 The Philippines gathers official poverty
data every three years, with the 2009 figures
Poverty in the Philippines slated for release in the first quarter of
Latest (as of 2006) official data from the 2011. However, the NSCB has admitted that
National Statistical Coordination Board preliminary indicators show that the poverty
(NSCB) show that 27.6 percent of population incidence likely remained at its 2006 levels.9
and 26.9 percent of families in the Philippines
are considered poor. The figures are based This bolstered fears that the Philippines will
on the per capita poverty threshold of some not meet the 2015 deadline of the Millennium
P41.25 (or just about $0.80iv) as determined by Development Goals (MDGs) to cut its
the government. incidence of extreme poverty by half (to 22.7
percent from the 1991 baseline of 45.3 percent).
Alternative estimates though suggest a much
worse picture of poverty. Local nonprofit In addition, the period of worsening or at
research group Social Weather Stations (SWS), best, stagnant poverty in the Philippines
for instance, reported that based on their during the past decade (2000 to 2009) was
September 2010 survey, 48 percent of Filipino also characterized by a relatively faster pace
families consider themselves as poor.8 of economic growth, with the gross domestic
product (GDP) growing by an average of 4.6
Nonetheless, the 2006 official data indicate percent a year, much faster than the 2 percent
a worsening trend in poverty, reversing recorded in the 1980s and 2.8 percent in the
the improvement recorded in the previous 1990s.v
government survey. In 2000, the number of
poor Filipino families as measured by the To make an impact on poverty, economic
NSCB was pegged at 4.15 million, which growth must translate to more jobs
iv Based on the 2006 average exchange rate of P51.31 per US dollar, according to data from the Philippine central bank, accessed at www.bsp.gov.ph
v Annual GDP data culled from the World Bank’s online database, accessed at data.worldbank.org
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RealityCheck March 2011
and livelihood, which apparently is not dependable livelihood making poverty in the
happening in the Philippines. Its average vast countryside most intense.
annual unemployment rate in the 2000s
was 8.72 percent, still higher than the One estimate says that 75 percent of the
8.53 percent it posted during the slower country’s poor are in the rural areasvii while
growth years of the 1990s and despite official data say that poverty incidence is
the statistical deflation of joblessness highest among farmers and fishermen. (See
caused by the government’s redefinition of Chart 1)
unemployment.vi
Concealing flawed policies
Generations of Filipinos have endured
poverty and job scarcity for centuries due Given this particular characteristic of poverty
to a backward agriculture that has failed to in the country, a serious poverty reduction
develop and industries that have been stunted program that is sustainable must therefore
by hundreds of years of colonialism and include the implementation of genuine
neocolonialism. Lack of genuine agrarian agrarian reform and rural development
reform has deprived the rural population of program.
vi Starting in 2005, the NSCB adopted a new definition of unemployment which excluded discouraged workers and those not willing or available for work
from the labor force. The redefinition had a net effect of "statistically" reducing the number of unemployed by 1.87 million
15
The Reality of Aid
viii Hacienda Luisita, a 6,435-hectare plantation estate located in Tarlac province (about a three-hour drive from Manila), is the subject of ongoing labor
and land disputes that in 2004 led to the bloody massacre of seven protesting farm workers. Farm workers want to end their ownership-sharing
scheme (called stock distribution option or SDO) with Aquino's family. Aquino, however, has refused to persuade his relatives to concede to the
farmers' demand and implement the 2005 decision of the Presidential Agrarian Reform Council (PARC) rescinding the SDO.
ix Based on the current exchange rate of P45 per US dollar, according to data from the Philippine central bank, accessed at www.bsp.gov.ph
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RealityCheck March 2011
IRRI Images
rates in at least four major toll roads are Consider, for instance, its proposed 2011
anticipated to go up by 11 to more than 300 national budget wherein it slashed the
percent. subsidies for indigents under the National
Health Insurance Program (NHIP) by P1.67
These are the sorts of flawed policies that billion ($37 million). The budget allocation for
perpetuate poverty in the country but are 55 public hospitals nationwide has also been
concealed by the 4Ps’ temporary cash grant reduced by P363.7 million ($8 million) and
program. As a safety net, the 4Ps serve to the budget for specialty hospitals, by P970.6
moderate the harsh social and economic million ($22 million).11
impact of neoliberal reforms that have
been bankrolled and strongly advocated by The Department of Education (DepEd),
the World Bank, ADB, and other supposed meanwhile, is proposing to add two more years
development partners of the Philippines. to the country’s basic formal education that is
presently a 10-year program. This proposal,
Disjointed priorities which is being targeted for implementation by
Furthermore, while the Aquino administration 2012, does not only mean additional costs for
intends to instantly improve the coverage of families but will also further stretch the already
public health and education in the country tight budget for public education.
through the 4Ps, it does little to ensure the
sustained and greater access of the poor to It is estimated that the Philippines is short
these services. of more than 54,000 teachers and 61,300
17
The Reality of Aid
Chart 2. Proposed vs estimated needed increase in budget for health & education
as compared to increase in interest payments (in P bn): 2010 & 2011
Sources: Department of Budget and Management (DBM); Alliance of Concerned Teachers (ACT); and Health Alliance for Democracy (HEAD)
classrooms among other resources badly situation in the country through the 4Ps, which
needed by public schools. At least P91 is funded by foreign debt from the World Bank
billion ($2 billion) must be raised to address and the ADB. (See Chart 2) Initial estimates
these shortages12 but the 2011 budget say that the CCT loan will cost the Philippine
allocation for DepEd has increased by only government some P44 billion (about $1
P32.3 billion ($718 million) that can build billion) in interest payments to the said
only 13,000 new classrooms and hire 10,000 multilateral financial institutions.14
new teachers.13
Conclusion
This means that children of 4Ps beneficiaries
are not assured of completing basic education Access to health and education, and the right
(as the program might be prolonged under to a decent standard of living are basic human
the new DepEd scheme) nor accessing quality rights enshrined in the Philippine Constitution
education (due to shortages in public school as well as in various UN agreements on human
teachers and facilities that the national budget rights. It is therefore the obligation of the
could not cover). national government and its development
partners to ensure that these rights are
The misallocation of the Philippine national respected.
budget highlights how disjointed the policies
and priorities are of the government. While This means that the government must work
it refuses to allocate the needed resources towards the creation of an environment that
for basic education and health services, it makes freedom from hunger and poverty,
continues to allot a huge and increasing and universal access to health and education
portion of the national budget for debt possible, which includes reliable and sufficient
servicing. livelihood opportunities for all families and
the allocation of adequate resources for
At the same time, it supposedly intends to quality public schools, hospitals, and health
improve the dismal health and education facilities.
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RealityCheck March 2011
Requiring some poor Filipino families to send 5 Phoebe Jen Indino. '4Ps to cover 2.3 million
their children to school and health centers so families'. Manila Bulletin. November 20, 2010.
that they can access cash grants funded by Accessed at www.mb.com.ph on December 10,
World Bank and ADB loans promotes a dole- 2010
out mentality and is a distortion of the concept 6 Chino S. Leyco. 'Gov't doubles anti-poverty
of human rights. budget'. Manila Bulletin. September 5, 2010.
Accessed at www.mb.com.ph on December 9,
It also distorts the right to health and education 2010
and to a decent standard of living by creating
temporary access for a targeted portion of 7 Senate of the Philippines. 'Senate clears P1.645-
poor families while using the conditional cash trillion 2011 budget'. Senate press release.
grants as a smokescreen for the defective December 1, 2010. Accessed at senate.gov.ph on
policies that push an increasing number of December 102010
Filipinos to hunger, ignorance, and poverty.
8 Social Weather Stations. 'Third quarter 2010
Lastly, the CCT further constricts the policy social weather survey: hunger eases to 15.9% of
space available to poor countries like the families; 48% rate themselves as mahirap or poor'.
October 20, 2010. Accessed at www.sws.org.ph on
Philippines to design and implement their December 6, 2010
own national social and economic programs
based on the specific development needs of 9 Michelle Remo. 'NSCB: poverty rate was stagnant
their people. It thus perpetuates the type of in 2009'. Philippine Daily Inquirer. May 28, 2010.
flawed development cooperation that has Accessed at newsinfo.inquirer.net on December 6,
only worsened the plight of the poor and 2010
marginalized.
10 Ma. Elisa P. Osorio. 'RP to pursue FTAs with 6
Sources and references countries'. The Philippine Star. September 2, 2010.
Accessed at www.philstar.com on December 12,
1 Ariel Fizbein and Norbert Schady. 'Conditional cash 2010
transfers: reducing present and future poverty'.
World Bank Policy Research Report, International 11 IBON Foundation. 'Proposed budget shows
Bank for Rural Reconstruction and Development/ diminishing priority for health'. IBON News.
World Bank, 2009 September 1, 2010 accessed at ibon.org on
December 12, 2010
2 Asian Development Bank (ADB). 'Cash incentives
for families in Philippines to keep children healthy, 12 Gretchen Malalad. 'The state of education today'.
in school'. ADB news release. September 2, 2010. ABS-CBN News. June 5, 2010. Accessed at www.
Accessed at adb.org on December 10, 2010 abs-cbnnews.com on December 12, 2010
3 Ellalyn B. de Vera. 'Australia keen on poverty 13 Ronnel Domingo. 'Education budget hiked to
alleviation'. Manila Bulletin. December 4, 2009. P175B'. Philippine Daily Inquirer. September
Accessed at www.mb.com.ph on December 10, 1, 2010. Accessed at newsinfo.inquirer.net on
2010 December 12, 2010
4 Department of Social Welfare and Development 14 IBON Foundation. 'Filipinos to shoulder Php44
(DSWD). 'DSWD expands coverage of 4Ps'. billion in CCT loan repayment'. IBON News.
December 10, 2009. Accessed at www.dswd.gov. December 2, 2010. Accessed at www.ibon.org on
ph on December 9, 2010 December 13, 2010
19
The Reality of Aid
The Question of
Representation
Pedram Pirnia
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RealityCheck March 2011
language, the ‘us and them’ relationship has Various symposia and conferences are held
not been dismantled. Aid is still based on annually in exotic locations. Development
conditionality and the reality of what is going experts are invited from the four corners of
on in the field remains the same2. the world to join, observe, and comment on
obstacles facing the developing world. ‘Logical’
When donors engage only at the level of this and ‘practical’ statements are produced at the
coded language it distorts their dealings with end of each assembly but what is truly lacking
the Third World. When making decisions, is appropriate representation of the true
donors forget to ask who is representing stakeholders of the South.
whom and what baggage they bring with the
positions they adopt. Participants at international conferences and
world development forums are encouraged
The imperialist transformation of the ‘Third to think that they are there to help the ‘Third
World’ into a development programme has World’. The psychology behind the process,
been made obscure to the point that donors’ the participants’ lack of knowledge of the
superiority and dominance are simply naturalised. developing world, their lack of understanding
IRIN
1 "Policy Ownership and Aid Conditionality in the Light of the Financial Crisis: A critical review" http://www.oecd.org/document/47/0,3343,en_2649_3395
9_43775535_1_1_1_37413,00.html
2 Ibid.
21
The Reality of Aid
of the people they represent (including their controversial1, article, underscores what has
underlying motivation), and their lack of become her untiring concern – the tendency
background knowledge of the issues involved of dominant discourses and institutions to
are often glossed over. There may be good marginalise and to disempower the third
will, but more strategic approaches are needed world subaltern. Representations of the
to bring to the table voices that realistically ‘Third World’ can simplify local realities whilst
convey the problems of the South. ignoring diversity and existing capacity3. Even
the language of empowerment can imply that
Better results can surely be achieved through without Western help the ‘Third World’ lacks
these forums by genuine representation of agency4. For Spivak, the epistemic violence of
the disadvantaged. The absence of the true imperialism has meant the transformation of
stakeholders is an issue that needs immediate the ‘third world’ to the point where Western
attention. superiority and dominance are naturalised.
“Can the subaltern speak?” (1988a) Gayatari We don’t have to look too far afield in
Chakravorty Spivak’s influential, albeit international development to see this process
3 Kenneth Shui On Fung "The Post-modern (PM) argument of Escobar (1991, 1992, 1995a, b)" http://www.sussex.ac.uk/languages/1-6-8-9-2.html
4 Fernando, J.L, NGOs and Production of Indigenous Knowledge under the Condition of Postmodernity
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RealityCheck March 2011
This criticism is not meant to condemn or 3 Escobar, A (1994) 'Encountering Development: The
denunciate development institutions and Making and Unmaking of the Third World'
wealthy nations. Rather it aims to underline the
4 'Policy Ownership and Aid Conditionality in the Light
question of lack of appropriate representation, of the Financial Crisis: A critical review' http://www.
and lack of consideration from a third world oecd.org/document/47/0,3343,en_2649_33959_43
perspective. The aim is simply to argue that 775535_1_1_1_37413,00.html
our lenses are institutionally and geographically
distorted and our donor representation of 5 Ohno, K (August 2002), 'For diversity in development
the ‘Third World’ is limited, constricted and strategies'
5 Escobar, A (1994) "Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World",
6 Kenneth Shui On Fung "The Post-modern (PM) argument of Escobar (1991, 1992, 1995a, b)"
23
The Reality of Aid
Simon Oosterman
Official Development Assistance (ODA), operates under two main frameworks, the
also commonly known as ‘foreign aid’, has 2005 Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness
emerged with the claim to catalyse economic set to focus on five principles: Ownership,
development in poor countries and regions Alignment, Harmonization, Managing for
since the ‘Marshal Plan’ following World Results, and Mutual Accountability aiming
War 2. ODA can come in the form of at improved aid delivery and the Monterrey
loans, grants, technical assistance and other Consensus on Financing for Development
forms of cooperation from donor countries, (2002), affirming the importance of
which are transferred on concessional terms external financing for development with its
and convey at least a grant element of 25 signatories pledging 0.7 percent of gross
percent (OECD, 2007). Today’s ODA regime national product as ODA.
Nicolas Gloeckl is a Communications Officer for the IBON/RoA Country Outreach Program.
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RealityCheck March 2011
A general consensus on ODA acknowledges Jamaica. While ODA has been positive for all
its necessity and importance in transferring countries during the early1990s, it fell sharply
knowledge and capital for genuine to negative figures when amortization of loans
development. After a decade of stagnant began to show their effects.
growth in overall ODA to developing
countries during the 1990s, flows have doubled Negative ODA suggests strongly that
from around 62 billion in 2002 to 128 billion increasing South-North transfers offset
USD in 2009 (OECD 2010). However, a false benefits from ODA. This case is progressively
picture has been painted of ODA as a rapidly more evident as Net Official Flows to
increasing and broadly positive source of developing countries, i.e. loans, grants and
capital for developing countries. Contradictory grant-like flows minus amortization on loans,
in nature, ODA has been negative during have been overall negative (calculated mean
periods if donor and country disaggregated of -16 Billion USD, between 1990-2010) and
data are analysed. Figure 1 shows total ODA severely negative over several periods during
by all G7 donors to Costa Rica, Gabon and the last two decades, most notably between
Figure 1
Figure 2
25
The Reality of Aid
Figure 3
2003 and 2008 (see Figure 2). While ODA and trading than sustainable development aid.
official financial flows need to be held separate, This volatility suggests potential difficulties
it is imperative to note that the South has for developing countries in planning the fiscal
increasingly transmitted finance to the North future.
and not the other way around, leading to a net
outflow rather than an inflow of finance. More importantly, however, is the recognition
of a two-fold burden to recipient countries,
Negative ODA comes in different forms which comes in the form of conditionality
specific to donors and recipient countries’ past and increasing debt. Today, conditionality is a
and present ODA agreements. German ODA reality that has changed little since the 1980s,
to Algeria, Jamaica and Swaziland has shown except rhetorically from SAPs to PRSPs and
strong volatility with repayments matching and other fancy idioms. Its costs lie in forcing
even outstripping previous positive ODA flows one-sided liberalization and opening up of
(Figure 3), while ODA by the United States domestic markets, undermining any serious
to Chile, Costa Rica and Tunisia appears to efforts to real development by destroying the
have been negative over the long term (Figure very protections that developed economies
4). Different scenarios provide different have enjoyed and emerging nations necessitate
problems to individual countries; however, (Chang 2008). In paradox to its largely positive
an overarching country ODA trap becomes public perception, ODA adds to the external
increasingly evident. debt burden of developing countries. Even
ODA Trap if overall ODA is positive, the external debt
burden rises as any repayments and interests
While ODA is perceived to be an important to loans inevitably lead to an increased debt
and beneficial source of finance for stock, adding to the hardship of already
development, this perception masks severe stripped government budgets. In the
problems for receiving countries. The virtual Philippines, ODA is clearly foreign debt rather
rollercoaster ride that ODA is undergoing than aid, as 84 percent comes in the form of
in many countries (see Figures 1 and 3) is loans and only 16 percent as grants (Balangue,
reminiscent more of speculative stock market 2008).
26
RealityCheck March 2011
Figure 4
While the grant proportion one might argue 3 IMF (2010), "World Economic Outlook Database",
makes the loan less painful compared to a October 2010 available from: http://www.imf.org/
private loan, it is important to recognise that external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/02/weodata/index.aspx
‘aid’ in the form of ODA can never be real
4 OECD (2010), "OECD Stat Extracts"
aid as long as it comes as a 75-percent strong available from: http://stats.oecd.org/Index.
loan, while adding to both conditionality and a aspx?DatasetCode=REF_TOTALODA
country’s debt burden.
5 OECD-QWIDS (2010), available from http://stats.
References: oecd.org/qwids/
1 Chang H. J. (2008), "Bad Samaritans: The Myth of 6 OECD (2007), “DAC Statistical Reporting
Free Trade and the Secret History of Capitalism", Directives” DCD/DAC (2007), 34
Bloomsbury; 2008
27
RealityCheck March 2011 The Reality Check is the official newsletter of the Reality of Aid.
It is designed to highlight current issues in aid regime written
from a regional perspective but with global significance, edited
in rotation by the leading networks in the following regions: