Professional Documents
Culture Documents
John D. Buckley
15.1 INTRODUCTION n
E a
Reference directions
Fig. 15.2 Tightly bonded, hexagonally arranged carbon layers held together by weak van der Waals forces.
I
LC
:rdo02
Fig. 15.3 Comparison of (a) carbon turbostratic structure with (b) 3-D graphite lattice (Bokros, 1969).
Carbon fibers 335
The anisotropy of the graphite single crystal three precursor materials: rayon, polyacryloni-
encompasses many structural forms of carbon. trile (PAN)and petroleum pitch. Fibers having
It ranges in the degree of preferred orientation a low modulus (27.6 GPa (4 x 106 psi)) are
of the crystallites and influences porosity, formed using a rayon precursor material that
among other variables. A broad range of prop- may be chemically pretreated by a sequence of
erties is the result of this anisotropy. In CC heating steps. First, the fiber is heated to
composites, this range of properties can >400"C (752°F) to allow cellulose to pyrolyze
extend to both constituents. Coupled with a (decomposition or chemical change during
variety of processing techniques that can be thermal conversion of organic materials to car-
used in the fabrication of CC composites, great bon and graphite). Carbonization (continued
flexibility exists in the design of and the resul- heating of organic material to >lOOO"C (1832°F)
tant properties obtained from CC composites. to initiate ordering of the carbon structures
The wide range of properties of carbon produced by pyrolysis) is completed more
materials can be shown when comparing the rapidly at >lOOO"C (1832°F).Upon completion
tensile modulus of commercially manufac- of carbonization, the fiber is graphitized (con-
tured carbon fibers that range from 27.6 GPa tinued heating of carbonized organic materials
(4 x 106psi) to 690 GPa (100 x lo6psi). In fabri- to the 2000-3000°C (3632-5432°F) range of
cation, the fibers can be used in either produce 100% graphite-ordered crystal struc-
continuous or discontinuous form. The direc- ture) by heating to >2000"C (3632°F);the fiber
tionality of the filaments can be varied ranging is now, for all practical purposes, 100% carbon.
from unidirectional lay-ups to multidirec- High-modulus carbon fibers from rayon pre-
tional weaves. Fiber volume fraction cursors are obtained by the additional process
constitutes another variable. The higher the of stretching the carbon fibers at the final heat
volume fraction of a specific high-strength treatment temperature. Nigh-modulus (344
fiber in a matrix, the greater the strength of the GPa (50 x 106 psi)), high-strength (2.07 GPa
composite. The matrix can be formed via two (300 x lo3 psi)) carbon fibers are typically
basic approaches: (1) through the carboniza- made from PAN or, in some cases, mesophase
tion of an organic solid or liquid, such as a pitch precursors. These fibers are processed
resin or pitch, or (2) through the chemical similarly in a three-stage operation (Fig. 15.4)
vapor deposition (CVD) of carbon from a (Diefendorf, 1987).The PAN fibers are initially
hydrocarbon. A range of carbon structures can stretched from 500-1300% and then stabilized
be obtained by either approach. Finally, heat (cross-linked) in an oxygen atmosphere at
treatment of the composite material at graphi- 200°C (392°F)to 280°C (536°F) under tension.
tization temperatures offers additional Carbonization of the fibers is conducted
variability to the properties that can be between 1000°C (1832°F)and 1600°C (2912°F).
obtained. Typically, there is an optimum Finally, graphitization is accomplished at
graphitization temperature at which the high- >2500"C (4532°F). Mesophase pitch fibers
est strength can be obtained for a given undergo the same processing procedure as
composite composition of fiber and matrix PAN fibers but do not require an expensive
(Edie et al., 1986; Stoller et al., 1974). stretching process during heat treatment to
maintain preferred alignment of crystallites
(Fig. 15.4) (Diefendorf, 1987). Control of fiber
15.2 CARBON FIBERS
shape has resulted in improved fiber strength
The properties of carbon fibers can vary over a (4.1 GPa, 600000 psi) (Cogburn et al., 1987)
wide range depending on the organic precur- when produced from melt-spun, mesophase
sor and processing conditions used. At petroleum pitch (Fig. 15.5) (Cogburn et al.,
present, graphite fibers are produced from 1987). Round fibers using the same method
336 Carbon-carbon composites
PAN process
Pitch process 1
tCarbonize
z z I I Graphitize
zim
Fig. 15.4 Carbon fiber production using PAN and pitch processes (Diefendorfer, 1987).
Hydraulic piston
Cartridge housing
Heating collar
Melted-pitch precursor
Spinnerette
Melt-spun carbon
Melt-pressure indicator filaments
Wind-up bobbin
Fig. 15.5 Melt spinning apparatus used to produce noncircular carbon fibers (Cogbum et al., 1987).
Carbonfibers 337
had a strength of 2.1 GPa (300 x lo3 psi) (Edie 2. achieve a more nearly isotropic material;
et al., 1986).Of the shapes studied, the C-shape 3. increase the composite interlaminar tensile
and hollow fibers were found to be superior in strength;
strength to round solid and trilobal cross sec- 4. along with continuous filament substrates,
tions (Edie et al., 1986; Cogburn et al., 1987). obtain a stronger composite by providing
additional nucleation sites that serve to
reduce composite porosity.
15.2.1 CARBON FIBERS IN CARBON MATRIX
The most widely used starting materials are a
Addition of a matrix to carbon fiber, either
carbonized, rayon felt substrate with a
through the carbonization of an organic pre-
pyrolytic carbon matrix and short, chopped
cursor or by the deposition of pyrolytic
fibers in a pitch-based matrix. Felt is produced
carbon, is conducted at 800°C (1472°F) to
through the mechanical carding of viscous
1500°C (2732°F).Subsequent heat treatment of
rayon fibers to produce a continuous web of
the composite material may involve tempera-
fibers. The webs are folded one on top of
tures to 3000°C (5432°F).
another to produce a batt. The batts are then
cut, stacked and needled to produce the
15.2.2 DISCONTINUOUS FIBER COMPOSITES required felt. The rayon felt is subjected to a
controlled carbonization cycle in an inert
Fabrication of discontinuous fiber composites
atmosphere or vacuum; the maximum temper-
uses short carbon fibers combined with either
ature determines such factors as shrinkage,
a pyrolytic carbon or pyrolyzed organic
weight loss and chemical composition of the
matrix. This approach to CC composites gen-
felt. A maximum carbonization temperature of
erally does not have true fiber reinforcement
1200°C (2192°F) is a nominal standard; the
as an objective. Rather, discontinuous fiber
length of the carbonization cycle and rate of
substrates have been used to:
temperature rise are dictated by the thickness
1. increase fabrication capability of large-scale of the felt. Carbon content in the fibers is
structures; ~ 9 8 % .Carbon-arbon composites have also
Fig. 15.6 Models of fiber arrangements for four short-fiber fabrication techniques: (a) flocking lay-up, (b)
pulp molding, (c) isotropic casting, and (d) spray lay-up (Cook, Lambdin and Trent, 1970; Lambdin, Cook
and Marrow, 1969; Lambdin and Cook, 1971).
338 Carbon-carbon composites
been fabricated from short carbon fibers using oriented substrate, usually with no interlock-
isotropic casting, flocking lay-up, spray lay-up ing between layers. Woven fabrics are used to
and pulp-molding techniques (Fig. 15.6) form a two-dimensional laminate with no
(Cook, Lambdin and Trent, 1970; Lambdin, interlocking between layers. Helical filament
Cook and Marrow, 1969; Lambdin and Cook, winding, which is directional, results in con-
1971.).The rationale for using these short fibers tinuous, adjacent layer interlocking.
is to reduce composite anisotropy (Lambdin, Multilayer locking is achieved through com-
Cook and Marrow, 1969). plex weaving patterns or yarn placement
resulting in 'multidirectional' substrates (Fig.
15.7).
15.3 CONTINUOUS FIBER COMPOSITES
Fig. 15.7 Interlocking approaches of continuous filament substrates: (a) tape wrapped, shingle; (b) filament
wound, helix; and (c) multidimensional.
Carbonized organic composites 339
3 t o 5 times I cure I
Fig. 15.10 Fabrication steps involved in manufacture of 2-D carboniarbon part impregnated with
tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS).
normally range from 125°C (257°F) to 175°C To summarize, a typical manufacturing cycle
(347°F) with curing pressures on the order of of a 2-D CC part is shown in Fig. 15.10.First, a
2.76 MPa (400 psi). The reinforced resin lami- woven graphite fabric that is preimpregnated
nate is then post-cured at 200°C (392°F) to with phenolic resin is laid up as a phenolic-
275°C (527°F).As pyrolysis is initiated, shrink- graphite laminate in a mold and is autoclave
ing occurs as the organic phase decomposes. cured. Once cured, the part is pyrolyzed to
Simultaneously the release of vapors from form a carbon matrix surrounding the graphte
pyrolysis expands the composite material. A fibers. The part is then densified by multiple
slow release of these volatile by-products is furfural alcohol reimpregnations and pyrolyza-
required to minimize structural damage to the tions. The resulting CC part then is ready for
char. Finally, as higher temperatures are use in inert or vacuum environments. This
reached, thermal expansion of the carbon char process is very time consuming. A single pyrol-
itself occurs after pyrolysis is complete. After ysis may take >70 h in a low-temperature,
the initial carbonization, the material is then inert-atmosphere furnace.
subjected to a series of reimpregnation and Although CC materials can withstand tem-
carbonization cycles until the desired density peratures >3000"C (5432°F) in a vacuum or in
or the maximum density is achieved. The an inert atmosphere, they oxidize and sublime
reimpregnation process is usually conducted when in an oxygen atmosphere at 600°C
under vacuum and pressure to aid in maxi- (1112°F). To allow for use of CC parts in an
mizing the pore filling. If graphitization is oxidizing atmosphere, they must be com-
desired, the high-temperature heat treatment pounded with materials that produce
may be used after each carbonization step or at oxidation-protective coatings through thermo-
the end of the reimpregnation and recar- chemical reaction with oxygen at >2000"C
bonization cycles. (3632°F) (Buckley, 1967) or they must be coated
Manufacturing 341
and sealed to protect them (Strife and Sheehan, RCC Seal strips
1988). For applications such as the Space (22) LH
Shuttle CC leading edges and nose caps, sur- (22) RH Wing L.E. RCC panels
faces are converted to silicon carbide in a
high-temperature diffusion-coating process
(Fig. 15.10). Because of differences in thermal
expansion between the silicon carbide and the
CC part, the coating develops microcracks
when the part is cooled from the coating tem-
perature. To maintain oxidation protection on
space vehicles such as the Space Shuttle, cracks
are impregnated with tetraethylorthosilicate
(TEOS).The TEOS process leaves silica in all of
the microcracks, greatly enhancing the oxida-
tion protection of the CC substrate. Current
improvements being developed for oxidation
protection of the CC Space Shuttle components
are additions of low-temperature glass formers Nose cap (1)
that enhance the sealing capability of the exist- RCC Seal strip
(1) LH, (1) RH and
ing coating-TEOS system. (3) Lower
RCC ExDansion seal
(1) LH, (1) RH and
15.6 MANUFACTURING (3) Lower
The fabrication process of the Space Shuttle Fig. 15.11 Leading edge structural subsystem
Orbiter nose cap and wing leading edge com- (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
ponents (Fig. 15.11) (Curry, Scott and Webster,
1979) is a multi-step process typical of the
technology used to produce CC composites. furnace and submitting it to a 7-day cycle dur-
The process steps are illustrated in Figs. ing which it is taken to 260°C (500°F) very
15.12-15.16. slowly to avoid distortion and delamination
Initial material lay-up is similar to conven- (Fig. 15.12).
tional practices with fiberglass-reinforced The next step is initial pyrolysis as shown in
plastic parts. Square-weave graphite fabric Fig. 15.13 (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
impregnated with phenolic resin is laid-up in Pyrolysis tooling composed of graphite
an epoxy/fiberglass mold cavity shaped to the restraining fixtures containing the part are
desired configuration (Fig. 15.12) (Curry, Scott loaded into a steel retort that is packed with
and Webster, 1979).Lay-up thickness for these calcined coke. The retort and its contents then
components varies from 19 plies in the exter- undergo a 70 h pyrolysis cycle at 815°C
nal skin and web areas to 38 plies in the (1500°F)converting the phenolic resin to a car-
attachment locations. Upon completion of lay- bon state. During pyrolyzation, the resin forms
up, the part is vacuum-bagged and cured in an a network of interconnected porosity for the
autoclave to 150°C (300°F) for 8 h (Fig. 15.12). escape of volatile matter. This stage is
The cured part is rough trimmed, X-rayed and extremely critical since, during controlled char-
ultrasonically inspected for irregularities fol- ring of the cured resin matrix, the parts are
lowing the cure cycle. Post-cure of the weak and delamination can easily occur if ade-
component involves placing the part in a quate escape paths and time are not ensured.
graphite restraint fixture loading it into the After this initial pyrolysis cycle, the carbon is
342 Carbon-carbon composites
2250
I
1650
w 1100
0
j
2 540 ,
I
2 485 ;
g%
:
u1 320
I
I
UJ 260 ;
8 200
z r , h
I\
I:
150' n I
MATERIAL CUT & 0 BAG (MYLAR) 0 AUTOCLAVE 0 REMOVE BAG LOAD IN POST CURE
COLD I LAY.UP 0 APPLYVACUUM CURE 0 ROUGH T R I M RESTRAIN-
STORAGE I CLOTH 0 CHECK FOR DRILLHOLES ING
j PLIES LEAKS 0 X.RAY AND/OR FIXTURE
I & ULTRASONIC
I DEBULK
Fig. 15.12 Lay-up and cure cycle (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
2205
- 2250
1650
g iioc
540
F 485
5 430
0 370
320
~ 260
a zw
x
C3 150
95
40
-2c
Fig. 15.13 Initial pyrolysis (Curry, Scott and Fig. 15.14 Densification impregnation and cure
Webster, 1979). (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
Manufacturing 343
15.6.1 DENSIFICATION
5 485
430
370
w 320
a
Densification for these shuttle parts is accom-
plished in three impregnation and pyrolysis
s 260
200
150
95
40
cycles (Fig. 15.14) (Curry, Scott and Webster, -20
W
9 320
9 260
5 200
8 150
w 95
W
U 40
8 -20
45 45 45 45 2 .5 IHRS
TO TO TO TO TO HRS
6 o w m 6 a 2%
MIN MIN MIN MIN HRS
.
F I V E CYCLES
EVACUATE
AND
COATED WEIGHT/ COVER INSTALL CONNECT- BACKFILL REMOVE 0 CURE NDE
PART RECORD wlm - VACUUM VACUUMAND WITHTEOS BAG - % HR @ W ' F - X.RAY
PERSPEC VERIFY MESH FITTINGS F I L L LINES MIX CLEAN - 6HR B W F - EDDY
206.741 -SRi -FILL MIXTEOS OVEN CURE PART CURRENT
- PRi TUEES ILIWIDI 225" + 5O'F -ULTRASONIC
COVER A N D FILL I 4 5 6 0 MINI 0 WEIGH/
WITH MESH RESERVOIR FEED TEOS RECORD
VACUUM M I X A5 R E Q D
BAG TO COVER
5 T H CYCLE CURE
U TO 2x H R MlNl
COOL T O 1WoF
and oven cured at 315°C (600"F), liberating all labeled Space Shuttle material, is the strength
of the hydrocarbons. This procedure leaves sil- level of the reusable carbon-carbon (RCC)
ica (SiO,) in all of the microcracks and fissuresmaterial used in the Space Shuttle thermal
greatly enhancing the oxidation protection of protection system. Even though this material
the CC structure. is made with low-strength carbon fibers, its
strength efficiency is superior to both superal-
loys -and ceramics at >lOOO°C (1832°F).
15.7 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
Development of advanced carbon-carbon
The extreme thermomechanical requirements (ACC) composites has produced a material
of the Space Shuttle have been the impetus for that is twice as strong as the CC composite
evaluating properties of low-density CC. The first put on the Space Shuttle. The ACC mate-
use of CC on the nose cap and leading edges of rial is made using woven carbon cloth. When
the Space Shuttle makes it imperative to know unidirectional carbon fiber tapes are interplied
as much as possible about all the characteris- with woven cloth to create a hybrid ACC,
tics of this material. The effect of temperature strength in at least one direction can be
on the ratio of tensile strength to density for increased by >345 MPa (>50 000 psi). Current
several classes of high-temperature materials data on thermomechanical and thermochemi-
is shown in Fig. 15.17. The major advantage of cal properties of some of the advanced CC
CC materials for high-temperature applica- systems show that material composition, oxi-
tions is that they do not lose strength as the dation resistance, processing, joining and fiber
use temperature is increased. This property is architecture are producing noticeable
in contrast to other materials such as superal- improvements in CC materials and structures
loys and ceramics. Figure 15.17 shows three (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979; Buch, 1984;
levels of CC strength efficiency. The first, Rummler and Sawyer, 1984; Ransone and
Thermal properties 345
Temperature, OC
0 ,550 1100 1650
I I I **%O
-
High-strengthcarbon-carbon <- 160
Ohlhorst, 1984; Webb, 1985; Gray and Engle, ulus values for the TEOS material are shown
1985; Johnson and Finley, 1985; Sawyer and in Fig. 15.19 (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
Moses, 1985; Maahs and Ransone, 1985; The effect of temperature on the as-fabricated
Ohlhorst and Ransone, 1985). tension strength properties is shown in Fig.
CC components on the Space Shuttle are 15.20 (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979). As
required to have adequate strength at design shown in Figs 15.17 and 15.20, the strength of
temperatures to withstand the aerodynamic CC composite material does not decrease sig-
loads of flight and to continue to do so for the nificantly with temperature. Typically, above
operational life of the component. Minimum 1425°C (2600°F) there is an increase in
mechanical properties are guaranteed through strength.
statistical analysis of a data sampling having The effect of substrate mass loss through
at least 99% probability and 95% confidence. oxidation on tensile strength is shown in Fig.
The primary variables affecting the structural 15.21 (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979). Mass
design allowables are temperature, material loss results in a significant reduction in design
thickness, coating thickness, biaxial stress con- allowable stress, emphasizing the value of the
ditions and substrate mass loss due to additional oxidation protection provided by
oxidation through the mission life of the com- the TEOS treatment.
ponent (Table 15.2) (Curry, Scott and Webster,
1979). 15.8 THERMAL PROPERTIES
Figure 15.18 (Curry, Scott and Webster,
1979) illustrates the typical effect of ply thick-
15.8.1 THERMAL OXIDATION
ness on the allowable stress values for tension,
bending, compression and shear used for A critical requirement when using CC com-
design. As fabricated, room temperature mod- posites is the ability to withstand numerous
346 Carbon-carbon composites
Table 15.2
Simultaneous cycling - - 3 18
Mission cycling
Tension 3 36 - -
Flexure 3 24 - -
Compression 3 27 - -
COMPRESSION
NOTE
BREAK
IN
SCALE TENSION 7
IN-PLANE SHEAR
14 I I 1 I 1 I
15 20 25 30 35 40
NUMBER OF PLIES
Fig. 15.18 Design allowables at room temperature as-fabricated (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
Thermal properties 347
35 r T V P I C A L SECANT HOOVLUS
E
Y
14
t
7.0 1 Gw
3.5 1 1 I 1 1 I 1
I5 10 25 30 35 4a
NUMBER OF PLIES
Fig. 15.19 Design allowables at room temperature as-fabricated (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
thermal and thermomechanical loads during flaws were performed over a wide range of
re-entries of the Space Shuttle into the earth's pressures and temperatures in both plasma arc
atmosphere. Although CC Space Shuttle com- jets and radiant-heating test facilities. Arc jet
ponents have an oxidation-inhibiting silicon tests on CC specimens ranged in temperature
carbide coating, they can lose mass over an from 815°C (1500°F) to 1870°C (3400°F) and
extended temperature range without apparent atmospheric pressures from 0.01 Pa to 0.10 Pa.
surface recession. Photomicrographs of CC Radiant-test conditions ranged from 420°C
specimen surfaces show minute fissures and (800°F)to 1425°C (2600°F)and pressures rang-
thermal microcracks, some of which terminate ing from 0.01 Pa to 1.0 Pa. Mass-loss data for
at the coating substrate interface. Specimens the CC shuttle specimens exposed to the arc jet
exposed to convective and radiant heat trans- and radiant-heating tests are presented in Figs
fer tests micrographically have shown the 15.22 and 15.23. Figure 15.22 (Curry, Scott and
presence of voids at the coating substrate sur- Webster, 1979) shows mass loss at 980°C
face. Tests to characterize the effects of these (1800°F)and 0.05 Pa as a function of exposure
z0 . ---_______________---------
___- 28 PLY
111 P L V
2
Y
E 35
.
2
0 -
v)
2
w
I-
28 -
m
ss -
2 ur
< 2 1 - I I . I I I I I 1
Fig. 15.20 Design allowables as-fabricated (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
348 Carbon-carbon composites
38 PLY
28 PLY
25 P L Y
1s P L Y
3
c
UJ 1.4
I 1 I 1 J
0 4.9 9.8 14.7 1U.6 24.5
MASS LOSS - kdm’x 1P
Fig. 15.21 Design allowables conditioned (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
P n
z 19.6 -
n 39.0
NONTEOS \ /
/ -
-i
.x
W
- /
d/
/
/
P
9
I 14.7
v)
8/
v)
P,
s N O N TEOS
’ /
/
$ 9.8 - ,
4
I ,
- 9 . 8 W I T1
H TEOS 1
4.9 - d / ,’ &--e---
B
8 \WITH TEOS
I I I I 1
a 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
EXPOSURE TIME HOURS EXPOSURE T I M E HOURS
Fig. 15.22 Mass loss comparison plasma arc jet Fig. 15.23 Mass loss comparison radiant environ-
environment (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979). ment (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
Applications 349
14.5 7
11.1-
,- SPECIFIC HEAT
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
\
'F ai.
PARALLEL TO PLY
B
E
1
8
i'
5'8'
2.9.
-THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY PERPENDICULAR
TO PLY
a
f
-0
-28(1
+T
-OTAL
-18 280
EMISSIVITY
538
TEMPERATURE "C
818 1094
-
1372 16sO
Fig. 15.24 Reinforced carbon-carbon thermal properties (Curry, Scott and Webster, 1979).
thermal conductivity is dependent upon the CC material systems using coatings, TEOS
mass loss experienced by the CC composite, and additions to the basic CC recipe have
resulting from subsurface oxidation. improved the oxidation resistance of products
Results of thermal conductivity studies for made of CC composites by an order of magni-
shuttle CC composite shuttle materials are tude. These composites are being used in
shown in Fig. 15.24 (Curry, Scott and Webster, products such as the nozzle in the F-100 jet
1979).To simplify thermal modeling, no differ- engine afterburner, turbine wheels operating
entiation has been made for conductivity at >40 000 rpm, nonwetting crucibles for
variation resulting from the number of plies in molten metals, nose caps and leading edges
the substrate. Results for conditioned speci- for missiles and for the Space Shuttle, wind-
mens having a mass loss of 0-5 Pa (0.1 lb/ft2) tunnel models and racing car and commercial
suggest that thermal conductivity decreases disk brakes (Klein, 1986).
with mass loss. Figure 15.24 also shows that Pushing the state of the art in CC compos-
neither specific heat nor emittance was ites is the piston for internal combustion
affected by material or mass loss conditioning. engines (Miller and Grimes, 1982; Taylor,
1985). The CC piston (Fig. 15.25) would per-
form the same way as any piston in a
15.9 APPLICATIONS
reciprocating internal combustion engine
An example of the state of the art in CC com- while reducing weight and increasing the
posite applications is a one-piece, bladed mechanical and thermal efficiencies of the
turbine rotor that, in service, is coated to pre- engine. The CC piston concept features a low
vent oxidation. The rotor offers higher piston-to-cylinder wall clearance; this clear-
temperature performance without cooling; ance is so low, in fact, that piston rings and
low weight and use of low-cost, non-strategic skirts are unnecessary. These advantages are
materials (Miller and Grimes, 1982).Other gas made possible by the negligible coefficient of
turbine engine applications using CC compos- thermal expansion of this kind of CC (0.54 x
ites include exhaust nozzle flaps and seals, /OF). (Carbon-carbon composites can
augmenters, combustors and acoustic panels. have a range of thermal expansion coefficients,
350 Carbon-carbon composites
REFERENCES
Beatty, R.T. and Kipplinger, D.V., 1970, Gas pulse
impregnation of graphite with carbon. Nuclear
Application and Technology, 8(6):488495.
Bokros, J.C., 1969, Deposition, Structure and
Properties of Pyrolytic Carbon. Chemistry and
Physics of Carbon-A Series of Advances, (ed.
Philip L. Walker, Jr.) pp. 1-118. Marcel Dekker,
InC.
Buch, J.D., 1984, Graphite Crystals - A General
Model for Diverse Carbon Forms. Metal Matrix,
Carbon and Ceramic Matrix Composites, (ed. John
D. Buckley) NASA CP-2357, pp. 119-135.
Buckley, J.D., 1967, Statis, Subsonic and Supersonic
Oxidation of JT Graphite Composites, NASA TLN
D-4231.
Fig. 15.25 Carbon+arbon automotive piston. Cogbum, J.W., Fain, C.C., Edie, D.D. and Leigh,
H.D., 1987, Processing C-Shape Pitch-Based
Carbon Fibers. Metal Matrix, Carbon and Ceramic
Matrix Composites, (ed. John D. Buckley) NASA
depending on the processing techniques.) CC (2-2482, pp. 185-200.
material maintains its strength at elevated Cook, J.L., F. Lambdin and P.E. Trent, 1970,
temperatures allowing the piston to operate at Discontinuous Carbon/Carbon Composite
Fabrication. Carbon Composite Technology - With
higher temperatures and pressures than those Special Emphasis on Carbon/Carbon Systems. Proc
of a comparable metal piston. The high emit- 10th Ann. Symp. New Mexico Section of ASME
tance and low thermal conductivity of the CC and University of New Mexico, pp. 143-171.
piston should improve the thermal efficiency Curry, D.M., Scott, H.C. and Webster, C.N., 1979,
of the engine because less heat energy is lost to Material Characteristics of Space Shuttle
the piston and cooling system. The elimination Reinforced Carbon-Carbon. Paper read at the
of rings reduces friction, thus improving 24th National SAMPE Symposium, 1-9 May,
1979, at San Francisco, CA.
mechanical efficiency.
Diefendorf, R.J., 1987, Carbon/Graphite Fibers.
Besides being lighter than conventional pis- Engineered Materials Handbook 1: 49-53.
tons, the CC piston can produce cascading Dienes, G.J., 1952, Mechanism for Self-Diffusion in
effects that could reduce the weight of other Graphite. Applied Physics 23(11): 1194-1200.
reciprocating components such as the crank- Edie, D.D., Fox, N.K., Barnett, B.C. and Fain, C.C.,
shaft, connecting rods, flywheels and 1986, Melt-Spun Non-Circular Carbon Fibers.
balances, thus improving specific engine per- Carbon 24(4): 477482.
Gray, P.E. and Engle, G.B., 1985, Wettability of
formance (Taylor, 1985). Carbon/Carbon Composites and Carbon Fibers
by Glass Sealants Used in Oxidation Inhibition.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Metal Matrix, Carbon and Ceramic Matrix
Composites, (ed. John D. Buckley) NASA
The author acknowledges Mr. D.M. Curry of 0-2406, pp. 149-162.
NASA Johnson Space Center and H.C. Scott Johnson, A.C. and Finley, J.W., 1985,
and C.N. Webster of the Vought Corporation Carbodcarbon Composites for Advanced
Spacecraft. Metal Matrix, Carbon and Ceramic
for the data, as referenced, on which a portion
Matrix Composites, (ed. John D. Buckley) NASA
of the present paper is based. (3-2406, pp. 175-190.
Acknowledgement is also given to Mrs. H.A. Kanter, M.A., 1957, Diffusion of Carbon Atoms in
Coombs for her valuable contribution in Natural Graphite Crystals. Physics Review 107
assisting in the formatting of this paper. (3):655-663.
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