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The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system that consists of 24
orbiting satellites, each of which makes two circuits around the Earth every 24 hours. These
satellites transmit three bits of information ± the satellite's number, its position in space, and the
time the information is sent. These signals are picked up by the GPS receiver, which uses this
information to calculate the distance between it and the GPS satellites.

With signals from three or more satellites, a GPS receiver can triangulate its location on the
ground (i.e., longitude and latitude) from the known position of the satellites. With four or more
satellites, a GPS receiver can determine a 3D position (i.e., latitude, longitude, and elevation). In
addition, a GPS receiver can provide data on your speed and direction of travel. Anyone with a
GPS receiver can access the system. Because GPS provides real-time, three-dimensional
positioning, navigation, and timing 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, all over the world, it is used in
numerous applications, including GIS data collection, surveying, and mapping.


 


In a nutshell, GPS is based on satellite ranging - calculating the distances between the receiver
and the position of 3 or more satellites (4 or more if elevation is desired) and then applying some
good old mathematics. Assuming the positions of the satellites are known, the location of the
receiver can be calculated by determining the distance from each of the satellites to the receiver.
GPS takes these 3 or more known references and measured distances and "triangulates" an
additional position.

As an example, assume that I have asked you to find me at a stationary position based upon a
few clues which I am willing to give you. First, I tell you that I am exactly 10 miles away from
your house. You would know I am somewhere on the perimeter of a sphere that has an origin as
your house and a radius of 10 miles. With this information alone, you would have a difficult time
to find me since there are an infinite number of locations on the perimeter of that sphere.

Second, I tell you that I am also exactly 12 miles away from the ABC Grocery Store. Now you
can define a second sphere with its origin at the store and a radius of 12 miles. You know that I
am located somewhere in the space where the perimeters of these two spheres intersect - but
there are still many possibilities to define my location.

Adding additional spheres will further reduce the number of possible locations. In fact, a third
origin and distance (I tell you am 8 miles away from the City Clock) narrows my position down
to just 2 points. By adding one more sphere, you can pinpoint my exact location. Actually, the
4th sphere may not be necessary. One of the possibilities may not make sense, and therefore can
be eliminated.

For example, if you know I am above sea level, you can reject a point that has negative
elevation. Mathematics and computers allow us to determine the correct point with only 3
satellites.

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GPS satellites are orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 11,000 miles. The DOD can predict the
paths of the satellites vs. time with great accuracy. Furthermore, the satellites can be periodically
adjusted by huge land-based radar systems. Therefore, the orbits, and thus the locations of the
satellites, are known in advance. Today's GPS receivers store this orbit information for all of the
GPS satellites in what is known as an almanac. Think of the almanac as a "bus schedule"
advising you of where each satellite will be at a particular time. Each GPS satellite continually
broadcasts the almanac. Your GPS receiver will automatically collect this information and store
it for future reference.

The Department of Defense constantly monitors the orbit of the satellites looking for deviations
from predicted values. Any deviations (caused by natural atmospheric phenomenon such as
gravity), are known as ephemeris errors. When ephemeris errors are determined to exist for a
satellite, the errors are sent back up to that satellite, which in turn broadcasts the errors as part of
the standard message, supplying this information to the GPS receivers.

By using the information from the almanac in conjuction with the ephemeris error data, the
position of a GPS satellite can be very precisely determined for a given time.
GSM Technology:
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Popular cellular phone operators in India use GSM or the CDMA technology to provide voice
and data services. Here I would like to explain these terms, what they mean, their implications to
lay-persons who do not understand technical jargon.

" : GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications. Just like computers, mobile
phones have evolved over time. There were first generation mobile phones in the 70's, there are
2nd generation mobile phones in the 80's and 90's, and now there are 3rd gen phones which are
about to enter the Indian market. GSM is called a 2nd generation, or 2G communications
technology.

Now, GSM makes use of two principles. The first called Time division Multiplexing is very
simple. Let's say that one of your friends possesses the new and sleek Apple's IPhone. Everyone
wants to try a hand at your new accessory. What do you'll do? You lend it to your friend Tim for
sometime, then you let John listen to music on it, then you let Linda check her e-mails on it, and
finally you let Nancy search on google. So what did you do ? You allowed each of your friends
to share you IPhone for sometime. That is, you allowed you IPhone to be shared in time.

On the same lines, in GSM, the radio frequency say 890 Mhz is shared by different users in time.
This means if user A, B, C and D all talk at the same time. You assign the 890 Mhz frequency to
A for some time and allow him to talk, then you assign 890 band to B for sometime to speak,
then to C , and finally to D, before coming back to A. So the process continues in a round robin
fashion, as long as A, B, C, and D want to talk. This way many users talk at same time on the
same frequency. This has to be done, because as we now frequency or Bandwidth is a scarce
resource and is not available in plentiful, so it must be shared.

Now the second principle that GSM uses is Frequency Division Multiplex. In Frequency
Division Multiplex, users A, B, C and D, all use different frequency say 890, 900, 910 , 920 for
their respective communications. A very good example of this is Radio broadcasting. Because all
the radio operators like Rad FM, Go FM, Radio Mirchi want to operate in the same area, they
use different frequencies for communication 91.0FM, 93.5FM, 94.6 FM, 108FM. So to listen to
different communications, you have to tune in the receiver set to different frequencies.

Now, GSM uses a combination of TDMA and FDMA. This means that users A and B are not
only sharing the channel in time but also frequency. This means that user A is on the channel
890Mhz for 2 seconds, then jumps to 900Mhz channel for the next to seconds, then jumps to
910Mhz for the next 2 seconds and so on... Thus, each user is uses a different frequency at
different time slots. This is called Frequency Hopping.
  "

During the early 1980s, analog cellular telephone systems were experiencing rapid growth in
Europe, particularly in Scandinavia and the United Kingdom, but also in France and Germany.
Each country developed its own system, which was incompatible with everyone else's in
equipment and operation. This was an undesirable situation, because not only was

the mobile equipment limited to operation within national boundaries, which in a unified Europe
were increasingly unimportant, but there was also a very limited market for each type of
equipment, so economies of scale and the subsequent savings could not be realized. The
Europeans realized this early on, and in 1982 the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs
(CEPT) formed a study group called the Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) to study and develop a
pan-European public land mobile system. The proposed system had to meet certain criteria:
Rp Good subjective speech quality
Rp Low terminal and service cost
Rp Support for international roaming
Rp Ability to support handheld terminals
Rp Support for range of new services and facilities
Rp Spectral efficiency
Rp ISDN compatibility
In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunication Standards
Institute (ETSI), and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990. Commercial
service was started in mid-1991, and by 1993 there were 36 GSM networks in 22 countries [6].
Although standardized in Europe, GSM is not only a European standard. Over 200 GSM
networks (including DCS1800 and PCS1900) are operational in 110 countries around the world.
In the beginning of 1994, there were 1.3 million subscribers worldwide [18], which had grown to
more than 55 million by October 1997. With North America making a delayed entry into the
GSM field with a derivative of GSM called PCS1900, GSM systems exist on every continent,
and the acronym GSM now aptly stands for Global System for Mobile communications. The
developers of GSM chose an unproven (at the time) digital system, as opposed to the then
standard analog cellular systems like AMPS in the United States and TACS in the United
Kingdom. They had faith that advancements in compression algorithms and digital signal
processors would allow the fulfillment of the original criteria and the continual improvement of
the system in terms of quality and cost. The over 8000 pages of GSM recommendations try to
allow flexibility and competitive innovation among suppliers, but provide enough
standardization to guarantee proper interworking between the components of the system. This is
done by providing functional and interface descriptions for each of the functional entities defined
in the system.
&' &("
From the beginning, the planners of GSM wanted ISDN compatibility in terms of the services
offered and the control signalling used. However, radio transmission limitations, in terms of
bandwidth and cost, do not allow the standard ISDN B-channel bit rate of 64 kbps to be
practically achieved. Using the ITU-T definitions, telecommunication services can be divided
into bearer services, teleservices, and supplementary services. The most basic teleservice
supported by GSM is telephony. As with all other communications, speech is digitally encoded
and transmitted through the GSM network as a digital stream. There is also an emergency
service, where the nearest emergency-service provider is notified by dialing three digits (similar
to 911). A variety of data services is offered. GSM users can send and receive data, at rates up to
9600 bps, to users on POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service), ISDN, Packet Switched Public Data
Networks, and Circuit Switched Public Data Networks using a variety of access methods and
protocols, such as X.25 or X.32. Since GSM is a digital network, a modem is not required
between the user and GSM network, although an audio modem is required inside the GSM
network to interwork with POTS. Other data services include Group 3 facsimile, as described in
ITU-T recommendation T.30, which is supported by use of an appropriate fax adaptor. A unique
feature of GSM, not found in older analog systems, is the Short Message Service (SMS). SMS is
a bidirectional service for short alphanumeric (up to 160 bytes) messages. Messages are
transported in a store-and-forward fashion. For point-to-point SMS, a message can be sent to
another subscriber to the service, and an acknowledgement of receipt is provided to the sender.
SMS can also be used in a cell-broadcast mode, for sending messages such as traffic updates or
news updates. Messages can also be stored in the SIM card for later retrieval [2].

Supplementary services are provided on top of teleservices or bearer services. In the current
(Phase I) specifications, they include several forms of call forward (such as call forwarding when
the mobile subscriber is unreachable by the network), and call barring of outgoing or incoming
calls, for example when roaming in another country. Many additional supplementary services
will be provided in the Phase


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In order to connect micro controller or a PC to GSM or ZIGBEE modem a serial port

is used. Serial, is a very common protocol for device communication that is standard on almost
every PC. Most computers include RS-232 based serial ports. Serial is also a common
communication protocol that is used by many devices for instrumentation. In serial
communication, the data is sent one bit at a time where as in parallel communication; the data is
sent a byte or more at time. Serial communication uses a single data line where as the parallel
communication uses 8 bit data line, this makes serial communication not only inexpensive but
also makes it possible for two computers located in two different cities to communicate over the
telephone.

RS-232 WAVEFORM

p
TTL/CMOS Serial Logic Waveform p
p
The diagram above shows the expected waveform from the UART when using the
common 8N1 format. 8N1 signifies 8 Data bits, No Parity and 1 Stop Bit. The RS-232 line, when
idle is in the Mark State (Logic 1). A transmission starts with a start bit which is (Logic 0). Then
each bit is sent down the line, one at a time. The LSB (Least Significant Bit) is sent first. A Stop
Bit (Logic 1) is then appended to the signal to make up the transmission.

The data sent using this method, is said to be . That is the data is  between a Start
and Stop Bit.

pp

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1. +3 to +25 volts to signify a "Space" (Logic 0).

2. -3 to -25 volts for a "Mark" (logic 1).

3. Any voltage in between these regions (i.e. between +3 and -3 Volts) is undefined.

The data byte is always transmitted @



p.

The bits are transmitted at specific time intervals determined by the (  of the serial
signal. This is the signal present on the RS-232 Port of your computer, shown below.

p
YS-232 Logic Waveform p

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A standard serial interface for PC, RS232C, requires negative logic, i.e., logic 1 is -3V to -12V
and logic 0 is +3V to +12V. To convert TTL logic, say, TxD and RxD pins of the
microcontroller thus need a converter chip. A MAX232 chip has long been using in many
microcontrollers boards. It is a dual RS232 receiver / transmitter that meets all RS232
specifications while using only +5V power supply. It has two onboard charge pump voltage
converters which generate +10V to -10V power supplies from a single 5V supply. It has four
level translators, two of which are RS232 transmitters that convert TTL/CMOS input levels into
+9V RS232 outputs. The other two level translators are RS232 receivers that convert RS232
input to 5V. Typical MAX232 circuit is shown below.



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0!-!

Rp Meets or exceeds TIA/EIA-232-F and ITU recommendation V.28.
Rp Operates with a single 5V power supply with 1µF Charge pump capacitors.
Rp Operates up to 120 kbits/s.
Rp Two drivers and two receivers.
Rp ¢30V input levels.
Rp Low supply current. Typically 8mA.
Rp ESD protection exceeds JESD 22 ± 2000 V Human body model

Upgrade with improved ESD (15-kV HBM) and 0.1µF Charge pump capacitors are available.


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In 1981, Intel Corporation introduced an 8-bit microcontroller called the 8051. This
microcontroller had 128 bytes of RAM, 4K bytes of on-chip ROM, two timers, one serial port,
and four ports (each 8-bits wide) all on a single chip. The 8051 is an 8-bit processor, meaning
that the CPU can work on only 8 bits of data at a time. Data larger than 8 bits has to broken into
8-bit pieces to be processed by the CPU.

The 8051 has a total of four I/O ports, each 8 bits wide. Although the 8051 can have a maximum
of 64K bytes of on chip ROM, many manufacturers have put only 4K bytes on the chip. There
are different flavors of the 8051 in terms of speed and amount of on-chip ROM, but they are all
compatible with the original 8051 as far as the instructions are concerned. The various members
of the 8051 family are 8051 microcontroller, 8052 microcontroller and 8031 microcontroller.

*
,

The basic architecture consists of the following features:

Rp an eight bit ALU

Rp 32 discrete I/O pins (4 groups of 8) which can be individually accessed
Rp two 16 bit timer/counters
Rp full duplex UART
Rp 6 interrupt sources with 2 priority levels
Rp 128 bytes of on board RAM
Rp separate 64K byte address spaces for DATA and CODE memory

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  3  Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can
sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high
impedance inputs. Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data
bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode P0 has internal pull up¶s.
Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming, and outputs the code bytes during
program verification. External pull up¶s are required during program verification.

       Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull up¶s. The Port 1 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high
by the internal pull up¶s and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally
being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull up¶s. Port 1 also receives
the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification. 

  !   Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull up¶s. The Port 2 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high
by the internal pull up¶s and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally
being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull up¶s. Port 2 emits the high-
order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external
data memory that uses 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, it uses strong
internal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that uses 8-bit
addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2
also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and
verification.

 -Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull up¶s. The Port 3 output buffers
can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the
internal pull up¶s and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being
pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull up¶s. Port 3 also receives some control
signals for Flash programming and verification.

6$Address Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during
accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash
programming. In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator
frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one
ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory. If desired, ALE operation
can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during
a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-
disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.

#Program Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.


6/External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to
fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note,
however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be
strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt
programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt
VPP.

$ c:The 8051 uses the crystal to synchronize it¶s operation. Effectively, the 8051
operates by "machine cycles." A single machine cycle is the minimum amount of time in which a
single 8051 instruction can be executed It needs an external crystal thats decides the operating
frequency of the 8051.This can be achieved in two ways
The crystal is connected to pins 18 and 19 with stabilizing capacitors. 12 MHz
(11.059MHz) crystal is often used and the capacitance ranges from 20pF to 40pF. The oscillator
can also be a TTL clock source connected with a NOT gate as shown

234 78

A cycle is, in reality, 12 pulses of the crystal. That is to say, if an instruction takes one machine
cycle to execute, it will take 12 pulses of the crystal to execute. Since we know the crystal is
pulsing 11,059,000 times per second and that one machine cycle is 12 pulses, we can calculate
how many instruction cycles the 8051 can execute per second:

11,059,000 / 12 = 921,583

1
 (9
8
11.0592 MHz crystals are often used because it can be divided to give you exact clock rates for
most of the common baud rates for the UART, especially for the higher speeds (9600, 19200).
Despite the "oddball" value, these crystals are readily available and commonly used.

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A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or
monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. Each pixel consists of a
column of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent electrodes, and two
polarizing filters, the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Without the
liquid crystals between them, light passing through one would be blocked by the other. The
liquid crystal twists the polarization of light entering one filter to allow it to pass through the
other.

A program must interact with the outside world using input and output devices that
communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices attached to an
controller is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the contollers are
16X1, 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line by 1 line 16 characters per line
by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively.

Many microcontroller devices use 'smart LCD' displays to output visual information.
LCD displays designed around LCD NT-C1611 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is e len
even possible to produce a readout using the 5X7 dots plus cursor of the display. They have a 8
standard ASCII set of characters and mathematical symbols. For an 8-bit data bus, the display 2
requires a +5V supply plus 10 I/O lines (RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0). For a 4-bit data 3
bus it only requires the supply lines plus 6 extra lines(RS RW D7 D6 D5 D4). When the LCD 4
display is not enabled, data lines are tri-state and they do not interfere with the operation of the c
microcontroller. e
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This is basically a 2x16 lcd the type of LCD used here is of specification JHD 162A series

It consists of 16 pins .each pin had it¶s own purpose as explained below
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#: Line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are sending it
data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set
the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely
ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD
datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again.

: Line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a
command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1),
the data being sent is text data which sould be displayed on the screen. For example, to display
the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high.

1: Line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the data bus
is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or
reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are
write commands, so RW will almost always be low. Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines
(depending on the mode of operation selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the
lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.

 

 


‡E - 0 Access to LCD disabled

- 1 Access to LCD enabled
‡ R/W - 0 Writing data to LCD
- 1 Reading data from LCD
‡ RS - 0 Instructions
- 1 Character

1
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1) Set R/W bit to low

2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)

3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)

4) Set E line to high

5) Set E line to low

 

:
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1) Set R/W bit to high

2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)
3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)
4) Set E line to high
5) Set E line to low
In this way writing data to LCD takes place .Now let us see some of the applications of lcd

LCD¶s do not emit light directly.

They are used in a wide range of applications including: computer monitors, television,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices
such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCD¶s have
displaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact,
lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes. They are available in
a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use
phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in.

4
 


The power supply circuits built using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators.
Starting with an ac voltage, a steady dc voltage is obtained by rectifying the ac voltage, then
filtering to a dc level, and finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed dc voltage. The
regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator unit, which takes a dc voltage and
provides a somewhat lower dc voltage, which remains the same even if the input dc voltage
varies, or the output load connected to the dc voltage changes. The block diagram of power
supply is shown in fig below
 



 

The potential transformer will step down the power supply voltage (0-230V) to (0-6V) level.
Then the secondary of the potential transformer will be connected to the precision rectifier,
which is constructed with the help of op±amp. The advantages of using precision rectifier are
it will give peak voltage output as DC, rest of the circuits will give only RMS output.

)

p Bridge rectifier is used to maintain the proper DC polarity at the input to the circuit,
irrespective of telephone line polarity. It comprises of four diodes connected to form a
bridge. It uses the entire AC wave (both positive and negative sections). 1.4V is used up in
the bridge rectifier because each diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two
diodes conducting, as shown in fig below.

ppppppppppppppppppppppp
ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp 



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ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
p

ppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp
pppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppppp





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Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units contain the
circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device, and overload protection
all in a single IC. Although the internal construction of the IC is somewhat different from
that described for discrete voltage regulator circuits, the external operation is much the same.
IC units provide regulation of either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an
adjustably set voltage.


/  

Fig shows the basic connection of a three-terminal voltage regulator IC to a load. The fixed
voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vin, applied to one input terminal, a
regulated output dc voltage, Vout, from a second terminal, with the third terminal connected
to ground.

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 The series 78 regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 V. Unregulated input
voltage Vin is filtered by capacitor C1 and connected to the IC¶s IN terminal. The IC¶s OUT
terminal provides a regulated + 12V which is filtered by capacitor C2. The third IC terminal
is connected to ground (GND). The Power Section shown in fig consists of a centre tapped
step-down transformer, which is used to step down the 230V AC into 12V. This 12V is given
to bridge rectifier. The output from the diodes is a full-wave rectifier output. Any unwanted
ac ripples are filtered out using a filter. Now, this is fed to the 7805 voltage regulator that
gives an output voltage of +5V