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CSR
CSR advertisements: advertisements
a legitimacy tool?
Francisca Farache and Keith J. Perks
Brighton Business School, University of Brighton, Brighton, UK 235
Received June 2009
Abstract Revised November 2009,
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate how companies use corporate social March 2010
responsibility (CSR) advertisements to legitimise their ethical positions and how CSR advertisements Accepted March 2010
vary across countries.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper evaluates CSR advertisements from Chevron and
Banco Real published in the news/business magazines (The) Economist and Time in the UK as well as
in Veja and Exame in Brazil, leaders in their categories. The advertisements were analysed using a set
of semiotic concepts.
Findings – Companies use different strategies for publicising CSR. There are campaigns that appeal
to consumer rationality as well as campaigns that appeal to the emotions. There is also evidence that
companies use their advertisements to respond to public pressure and thus create or maintain their
legitimacy in the eyes of society.
Originality/value – CSR communication is an emerging field, with research focusing on corporate
social disclosure mainly through web sites and corporate reports. However, little is known regarding
CSR advertisements. The paper provides insights on this issue and focuses on comparative research,
which is also a neglected area in the CSR field.
Keywords Corporate social responsibility, Communication, Advertisements, Brazil, United Kingdom
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction
Companies are faced with increasing expectations on the part of stakeholders to
engage in social responsibility and are consequently expected to communicate their
corporate social responsibility (CSR) efforts to a varied, influential, alert audience
(Beckman et al., 2006). Despite this, CSR communication remains an emerging field in
academia, with research focusing on corporate social disclosure mainly through web
sites and corporate reports, while little is known about CSR advertisements (exceptions
being Zeghal and Ahmed (1990), Schroder (1997) and Doyle (2009)). Even the term CSR
advertisement is not widely used. Thus, further research is needed in order to
determine how advertisements are processed, strategies that are employed and the
bases on which they are established.
CSR advertisements divulge a social instance, as “they inform about a company’s
commitment to environmental concerns, community relations or the future of mankind,
without any overt attempt to promote a specific product” (Schroder, 1997, p. 277). CSR
print advertisements promote CSR actions to stakeholders, including the wider society,
as it is through communication that the association between corporations and society Corporate Communications: An
is established. Therefore, CSR advertising represents an approved, formalised and International Journal
Vol. 15 No. 3, 2010
official perspective on CSR within the corporation. Thus, CSR advertisements are an pp. 235-248
important area for study, as they demonstrate how companies want to be perceived q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1356-3289
(or evaluated) by society. DOI 10.1108/13563281011068104
CCIJ This paper evaluates advertisements used by corporations to publicise their CRS
15,3 activities through print magazines and analyses advertisements from Banco Real and
Chevron. The ads were gathered from four weekly news/business magazines – two
from each country. The paper then employs Lindblom’s (1994) legitimacy strategies to
explore how the companies advertise CSR in two different contexts (Brazil and the UK),
investigating communicational strategies to legitimise their activity in society through
236 CSR advertising.
The paper is organised as follows: Section 2 examines legitimacy theory and
introduces the strategies used to analyse the CSR advertisements and the research
questions. Section 3 provides the country and company context. Section 4 describes the
methods for collecting and selecting the advertisements. The magazine readership and
analysis method are also discussed. The analysis of the advertisements is in Section 5.
Finally, the paper concludes with a discussion and implications for practice and further
research.

2. Legitimacy theory
Legitimacy theory states that organisations can only secure their existence if they are
perceived as operating within the values and norms of the society (Gray et al., 1996).
This is based on the idea that there is a social contract between business and society in
which society allows the company to operate as long as it behaves in accordance with
society’s norms and values. A legitimacy threat occurs when a company’s behaviour is
perceived as not in accordance with society’s norms. In light of legitimacy theory,
companies within industries that may have greater environmental and social impacts
are expected to disclose environmental information in order to secure their legitimacy
(Branco and Rodrigues, 2006). It is argued that companies that deal directly with
consumers, especially those with greater visibility, will tend to take issues of
community involvement into consideration. Furthermore, larger companies are
predisposed to receiving more attention from the public than smaller companies
(Patten, 1991).
Studies on organisational legitimacy are divided into two groups: strategic and
institutional (Schuman, 1995). “The strategic approach emphasises the ways that
organisations strategically manipulate symbols, through communication behaviour, to
achieve legitimacy” (Massey, 2001, p. 153). The institutional approach considers the
cultural environment and pressures corporations face (Massey, 2001). While this
distinction is not always clear, it has an effect on research. In this paper, the focus is on
corporate advertisements and could, therefore, be labelled “strategic.” Alternatively, in
an attempt to explain corporate behaviour and discuss the findings, institutional forces
are also considered. As suggested by Schuman (1995) and Massey (2001), incorporating
the duality of legitimacy provides a broader picture.
According to legitimacy theory, companies disclose social responsibility
information in order to present a socially responsible image so that their behaviour
can be legitimised with their constituents. Consequently, legitimacy theory has been
widely used to explain social and environmental disclosure by corporations focusing
mainly on corporate social and environmental reports (Gray et al., 1995; Neu et al., 1998,
Hooghiemstra, 2000; Branco and Rodrigues, 2006). An organisation can make use of
four different communicational legitimisation strategies in response to public pressure
(Lindblom, 1994):
 (1) inform stakeholders regarding the intention of the organisation to improve its CSR
performance; advertisements
(2) attempt to change the perceptions stakeholders have regarding events without
changing corporate behaviour;
(3) divert attention from the problem by focusing on a positive activity not linked
with the problem; and
237
(4) try to change stakeholders’ expectations regarding the company’s performance.
CSR can be better understood as a means of reinforcing both reputation and legitimacy,
as it provides an opportunity to communicate to stakeholders the congruence of the
organisation with societal concerns (Clarke and Gibson-Sweet, 1999). This leads to the
development of the following research question:
RQ. What communicational strategies are used by companies in their CSR
advertisements?

3. Context
3.1 Country context
Brazil is well known as a country with strong economic inequalities and social problems.
The income of the richest 1 per cent of the Brazilian population is nearly equal to that of
the poorest 50 per cent and Brazil leads a shameful list of the most unequal countries in
terms of income distribution (Young, 2004). The Gini index (a measurement of income
inequality) is 59.7 in Brazil (Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 2006), making the
country notorious for the concentration of its income and wealth ((The) Economist, 2006).
The main drivers of CSR are believed to be business, civil society and government
(Moon, 2004). However, what happens in a developing country such as Brazil, where civil
society is poorly organised and the government lacks accountability and social
responsibility? In a study of CSR coverage in 54 Brazilian newspapers, Vivarta and
Canela (2006) state that the nature of the CSR coverage demonstrates that, as a rule, the
press has yet to assume its role as a CSR watchdog. Similarly, Brazilian consumers and
consumers in other developing countries are not critical in relation to the corporate social
and environmental performance (Akatu, 2008). A study of 797 social programs in Brazil
found education as an area that receives the most investment, followed by cultural,
social and the environment issues (Damiano-Teixiera and Pompermayer, 2007). These
findings reflect the opinion of Brazilian consumers, who believe that companies should
focus on the areas of health, education, security, poverty, environment and culture, in
that order (Akatu, 2008). The evidence suggests that CSR is in its infancy in Brazil which
started to appear on the agendas of corporations and academia in the 1990s, promoted by
the Instituto Ethos in 1998 (Beghin, 2005).
Conversely, the UK is a country with a strong tradition of CSR and consumers are
aware of the social impact of corporations. For instance, the UK was the first European
country to have a governmental minister for CSR (Moon, 2004). The Gini index in the UK
is 36.8, which is compatible with European Union figures (CIA, 2006). The UK, alongside
The Netherlands, is considered one of the most advanced nations in the world with
regard to CSR (Aaronson and Reeves, 2002). One of the reasons the UK is a point of
reference in this field is its essential part in CSR learning through organisations such as
accountability and business in the community. Moreover, companies and institutional
CCIJ investors focus on issues of long-term social and environmental risks in the UK
15,3 (Aguilera et al., 2006). The government plays a pivotal role in the development of CSR
in the UK, identified as a potential contributor to national advancement (Aaronson,
2003). CSR has become more widespread in the UK than in any other comparable
country and has been encouraged through ministerial leadership, stimulation of the
development of business associations and CSR organisations and the adoption of
238 “flexible” regulation by the Thatcher and Blair governments (Moon, 2004). Beyond
governmental interference, Solomon et al. (2004) identify the growth in media coverage
of CSR issues as a factor that promotes the adoption of CSR in the UK. In the consumers’
opinion, companies should focus on concern for the environment, caring for employees
and conserving energy (Ipsos, 2007).

3.2 Company context

Chevron. With US$17.14 billion in profits, Chevron is the 19th largest company in the
world, according to the Forbes list of the world’s 2000 largest public companies in 2007
(Forbes, 2007). Globally, Chevron (2007) has more than 59,000 employees. In 2007, the
company produced 2.62 million barrels of oil per day. Owing to the nature of their
activities, companies in the oil industry are under close scrutiny from the public and
are pressurised to demonstrate social and environmental responsibility (Coupland,
2005). The oil industry is strongly linked to environmental and human rights scandals
around the globe. In the last 20 years, all of the largest companies have been linked to
scandals: Shell/Brent Spar, Exxon/Alaskan oil spill, British Petroleum/Texas oil
refinery explosion and Total/Burma. Chevron (formerly Texaco) is accused of dumping
wastewater in the rainforest in Ecuador. Protesters claim that the company discarded
18.5 billion gallons of highly carcinogenic toxic waste into swamps, streams and rivers
between 1970 and 1992 (Amazon Watch, 2008). These activists have embraced a
campaign called ChevronToxico, making an analogy with the former company name
(ChevronToxico, 2007). The case was referred to the Ecuadorian courts (Stier, 2007).
Chevron has acknowledged that bribes were paid for oil the company obtained under
the United Nations Oil-for-Food programme in Iraq (Morris, 2007). Nonetheless, these
controversies have not prevented Chevron from being recognised for its CSR practices
and performance. The company occupies ninth place in the Accountability Rating 2007
and was the only American company to be in the top ten (Euroinvestor, 2007).
Accountability is an international non-profit organisation that promotes accountability
for sustainable development. Chevron is also included in the Dow Jones Sustainability
Index for North America (Dow Jones, 2007).
Banco Real. Banco Real is the third largest private-sector bank in Brazil (Banco
Central do Brasil, 2007). Originally a Brazilian bank, Banco Real was bought by the
Dutch ABN Amro Bank in 1998. In October 2007, a consortium formed by The Royal
Bank of Scotland, Fortis and Santander bought 86 per cent of shares from the Dutch
Bank for e71 billion (Guandalini and Dualibi, 2007). Banco Real has 1,138 branches
throughout the country, with 33,004 employees and 4,048,163 account holders. In the
first semester of 2007, Brazilian banks reported nearly double the profitability of
American banks in the same period (Bacoccina, 2007). As a result, the banking
industry is receiving serious criticism for its exorbitant profits in the recessionary
economic climate of Brazil (Borsato, 2007). However, Banco Real has a good reputation
in CSR, recognised through its practices and awards received, such as the ECO Award
from Amcham (American Chamber of Commerce) and Valor Social Award from Valor CSR
Social Magazine. Furthermore, the bank is a member of the Ethos Institute and has advertisements
adopted the equator principles, assuming a public commitment to ensure that the
projects financed by their institutions are developed in a socially responsible way,
reflecting environmental management practices (Wright and Rwabizambuga, 2006).

4. Method 239
The magazines analysed were Veja and Exame in Brazil and (The) Economist and Time
Magazine (Europe Edition) in the UK. The magazines were analysed from May 2006 to
April 2007. During this time period, Chevron published the most CSR advertisements in
the UK, with 36 insertions. In Brazil, Banco Real advertised the most, with 20 insertions.
One campaign from each company was chosen for the present study. Both campaigns
were made up of three advertisements each.
Although the advertisements were collected from two very different countries, the
readerships of these magazines are quite similar. Veja is the leading weekly news
magazine in Brazil, with an average circulation of more than one million (IVC, 2007)
and Exame is a leading business magazine in the country, with a circulation of 180,000
(IVC, 2007). Veja’s reader profile is as follows:
. about 73 per cent are from the highest socioeconomic classes;
.
about 55 per cent are female and 45 per cent are male;
.
the proportion of readers with university and postgraduate degrees is 247 per cent
higher than the national average; and
.
the proportion of readers with an individual monthly income above R$4,500
(approximately £1,300) is 326 per cent higher than the national average.

Exame’s readers include 91 per cent of the CEOs from the 500 largest companies in
Brazil. Its readership is made up mostly of men (66 per cent) between 25 and 49 years of
age (75 per cent) and 66 per cent are part of the highest socioeconomic classes.
In the UK, (The) Economist was chosen, and is considered to be Britain’s most
successful political and business magazine, with a circulation of more than 180,000 per
week in the UK (Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC), 2007). Time Magazine, Europe
Edition, was also chosen as a leading weekly news magazine with average circulation
figures of 550,000 in Europe and 135,000 in the UK (ABC, 2007). (The) Economist’s
readership is mostly male (87 per cent), with an average age of 47 years. The average
yearly personal income of the readership is £118,000, with an average household
income of £166,000. The majority of (The) Economist’s readers work in head offices.
Time’s audience is made up mostly of males (69 per cent); 72 per cent are between
25 and 54 years of age; 64 per cent have a yearly income of more than £44,000; and
67 per cent are employed in a leading position.
The authors’ used a set of semiotic concepts developed by Barthes (1977) in Rhetoric
of Image for the analysis of the advertisements. With regard to images Barthes (1977)
describes two types of messages: denoted (visually explicit) and connotated (in which
one can find the symbolic aspects of the advertisements). The text facilitates the
understanding of the image and has two functions: anchorage and relay. According to
Barthes (1977, pp. 41-2) “anchorage is the most common function of the linguistic
message and is commonly found in press photographs and advertisements.”
CCIJ Anchorage provides an explanation of the image restricted to its polysemy – its
15,3 capacity to have multiple meanings or interpretations. Thus, the anchorage function
has control over the various possibilities of interpretation offered by images, guiding
the reader to the desired meaning. Relay is the explanation of the linguistic message
that the image would not have on its own accord. According to Barthes (1977), in the
relay function the relationship between text and image are complementary.
240
5. Advertisement analysis
Chevron
The Chevron campaign is composed of three different pieces: a 5 per cent reduction,
there are 193 countries and Russia, Iran and Qatar. A 5 per cent reduction was selected
for the focus of the present analysis, as it was inserted first. It was published in both a
one-page format (12 times) and a double-page spread (three times). Within the set of its
constituent elements (visual and textual), the advertisement revolves around the global
need to conserve energy, simultaneously demonstrating what Chevron has been in
favour of this practice. Although it addresses the environment, the company does not
make use of any image relating to the environment or nature; its message is supported
by common elements of a work environment. It has a clear rational appeal, as it lacks
elements that could stimulate emotiveness in the reader. Upon first observation, the
advertisement is divided in two clearly defined parts. At the top of the page, the title is
written in white letters on a green background. Underneath, there is an image with
diverse elements represented, such as a clipboard, notepad, ruler, notebook, paper,
automatic pencil, chart, figure and picture. These elements do not indicate individual
peculiarities, thereby producing an impersonal environment.
The upper part provides the reader with a direct linguistic message (the need for
energy conservation), without being immediately associated with the actions
developed by Chevron. The title in the form of a newspaper heading states that a
5 per cent reduction in global energy use will be enough to power Australia, Mexico
and the UK. This information is followed by a question: “so what are we waiting for?”
Thus, the linguistic message assumes the relay function. The lower part of the
advertisement offers the idea of a random puzzle – a set of elements that correspond to
diverse levels of interest that could be stimulated in the reader. The Chevron
advertisement is structured following a model in which its diverse elements (title,
subtitle, text, signature, charts, pictures), although connected, have relative autonomy
from one another, permitting both isolated and complementary readings. On the
denoted level, there are various objects on a desk; on the connotated level, these same
elements suggest the existence of a person who is thinking of a solution to the energy
crisis. Who might that person be? It is evidently a Chevron employee, which is
demonstrated by the presence of brands associating the objects to the company.
There is a long text that develops the premises of the title. The issue is described in
greater detail, addressing the reasons that lead to growing energy usage and the need
for usage control. However, the corporate message of the advertisement seems to be
found in the text contained in the small notebook located on the right-hand side of the
page: “Chevron steps taken: saving our own energy: since 1992, Chevron has reduced its
own energy consumption by 24 per cent; we use cogeneration technology at our
refineries to produce additional electricity from otherwise wasted energy. Saving other
people’s energy: Chevron has a separate, proven business dedicated to energy efficiency.
Success stories include: improvements that will lower a region’s postal service CSR
electricity spending by 46 per cent; helping the US Government save taxpayers advertisements
$151 million while reducing greenhouse gas emissions by an expected 1.5 million tons”.
The advertisement produces two simultaneous effects in the way it is laid out. The
first is to divulge the possibilities of a reduction in energy consumption through
diverse alternatives – ideas that circulate on an individual level as well as on a
corporative level, including its research and technology operations. The second effect is 241
to address Chevron’s corporate contribution to this arrangement, highlighting the
company’s responsible characteristics and results achieved going back to 1992. The
piece, therefore, suggests the figure of a responsible, well-informed, well-educated
consumer capable of connecting distinct elements in a set of actions that associate
individual efforts and corporate action. The ad also addresses the consumer/reader in
such a way that leads one to believe the company is actually concerned with the global
energy challenge.
This communication strategy becomes even more evident when this advertisement
is compared to other advertisements in the same campaign. The visual and textual
structure of the advertisements Russia, Iran and Qatar and There are 193 countries
follows the same structure introduced in the previous advertisement. Here, again,
elements commonly used in work and research environments are displayed, such as a
pen, glasses, palmtop, folders, keys and even a small cup of black coffee – in an
allusion to such exhausting work that a stimulant is needed. The text again follows the
idea of providing the reader with different reading levels according to his or her
interests. Finally, the object that returns and reaffirms the fundamental character of the
corporation is the little notebook with the contributions made by Chevron. It should be
stressed that it is in the little notebook image where the company signs the ad with its
logo and slogan Human Energy.
All three advertisements in Chevron’s energy campaign divulge CSR, in which
consumers can have access to further information on the topic as well as information
related to the industry.

Banco Real
Banco Real’s sustainability campaign was printed once, with three double-spread
advertisements in the same issue of Veja. The ads are titled as: A world where nobody
loses, A society that thinks and A well-lived life. The three advertisements have a very
similar structure: a general layout of a landscape photograph (beach or forest) cut in
the lower section by a white bar and a superimposed image of the graphic elements of a
cheque from a Banco Real chequebook. The titles are written on the chequebook and
the image of the client/clients is on the right-hand side. In all of the advertisements, one
or more characters with common Brazilians names, such as Norberto Ramos Monteiro,
Paulo Jorge Couto de Melo, Matheus and Diana (all classified as Real clients), are
positioned over the signature field of the cheque. The amount of the cheque is replaced
with the title, which is different in each advertisement. In the white strip that overlaps
the picture, there is the same copy that is repeated in all three ads:
Environmentally friendly chequebooks. When you use them, you are saying what you expect
from a Bank and from your life. And you are contributing in one of the many ways to
preserve our natural resources. Banco Real uses recycled paper or white paper produced in an
environmentally friendly manner in 100% of its materials. Banco Real also gives you the
CCIJ opportunity to choose what type of paper you want in your chequebook. For further details,
visit www.bancoreal.com.br/sustentabilidade
15,3
Apart from their titles, what differentiates the three pieces is the landscape photograph
that composes the background.
In order to produce consumer adherence to company policy the Banco Real works
with text (minimal) and images. Therefore, the three pieces generally function from the
242 connotation of an idealised context (landscape and relationships) and the text
accompanying the images performs the anchorage function. In all campaign
advertisements, the visual message presents a very well-preserved place from an
environmental standpoint.
In the first advertisement, A world where nobody loses, there is a steep cliff by a calm
sea at sunset. On the top of the cliff, a young man contemplates the sea and the hills in
the background. Above this image, in the area that displays the cheque, the title states:
“A world where nobody loses when somebody wins.” On the connotation level, the
connection between the title and the photograph is constructed around a vague
statement, merely indicative of a supposed bank client’s comfort, capable of enjoying
the landscape and the peace of mind of doing business without harming others. This
character visits an idealised landscape and idealises business.
In the second advertisement, the photograph depicts a portion of forest on the banks
of a river. On a large rock, a small camping tent shelters a child and an adult reading a
book. The forest is magnificent and dense and the scene causes a sensation of security.
The title, handwritten in this case, reads: “A society that thinks about the
consequences of everything it does.” It is clear that the connotation of this
advertisement can be summarised in the idea of security: the son who feels calm and
safe next to his father, even on the edge of a dense forest; the client, who plans for the
future and preserves the natural world, thereby guaranteeing his son’s quality of life.
Finally, the third advertisement displays a young woman running along a tree-lined
road, perhaps in a well-kept suburb. The photograph has an early morning atmosphere
without any disturbance from traffic, noise or pollution. The title affirms: “A well-lived
life today without harming tomorrow.” Like the previous advertisements, the image is
idealised, with a precise graphic treatment aimed at presenting the appearance of a
pristine landscape. In this third advertisement, what is connotated is the idea of
planning associated with the quality of life.
In the Banco Real CSR advertisement campaign, the social and business values such
as fairness, responsibility and sustainability – stated on the advertisements titles – are
expressed through environmental issues by appealing to the emotions (sensations,
including aesthetics), thereby concealing the discrepancy between natural landscapes
and the impact of paper products on nature. This discrepancy can be seen from the
picture of tranquillity found in nature and the agitation often seen portrayed in the world
of business, especially in the financial sector. Thus, the campaign has a clearly emotional
appeal, as it shows the company’s strategic values via texts and images that could elicit
emotion in the reader. Therefore, through emotional appeals Banco Real is trying to
demonstrate its concern with the environment as well the company’s CSR credo.
Although all the campaign advertisements address how the bank acts to preserve
nature by using ecologically friendly paper, the company does not make use of any image
or text that reports substantial information on the subject. The process of recycling
paper or how this behaviour actually helps the environment is not shown or specified.
Despite its awareness of the preservation of the environment (an attitude amply CSR
associated with CSR), the campaign does not make any direct allusion to investments in advertisements
CSR activities. All the ads seek to do are associate chequebooks made from recycled
paper to sustainability, equity and nature. Banco Real does not publish its environmental
actions by providing any substantial data in the campaign.

6. Discussion 243
The Chevron CSR campaign was inserted individually a total 34 times in both
(The) Economist and Time magazines during the research period. Conversely, the
Banco Real campaign – also made up of three advertisements – was published just
once (all the advertisements in the same issue) in only one magazine (Veja). Chevron
used a repetition strategy, which according to studies, increases consumer awareness
of the message/brand (Schumann et al., 1990). Moreover, the Chevron campaign offers
a large amount of information that is difficult for the reader to assimilate in a single
exposure. Thus, the advertisements in this campaign need to be repeated. In contrast,
the Banco Real advertisements display the same text in all three ads. What changes
from ad to ad are the title and the image, while referring to the same issue. In this case,
the audience does not need a second reading to fully understand the ad.
The Chevron advertisements display visual evidence that they are directed to a
male audience, whereas the Banco Real campaign depicts a more heterogeneous
audience, as it portrays a woman, a man and a family (formed by father and son). One
can infer that the Banco Real ads are directed at a broader audience than Chevron’s
campaign. This also reflects the readership of the magazines as (The) Economist and
Time have a predominantly male audience, whereas Veja, in which the Banco Real
advertisements were published, has a more balanced gender profile.
While Chevron one of the largest oil companies in the world, associates itself with
energy saving, energy security and natural gas reserves, Banco Real is connected to the
natural environment. The images propagated in these two campaigns go beyond the
industries of the companies. At first glance, the Chevron campaign could have been
made by a non-governmental organisation (NGO), whereas the Banco Real campaign
appears to be made by a tourism agency or environmental NGO.
Discussion of environmentally related themes is strongly connected with Chevron.
First, due to the nature of the industry and second environmental concerns are at the
top of the agenda for British consumers. The same cannot be said for Banco Real.
According to Akatu (2008), environmental concerns are less important issues
corporations should tackle, while consumers are more concerned with education,
health and the alleviation of poverty. As a recognisable leader in the Brazilian CSR
arena and in an industry not strongly associated with its environmental impact, when
Banco Real communicates environmental conservation, it is attempting to show that
the bank is concerned with all aspects of CSR and not only social issues, which are
predominant in Brazil.
The biggest threat faced by Banco Real in relation to its consumers is that it charges
high interest rates and consequently the banks have greater profits in comparison to
the other financial service companies. In order to legitimise its performance and justify
the charges, the bank demonstrates that part of its profits is allocated to CSR actions.
However, despite its awareness of the preservation of the environment (an attitude
amply associated with CSR), the campaign does not make any direct allusion
CCIJ to investments applied in its conduct. Thus, Banco Real is using the legitimacy
15,3 strategy that diverts attention from the problem by focusing on a positive activity not
linked to the problem. All the ads seek to associate chequebooks made from recycled
paper to sustainability, equity and nature. While it is very respectable for the company
to only use recycled and environmentally friendly paper (whatever that means) in its
material, the issue does not link elevated services costs or higher interests rates to the
244 banks. Banco Real could, at least, attempt to publish its environmental actions by
providing more substantial data.
Chevron not only faces accusations directed at the oil industry in general, but is also
involved in scandals associated with judicial actions and investigations. Thus, in this
campaign, Chevron does not fully respond to the more usual criticisms from society.
The advertisement 5 per cent reduction comes closest to the legitimacy strategy of
informing stakeholders of the intentions of the organisation to improve its performance
when divulging its energy saving. In this case, the company is attempting to show that,
despite being in an industry that is highly associated to environmental problems,
Chevron is concerned with making consumers save energy and also offers viable
alternatives. In its advertisement Iran, Russia and Qatar, the company uses the more
explicit strategy of attempting to change the perception of stakeholders regarding
events without changing corporate behaviour. This piece addresses the need for
diversifying energy sources and introduces natural gas as a solution. It should be
stressed that no attempt is made in the advertisement to explain that, although natural
gas is less of a pollutant than oil, it is not a renewable energy source. A company that
wants to invest in natural gas is only expanding its energy sources in a traditional
manner. When discussing energy security, a problem that does not appear as one of the
main societal criticisms of the oil industry, the advertisement There are 193 countries
gives priority to the strategy of diverting attention from the problem by focusing on a
positive activity not linked to the problem.
Despite the differences between the two countries, the two companies use the same
legitimacy strategy of diverting attention. Chevron also made use of two other
strategies: informing and changing perceptions. Among the six pieces analysed, only
one informs what the company is doing in order to improve its performance, while the
others avoid addressing the main legitimacy threats.
While Banco Real focuses on only one issue, e.g. ecological chequebooks, Chevron
communicates three very different issues, namely, energy reduction, energy security
and natural gas reserves. Under the umbrella of CSR advertisement, Chevron
addresses three issues that could be perceived as incongruent. While conservation is
one of the biggest public concerns (Ipsos, 2007), exploration is not on the agenda.
Advertising and written communications are generally considered a mirror that
represents or reflects the surrounding world (Holbrook, 1987). Therefore, one can
affirm that CSR advertising reflects CSR and that the criticisms directed at one are also
appropriate for the other. CSR is a voluntary activity and consequently companies
decide what activities and programmes they will carry out. This is also true with
regard to choosing what is communicated through advertising. Although they cannot
control how the reader interprets the message, they can select what is communicated.
In a self-serving attitude, companies decide to portray themselves as responsible,
concerned and active in the CSR area. Advertising, therefore, serves as a mirror
reflecting the self-serving nature of CSR.
 Companies in industries under scrutiny, as is the case with both Chevron and CSR
Banco Real avoid their legitimacy threats while communicating their good deeds. advertisements
Both companies divulge their environmental actions while making no connections to
the criticism directed against them. Therefore, avoidance is the first strategy these
companies employ. The companies keep away from the public debate by not
directly discussing the criticism they receive. The focus of their communication is on
environmental achievements and all issues are addressed in a positive light. The 245
companies attempt to build legitimacy by overlooking their own legitimacy threats.
The analysis of the Chevron and Banco Real campaigns also allows the establishment
of other two distinct strategies of CSR advertising. The Chevron campaign appeals to
consumer rationality, incorporating complex data in order to construct the idea of a
responsible company. The Banco Real campaign appeals to the emotions, disclosing its
values via minimal text and visual impact in order to produce consumer acceptance of
company policy.
Considering the readership of the magazines, although in extremely different
contexts, the reader profiles are similar, i.e. well-educated, well-informed readers from
the upper social classes. Therefore, what could explain the use of such different
strategies? On the one hand, the nature of each industry could lead to these contrasting
strategies. For example, the oil industry strategic attention and focus is on
environmental issues, whereas the banking industry strategies are influenced by social
and community involvement. Another possible explanation is related to the company
context due to the different control exercised by society and the government regarding
the need for companies to publicise their CSR actions in a transparent manner. The UK
is considered one of the most advanced nations in the world with regard to CSR.
The government is engaged with its development and British society is concerned with
ethical issues, while the media provides ever-increasing coverage. On the other hand,
the Brazilian consumers neither reward nor punish companies as Brazil has a relatively
low level of activism (Akatu, 2008).
This paper recognises CSR advertising as a channel for creating, restoring or
maintaining organisational legitimacy. It provides researchers with a platform to
further develop the role of communications, especially advertising, in legitimising CSR
actions, which could be carried out in a range of industry and country contexts. Further
research could analyse how stakeholders make sense of these advertisements.
The difficulty here would be identifying the multiple stakeholders companies are
addressing when communicating CSR via advertisements. Another possible avenue
would be carrying out research with a larger sample of companies and advertisements
to determine what legitimacy strategies are used by companies when advertising CSR.
Future lines of enquiry could also benefit from the use of legitimisation theory, and
how it influences CSR communication strategies.
This study might assist practitioners in developing CSR print advertising
campaigns for according to Stoll (2002), the techniques used for other advertising
(products or services) are not suitable for the disclosure of good corporate conduct.
A final recommendation for improving CSR advertisements would be that
representative bodies from civil society and the government should develop a series
of guidelines, such as exists for CSR reports. Greater vigilance of this type of mass
communication could make companies more transparent and ethical in disclosing their
CSR actions.
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About the authors

Francisca Farache is a doctoral student at Brighton Business School, UK where she is a Lecturer
on Marketing. Francisca Farache holds a MA in Marketing from the same institution and a
BSc in Communication and Media Studies from Universidade Federal de Pernambuco in
Recife/Brazil. Her interests are corporate social responsibility, communication and advertising.
Francisca Farache is the corresponding author and can be contacted at: ffads@brighton.ac.uk
Keith J. Perks is the Head of the Marketing Subject Group and Market Research Group at the
University of Brighton Business School. He has extensive senior level management and marketing
experience with for example Cummins Group as the European Business Planning Manager for the
Fleetguard Division and European Marketing Director for a high technology electronics company.
His research areas cover international business and marketing, international entrepreneurship
with an emphasis on strategic decision making. He has published in the International Business
Review, Strategic Change and the International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business as
well as presented papers at the European Marketing Academy, Australian and New Zealand
Marketing Academy, US Academy of Management and Strategic Management Society. In 2008, he
chaired the European Academy of Marketing Conference hosted by the University of Brighton. He
is on the editorial review board for Industrial Marketing Management and a regular reviewer for
the Journal of International Marketing.

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