COMPOSITE MACHINING 27

Kent E. Kokkonen and Nitin Potdar

27.1 INTRODUCTION 27.2 CONVENTIONAL MILLING

The processes used to manufacture composite When milling graphite-epoxy with polycrys-
structures generally require that trimming and talline diamond (PCD) the chips are formed as
other machining operations be performed small particles of powder dust and fumes. The
prior to assembly. Machining processes are surface roughness is a function of fiber orien-
required to produce accurate surfaces and tation, cutting direction and the angle between
holes to allow precision fitting of components cutting direction and fiber direction. The sur-
into an assembly. Due to shrinkage during the face may sometimes exhibit many small holes
curing stage of the composite structure it is not due to fiber pull out. When taking heavy
practicable to place holes in the part during milling cuts there is a greater tendency to
the molding stage, therefore milling, cutting, break comers as the tool exits the material so it
drilling etc. are considered a post cure opera- is advisable to first machine a step on the edge
tion. perpendicular to the final pass. A four fluted
Due to the toughness and abrasive nature of end mill will reduce cutting pressure on the
modern composites, there is a need for harder laminate and keep it cooler. Climb milling
and longer lasting cutting tools. A large data- helps prevent the fibers from separating from
base of machining information for various the matrix bond material.
high speed steel and carbide cutting tool Advantages of machining composites are:
materials exists for machining metal, wood
and some thermoplastics. However, much of 0 improved surface finish unless part surface
this data cannot be applied to machining mod- was directly in contact with the mold sur-
ern composites. Modern composites like face;
0 machined surfaces provide accurate mating
graphite-epoxy, aramid-epoxy and carbon-
carbon each have their own machining charac- surfaces for parts to be assembled;
0 eliminates the majority of the problems
teristics. Composites are not homogeneous or
isotropic, therefore the machining characteris- associated with part shrinkage and insert
tics are dependent on the tool path in relation movement during the fabrication processes.
to the direction of the reinforcing fibers. Tool life factors are:
Metals or metal alloys have nearly homoge-
neous properties throughout the workpiece, 0 PCD end milling cutters will perform sixty
but each material in a composite retains its to one hundred times longer than carbide;
individual properties. 0 cutting speed does not have a great effect
on the flank wear of PCD cutting tools.
With increased cutting speeds, the feedrates
Handbook of Composites. Edited by S.T. Peters. Published can be increased and machining time
in 1998 by Chapman & Hall, London. ISBN 0 412 54020 7 decreased;

cutting speeds range from 244 surface
m/min (800 surface ft/min) to 762 surface
m/min (2500 surface ft/min) with PCD end
mills;
when cutting parallel to the fiber direction,
the wear ratio on the cutting tool increases
compared with cutting perpendicularly to
the fiber direction;
surface finish remains below 20Ra [arith-
metical average roughness (see IS0 R488)]
when cutting with PCD end mills and the
flank wear is approximately 0.127 mm
(0.005in);
0 the surface finish deteriorates above 150 Ra
when cutting with a carbide end mill and the
flank wear has reached 0.127 mm (0.005in);
0 roughing feedrates range from
0.23 mm/rev (0.007 in/rev) to 0.38 mm/rev
(0.012 in/rev) and finish feedrates range
from 0.076 mm/rev (0.002 in/rev) to
0.13 mm/rev (0.005 in/rev);
0 the depth of cuts should range from one
quarter to one half of the diameter of the
end mill cutter. Depth of cut will vary
depending on the rigidity of machine ways,
spindle and workholding devices.
The disadvantages associated with milling
of composites include controlling the graphite
chips (dust particles), confining them to a small
area and having an adequate collection system.
A second problem is controlling the outer lay-
ers of the composite so that the fibers will shear
instead of lifting up under the force of the cut-
ting action and leaving extended fibers beyond
the cut surface. Also when cutting perpendicu-
lar to the lay of composite fibers, edge
break-out can occur. This can be controlled by
designing a backup structure in the tooling.
27.3 CONVENTIONAL TURNING
The turning of graphite composite is utilized
to produce round surfaces that need to mate
with either metal of graphite parts. The cutting
speeds can be over 305 m/min (1000 ft/min) if
the part can be held securely and PCD tool
inserts are utilized.
Mechanical drilling of composite materials 597
Depth of cut will vary depending on the
thickness of the part and the amount of mate-
rial to be removed.
27.3.1 ADVANTAGES
Computer numerical controlled lathes (CNC)
can be used to machine simple to very complex
rotational parts. CNC machining produces
accurate parts at a high production rate.
27.3.2 DISADVANTAGES
Delamination can also occur on a lathe (Fig.
27.1), therefore the part may require a finish
cut moving from the largest diameter to the
smaller diameter. Graphite chips are a serious
problem. The spinning chuck creates a fan
effect on the graphite particles. The exhaust
system must be adequate to control the
graphite chips. Also, the machine ways and
the ball screws on the machine must have
sealed protection to minimize wear. The com-
puter control requires protection from the
graphite chip particles.
27.4 MECHANICAL DRILLING OF
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Drilling holes in composites can cause failures
that are different from those encountered
when drilling metals. Delamination, fracture,
break-out and separation are some of the most
common failures. Delamination (surface and
internal) is the major concern during drilling
composite laminates as it reduces the struc-
tural integrity, results in poor assembly
tolerance, adds a potential for long term per-
formance deterioration and may occur at both
the entrance and exit plane. Delamination can
be overcome by finding optimal thrust force
(minimum force above which delamination is
initiated). Figure 27.2 shows push out delami-
nation at exit because at a certain point
loading exceeds the interlaminar bond
strength and delamination occurs. Figure 27.3
shows peel-up delamination at entrance
598 Composite machining

Fig. 27.2 Drill bit showing push-out delamination

at exit.

graphite reinforcement materials. Each of

I these materials requires individual attention
I in the selection of cutting tool parameters. The
composite materials with metal backup panels
require separate drills with different geome-
tries. Cutting speeds and feedrates vary in
each of the various combinations of materials.
Secondary drilling or reaming operations are
required to hold tight tolerances or smooth
surface finishes on the holes. Table 27.1 shows
Fig. 27.1 Machining direction for turning compos- the drilling results when using four styles of
ite parts on a lathe. drills.'
PCD tooling offers increased tool life, better
because the drill first abraded the laminate hole quality, consistent hole size and higher
and then pulled the abraded material away machining rates. Drilling and countersinking
along the flute causing the material to spiral
up before being machined completely. This
type of delamination decreases as drilling pro-
ceeds since the thickness resisting the lamina
bending becomes greater.
Among the variables to be considered for
tool selection include the thickness of material,
diameter of hole, tolerance requirements, hole
finish requirements and the composite mater-
Peeling
ial being drilled. Tungsten carbide, micrograin Action
tungsten carbide and drill tool materials are
used for drilling composite materials. 4
I
Some commonly used composites are I
I
I
glass-epoxy, glass-graphite-epoxy, graphite-
epoxy, graphite-epoxy with aluminum
backup and graphite-epoxy with titanium
backup. Other materials include the aramids Fig. 27.3 Drill bit showing peel-up delaminationat
(Kevlar@) with combinations of glass or entrance.
 Mechanical drilling of composite materials 599

Table 27.1 Summary of drill performance: mean hole quality measures as a function of point angle.
Maximum recorded values of response parameters are shown in box brackets, [I (Reproduced from Ref 1
by permission of ASM Materials Week)

Criterion/drill Dagger 8-Facet 4-Facet Master NAS 907-1HSS

Exit breakout 1 2 3 4
(Rank least = 1)
Panel damage, D, 1.96 (3.34) 2.37 (3.18) 2.75 (3.62) 3.63 (5.54)
Microcrack density 1 2 3 4
(Rank: lowest = 1)
Thrust force, 114 [166] 201 [378] 263 [428] 593 [969]
N (1bf) (25.6 [37.4]) (45.3 [85.2]) (59.3 [96.3]) (133.5 [218])
Torque, 1.29 [2.18] 1.15 [2.0] 0.7 [1.64] 1.53 [2.2]
Nm (ft lbs) (0.95 [1.61]) (0.85 [1.5]) (0.50 [1.21]) (1.13[1.61])
Surface finish, R,, 0.4 [1.6] 0.95 [2.2] 1.6 [3.0] 2.4 [4.12]
Pm (Pin.) (26 [641) (38 [88l) (64L1.221) (96 11651)
Hole diameter, 6.354 [6.379] 6.356 [6.369] 6.367 [6.395] 6.375 [6.397]
mm (in) (0.25016 (0.25022 (0.25067 (0.2510

-
[0.25115]) [0.25075]) [0.251751) [0.25185])
Hole out-of-roundness,
(in) 0.0061 [0.025] 0.003 [0.005] 0.0043 [0.018] 0.013 [0.03]
(0.00024 [0.00101) (0.00012 [0.0002]) (0.00017 [0.0007]) (0.00051 [0.0012])
Drill point angle, deg. 30 24,118 140 135

with a combination tool provides better hole
quality. Tool life is normally determined by the
extent of delamination and fiber break out. For
machining graphite composites with or with-
out aluminum backing, PCD tooling is
suggested with the same speeds and feeds
used for machining graphite composites with-
out any backing.
For machining graphite composites with
titanium backing, it is not recommended that
the same drill be used for both the titanium
and graphite sections. Initially a hole should
be drilled up to the titanium layer with a
hydraulic depth sensing device at high speeds
and feed. A second drill with lower speed and
feed for machining titanium should be used.
Finally finish reaming operation and counter-
sinking should be performed for assuring hole
quality.
A study carried out on carbon fiber-epoxy
(CFRP) and glass fiber-epoxy (GFRP) lami-
nates using HSS and carbide tipped drills
made the following observations. Both chisel
edge and flank wear increased on the carbide
drill with a higher ratio of wear between 200
and 400 holes (test sample 400 holes). The tool
wear was greater in the CFRP laminates due to
the abrasive nature of carbon fibers. Flank
wear is more pronounced in GFRP when the
feed was increased and the same effect is
noted when speed is increased. The HSS drills
lasted for ten holes in the graphite and twenty
holes in the glass.
27.4.1 DFULL GEOMETRY
Drill point geometries influence the torque
requirements. Lip relief and rake angles are
determined by the application. The dagger
drill is ideal to machine graphite composites
600 Composite machining

as it eliminates breakout when exiting the be processed.

workpiece. The dagger drill has 35" included The grinding of polymer matrix compos-
point angle and a 121" chisel edge angle. Twist ites (PMC) has a number problems. For
drills with flute configuration to control metal example in the case of thermoplastic matrix,
chips are also used. Fully fluted drills with the surface of grinder becomes covered with
PCD tips brazed on a solid carbide shaft pro- melted thermoplastic. In the case of aramid
vide the strength of carbide and hardness of fiber it is hard to get a clean cut surface
diamond. Drill geometries are continuing to because the grains cannot abrade the aramid
be experimented with to find ways to elimi- fibers cleanly. Abrasive belts have been used
nate the problems associated with the hole on aramids with some success but dust collec-
making process in composites. tion has been a major problem.
Drill cutting parameters are:
0 feedrates range from 0.025 mm/rev 27.6 MACHINING O F KEVLAR
(0.001 in/rev) to 0.063 (0.0025 in/rev);
0 cutting speeds range from 30 surface Cutting, Trimming, Turning and Milling of
m/min (100 surface ft/min) to 460 surface Kevlar
m/min (1500 surface ft/min); Because of its inherent toughness, Kevlar is dif-
0 high cutting speeds can burn the matrix ficult to cut, so sharp, heavy duty upholstery
material and reduce bond strength between scissors will cut up to 170 g/m2 (5 oz/yd2)fab-
the composite material and the matrix ric of Kevlar. Woven roving and heavier fabrics
material. can be cut using specially designed serrated
scissors. An overview of cutting and trimming
techniques and applications is shown in Table
27.4.2 COOLANTS
27.2. For more information on cutting and
A water soluble coolant forced through a cold machining of Kevlar refer to DuPont's
air blast unit is recommended when machin- Machining Handbook2.
ing most composite materials. However if the
composite is hydrophilic in nature then a cold
air blast unit in combination with dust or vac- 27.7 ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING
uum collection system should be used. Abrasive water jet (AWJ)is used for linear pro-
file cutting, turning, milling and drilling
operations in composite materials.
27.5 GRINDING COMPOSITE MATERIALS
Conventional tool machining is affected by
The grinding process has been used exten- fiber or particle reinforcements rather than the
sively for finishing composite golf shafts and matrix material while AWJ machining is not.
fishing rods. Five hundred parts per hour can To make a circular hole 6.35mm (0.25in) in
be produced on centerless grinders. Silicon diameter in aramid 3.18 mm (0.125in) thick, it
carbide wheels are used with an open grain to takes about the same time for both conven-
reduce wheel galling. Surface speeds between tional as well as AWJ machining. The cutting
1219 surface m/min (4000 surface ft/min) and process parameters for AWJ include water jet
1829 surface m/min (6500 surface ft/min) can pressure, velocity, abrasive grain size, abrasive
be achieved. This equipment is specially material, standoff distance and jet impinge-
designed for grinding and finishing compos- ment angle. and some additional parameters.
ites. Grinding accuraces within 0.0127 mm Water jets without abrasive are also used for
(0.0005 in) can be achieved with centerless cutting soft composites. Figure 27.4 shows the
grinding. Both straight and tapered shafts can AWJ processes and machining parameters3.
 Abrasive water jet machining 601
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602 Composite machining
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 Abrasive water jet machining 603

27.7.1 LINEAR CUTTING WITH AWJ 27.7.2 TURNING

Linear cutting is used to trim composite parts
and to cut profile shapes on the inside of a
part. The cut surface is normally smoother
near the entrance surface then becomes wavy
in the lower half of the cut toward the exit sur-
face. In general, the composite material is
sheared away by a high velocity abrasive
grain. The width of cut (kerf) decreases as the
feedrate increases and the waviness increases
as the feedrate increases3.
Table 27.3 shows some of the observations
made by Hashish3.The maximum cutting tra-
verse rate is primarily controlled by the matrix
material.
Table 27.4 shows results for some compos-
ites with different speeds.
In turning with AWJ, a workpiece is usually
rotated while the jet is fed along all three axes.
The material encountered by the jet is abraded
away in the form of a very fine debris. Higher
jet pressure produces a smoother surface with
a higher material removal rate. Higher tra-
verse rates combined with multiple passes are
more efficient than deeper cuts with lower tra-
verse rates. Surface finish is affected by
unsteadiness in traverse rate or abrasive flow
rate. The repeatability and accuracy of the
AWJ turning process depends on control and
steadiness. A 10% variation in rotational speed
does not affect the surface waviness but a tra-
verse rate variation over 4% will significantly
affect the surface waviness. Some methods to
improve surface finish are:

Table 27.3 Typical through-cutting traverse rates (in mm/s) with AWJs for different composites3

Material Thickness (mm)

0.79 1.60 3.18 6.36 12.7 19.1 50.8
Organic matrix composites:
Plastic and composites 53 38 29 21 15 10 2.5
Carbon-carbon composites 42 32 22 13 7.5 4 0.85
Epoxy-glass composites 105 95 76 42 17 12 15
Graphite-epoxy composites 74 63 52 40 15 10 4.2
Kevlar (steel reinforced) 42 25 17 8.5 4.7 2.5 0.63
Cutting conditions: p = 345 MPa, d, = 0.299 mm, d, = 0.762 mm, garnet mesh 80
Sic abrasives

Table 27.4 Surface waviness and corresponding cutting traverse rates (in mm/s) for some composite
materials3

Material Rh4S surface waviness (pm)

1.9 2.5 3.8 5 6 8
A1,OJSiC (20%) 6.35 mm - - 0.29 - - -
Toughened zirconia (6.36 mm) 0.15 0.2 - 0.4 - 0.5
Mg/B,C (15%) 6.36 I T U ~ - 3 - 6 - 8
Graphite+poxy composites (3.18mm thick) - 4 8 12 20 30
Graphite-epoxy composites (18.5 mm thick) 0.6 0.85 1.7 2.5 3.4 4.25
Cutting conditions: p = 370 MPa, dn = 0.299 mm, d, 0.762 mm, garnet mesh 80
604 Composite machining
0 multipassing by traversing the jet without
lateral feed;
0 use of finer abrasive and increasing number
of passes;
0 to improve surface roughness, use softer
abrasives like silica sand, copper slag etc;
0 finishing with slurried abrasive yields
improvement in surface roughness.
27.7.3 MILLING
The main objective of AWJ in milling is to pro-
duce a cavity with controlled depth. In this
method, the jet material interaction is the depth
determining factor. The production of kerf
irregularity can be reduced by manipulating
one of the factors, such as traverse rate, increas-
ing the stand off distance or angling the jets.
To mill square pockets the traverse speed
can be varied rather than angling the water jet
head. In this case the nozzle can be manipu-
lated over the workpiece with an oscillatory
drive using a motor and an eccentric. A uni-
form traverse rate and exposure time can
produce a uniform depth cavity. A hard mate-
rial pattern with the shape to be milled can be
used to mask the target surface. This way the
mask will allow jetting in the traverse zones
where the traverse rate is uniform. Surface fin-
ish variations can be achieved by using
different abrasive materials or grit sizes.
Harder abrasives can be used for higher mate-
rial removal rates and softer abrasives for
finishing operations.
27.7.4 DRILLING
Hole drilling can be performed in any of the
following ways depending on the diameter
and accuracy of the holes: piercing is suitable
for small diameter holes; kerf cutting is suit-
able for large diameter holes; milling is
suitable for blind holes.
Techniques of hole piercing vary for each
composite material. Piercing glass, acrylic and
polycarbonate show that the general geometri-
cal features of pierced holes are similar. Particle
velocity decreases as the depth increases which
can be attributed to the effect of return flow
which reduces particle velocity and interferes
with the impact process. Pressures of 3040
MPa are common for piercing glass. High pres-
sures are necessary to pierce brittle or
laminated composites. The higher pressures
may cause the following problems: fracture
due to shock loading of water; hydrocracking
due to hole hydrodynamic pressurization;
delamination due to loading.
Holes larger than the piercing diameter of
the AWJ are first pierced, then profile cut to the
finished diameter being offset by the kerf
amount. Hole shape variance depends on mix-
ing tube length, target material, standoff
distance, depth of hole and dwell time in the
cut. Mixing tube length is important when
drilling materials with high resistance.
Increasing the mixing tube length improves
the distribution of the abrasive with the water
jet. This produces holes that are straighter and
rounded.
Advantages offered by AWJ are:
0 suitable for wide range of composites;
0 can perform many operations like turning,
drilling and milling;
0 no thermal stresses;
0 high as well as low material removal rates;
0 no heavy clamping of workpieces required;
0 omnidirectional machining;
0 process can be automated;
0 optimal range of parameters available to pre-
vent delamination, loading and splintering;
0 fine holes of 0.5 mm (0.012 in) can be
drilled.
Disadvantages:
0 dimensional accuracy is low;
0 temperature rise in cutting region may be
observed;
0 limited data is available with respect to
applications in metal and ceramic compos-
ites;
0 not suitable for materials that are
hydrophilic in nature.

27.8 LASER MACHINING OF COMPOSITES
Lasers are used in various industrial applica-
tions such as drilling, cutting, welding and
heat treatment of metals, etc. In composites,
polymer matrix materials are most suited for
laser cutting. Laser cutting is a non-contact
ablation process in which efficiency is deter-
mined by thermal properties of the workpiece
material. Two types of laser have been used in
industry: Nd-YAG solid state laser and CO,
gas laser. The Nd-YAG laser operates in the
near infrared (IR) region of the spectrum while
CO, gas laser operates in the far infrared
region. The Nd-YAG IR region wavelength is
not absorbed by glass and many plastics while
the CO, far IR region wavelength is.
Applications of Nd-YAG solid state lasers
extend from drilling fine holes in jet engines to
welding implant devices for the medical
industry. It has been determined that the Nd-
YAG laser is very effective in cutting
graphite-epoxy composite materials. The high
power short pulses achieved with this laser
vaporizes both the graphite and epoxy matrix
before the epoxy resin can be overheated.
The CO, gas laser applications extend from
drilling holes in baby bottle nipples to welding
automotive components in assembly lines.
CO, lasers operate in either continuous wave
or pulsed mode. Pulsed mode is preferred
because of high powers obtained and cool
down time. Aramid fiber reinforced plastic
(AFRP) has been cut very effectively by the
CO, lasers. The general characteristics of a
laser cut zone in composite materials are
shown in Fig. 27.5.
The charred layer which includes a zone
with fibers protruding from the matrix and as
outer darkened zone in which the matrix has
undergone some degradation4t5.
Figure 27.6 shows the relationship between
kerf width and cutting speed. For three dimen-
sional (3D) machining two laser beams are
directed through an optical assembly to inter-
sect in the plane of work piece to cut shoulders
and vee grooves.
Ultrasonic machining 605
Advantages:
0 superior quality edges due to high temper-
atures;
0 vaporization of the material in cut zone;
0 extremely localized action;
0 sealing of the edge in the cut zone;
0 pulsed CO, has been demonstrated as the
best laser for processing Kevlar composites.
Disadvantages:
0 beam divergence after its focal point;
0 material thickness of about 9.5 mm (36 in) is
the maximum thickness that can be cut with
1500 W;
0 heat affected zone of varying dimensions.
27.9 ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
(EDMI
Advanced composites can be cut by EDM as
there is no physical contact between the elec-
trodes or workpiece and the tool. In order to
EDM a composite, it should have an electrical
resistivity of less than 1-3 ohm/m. Polymer
matrix composite manufacturers can add a
small amount of copper in the matrix of the
product to allow shaping by EDM. EDM can
be used with conductive silicides, borides, car-
bides, etc. The EDM process is more accurate
than AWJ machining. Small holes of 0.25 mm
(0.01 in) diameter can be drilled in SiC/TiB,
composites. The EDM process is found to be
slow for many production applications.
27.10 ULTRASONIC MACHINING
Ultrasonic machining (USM) incorporates a
tool vibrating at 20 kHz and abrasive in a
slurry to perform impact grinding of brittle
materials. This technique is particularly useful
for machining of ceramic matrix composites
that are difficult to process by conventional
methods. USM is a mechanical material
removal process best suited for machining
brittle materials like glass, ceramics, graphite
and ceramic matrix composites. The process is
limited to workpieces of size below 1OOmm
606 Composite machining

\
I \

I CHARRED LAYER
PROTRUDING FIBRES \
I
i

\ ,
,i 'I
I ICROSS SECTION 1
4
0
L- beam exit side
Fig. 27.5 Schematic of FRP laser cut. (Reproduced
by permission of Marcel Dekker Ltd.) W,: kerf
width at the beam entry side; W,: kerf width at the

02 -

-
Fig. 27.6 Kerf width as a function of cutting speed
for (0/90), laminates. (Reproduced by permission '.'a
'
m u
'
) Bo 80 Irn 120 1

of Marcel Dekker Ltd.) Cutting speed (mm/s)


(3.94 in) because of the limitation on the size of
the tool. Some of the variables that influence
USM for close tolerances are as follows:
Abrasive type and size
Abrasives contained in the slurry do the actual
machining so they must be selected on the
basis of the workpiece material and the surface
quality needed. As in the case of AWJ, larger
abrasive grains give higher material removal
rates and rougher surfaces. The grain diameter
cannot be larger than amplitude of the
sonotrode as this would inhibit the injection of
the grains to the machining gap. Common
types of abrasive used are A1,0, oxide, Sic, BC
and diamond.
Table 27.5 shows recommended abrasive
for various materials. The grain diameter
affects surface roughness, overcut and
machining rates. When high removal rates are
necessary with no high surface quality
required, 180-280 mesh abrasive do the job.
For finer surface finish 320-600 mesh abrasive
is recommended. Table 27.6 shows surface
roughnesses for different workpiece materials.
Table 27.5 Recommended abrasive for various materials6
Material
Graphite
Zirconia
Ceramic matric composites
Metal matrix composites
Table 27.6 Surface roughness for various materials6
Workpiece material
Graphite
Zirconia
Ceramic matrix composites
Metal matrix composites
Ultrasonic machining 607
Sonotrode (tool) material
Tools with diamond tips have good material
removal characteristics and very low wear but
are difficult to machine. Table 27.7 shows accu-
racy results of using a non-rotating steel
sonotrode.
Ultrasonic vibrations
The ideal condition would be the amplitude of
ultrasonic vibration to be equal to the grain
mean diameter. If the amplitude is too small
the abrasive cannot enter the machining gap, if
too large it causes the grains to be incorrectly
projected. A mixture of both the types of abra-
sive may be used and a suitable amplitude
selected to determine which size grain enters
the machining gap.
Surface area
This factor influences removal rates and tool
wear. With a small diameter, higher feed rate
is obtained but also higher tool wear is
noticed. This can be overcome by using a dia-
mond tool or with a closed loop force sensitive
Recommended abrasive
Silicon carbide
Silicon carbide or boron carbide
Silicon carbide
Boron carbide
Surface roughness Ra
@ m)
1-2
0.75
0.70
0.90
608 Composite machining

servo system maintaining accurate machining on prepreg materials like glass fiber, carbon
pressures. Table 27.8 shows typical ultrasonic fiber and Kevlar with reduced fiber damage.
machining rates for a variety of materials6. Advantages:
USM is used in applications like drilling
aerospace cooling holes in ceramic matrix 0 conductive and nonconductive materials
composite turbine blades, slotting, irregular can be machined;
0 material hardness is not so important;
configurations in ceramics and composites,
machining of phased array radar components, 0 there are no chemical or electrical alter-
cutting tool inserts, superconductors, wire ations in the workpiece;
0 3D and complex shapes can be machined
draw dies and extrusion dies. A CNC USM can
cut through 6mm (0.24in) thick composite easily and quickly;
0 no heat affected zone.
layers and produce a controlled depth up to
50mm (1.97in). The latter is important, as Disadvantages:
many composites have backing sheets that
should not be damaged. The ultrasonic action 0 amplitude of ultrasonic vibrations are very
reduces the amount of force required to sever important for proper machining;
the hard materials. This results in a better cut 0 limited sizes can be machined.

Table 27.7 Accuracy results with a non-rotating steel sonotrode6

Material Inlet diameter Outlet diameter Taper Roundness

(mm) (mm) (Yo) (mm)
Graphite 10.23-10.25 10.07-10.10 3.00 0.03"
10.26-10.29 10.02-10.05 2.70 0.03b
Metal matrix composite 10.20-10.24 8.87-9.92 9.00 0.04b
10.09-10.12 8.85-9.90 6.60 0.05b
Ceramic matrix composite 10.11-10.15 10.00 3.50 0.04b
5.04 4.99 1.25 -c
Zirconia 5.05 4.85 5.50 -C
a Tool 1: Exponential,Diameter = 10 mm
Tool 2: Exponential,Tube D = 10 mm, ID = 7 mm
' Tool 3: Exponential,Diameter = 5 mm

Table 27.8 Typical ultrasonic machining rates for a variety materials7

Drilling diameter = 5 mm Drilling diameter = 10 mm

Material Time Removal rate Time Removal rate

(min) (mm3/min) (rnin) (mm3/min)
Graphite 1 164 1.25 224
Ceramic matrix composite 3.5 39 5.6 50
Metal matrix composite 10 7.6 14 9.3
Zirconia 210 0.65 90 3.1

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FURTHER READING
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