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PEOPLE HAVE BEEN intrigued by and have learned geometrical ideas for many hundreds of
more recent times, curriculum documents informing mathematics teaching have given more e
to important geometrical ideas that can be learned by children in the primary school years. C
can be intrigued by geometrical ideas and can develop a wonderment ofshape and spatial relati
patterns and examples in their environment and culture. The source of this intrigue resides
with the subject matter but also with interesting, informed, creative and dynamic teaching.
The overall aim of geometry teaching in the primary school, along with the developm
positive attitude, interest and enjoyment, is to equip children to use spatial ideas and kno
to complete practical tasks and solve a wide range of everyday practical problems. Many p
require shape and space knowledge and understandings in their solutions. Allied to this
aim are the ideas of helping children to describe and understand their environment, to fi
way within that environment, and to construct a variety of objects.
Geometry is also a necessary foundation for much of the mathematics that older
will be learning later in high school. This is so for those children studying analytical ge
interesting, engaging and exciting.
Spatial ideas have considerable historical and cultural significance as wei! as modern applic
in, for example, design problems and document layout for computer presentations. The inc
of geometry, often under the less formal name of 'shape and space', continues to the prese
with Geometry and Measurement one oEllie three aspects in the proposed Australian Curric
Mathematics (DEEWR, 2008).

WHAT IS GEOMETRY?
The word geometry is a combination of two Greek words, geo, meaning earth, and m
meaning a measure. Over the subsequent years it has developed to be much more than
measuring' and is now considered to be the 'mathematics of space' so that mathematicians '
for mathematical interpretations of space' (Bishop, 1983). Curriculum documents have t
to label geometry as 'shape and space'-a useful name for teachers to understand as it high
two areas of knowledge that form the basis of geometrical study. Kilpatrick, Swaffor
Findell (2001) also noted the close relationship of measurement in developing understand
geometry. Bishop (1997) explored a link between shape and space and two of his constructs
cultural roots of mathematical knowledge, namely 'locating' and 'designing'. The name shap
space also suggests links to other areas of knowledge such as graphics, design, art and geog
Regardless of the name applied, this section will address two main sets of ideas, namely
associated with two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) shapes, and those rela
location and direction.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Many of the principles and theories that constitute knowledge of geometry can be found
writings from Ancient Greece. Euclid, Pythagoras and other Greek geometers considered the le
of geometry to be important and spent many hours with their students in its study. They dev
the accumulated knowledge of shape, space and measurement that had been acquired over cen
in Egypt and Babylon. These ideas had been developed from practical situations like mea
fields by the Rope Stretchers (Harpedonaptae) ofAncient Egypt, and observing the motions o
and planets. The Greeks turned it into an organised, logical and coherent system now kno
geometry. Pythagoras and his colleagues used geometry to explain music, art and science. Idea
as the 'golden rectangle' used in painting and architecture, as well as the description ofthe mov
of planets, stemmed from geometry. Geometry has been central to the understanding of the
relation to people and the objects around them. Spatial reasoning underpins geometrical thought-it
is the ability to 'see', inspect and reflect on spatial objects, images, relationships and transformations
(Battista, 2007, p. 843).

FORMS OF GEOMETRY
There are two aspects to the study ofgeometry in primary school: visual geometry, sometimes referred
to as spatial awareness or spatial sense, and formal geometry (Davey, 1998).

VISUAL GEOMETRY
Visual geometry is informal and is the use of space, shape and form at an intultlve, personal
and unstructured level, such as in interpreting a map, sketching a picture or rearranging objects.
Sometimes descriptive or explanatory language may not be necessary, such as when playing with
blocks, solving a jigsaw puzzle or using tangram pieces or pattern blocks. Language may be used in
this case in a sub-vocal fashion as the 'arranger' or 'sketcher' talks silently during the task. However,
when language is required to describe and reason, it tends to be natural and informal. Visual skills
are required in many everyday tasks, for example in designing gardens, play areas and theatre scenery,
or in parking the family car.

FORMAL GEOMETRY
In contrast, formal geometry is more objective, demanding greater accuracy in language and
representation and more rigour in logic. Formal geometry is important, for example, when
measuring, such as in making a dress or furniture, or when justifying a statement in a logical
way. It is concerned with an extensive and exact vocabulary and agreed modes of reasoning. It
is highly structured, being made up of a series of provable theorems and facts. It is much less
intuitive, with little scope for opinion. Statements are right or wrong and, when right, can be
proved to be so. It is an important prerequisite for engineering, science, technology and other
mathematically based disciplines.

THE LANGUAGE AND VOCABULARY OF GEOMETRY

The language of geometry plays a vital role in developing spatial sense. Language has a dual function
for children learning shape and space ideas. It allows them to describe concepts and communicate
ideas and findings so that others might hear their thinking and reasoning (and vice versa) and helps ideas
to form in their minds as they grapple with words and images. Language in the form of discussion
 Materials and manipulatives are used with children to represent concepts but it shou
noted that materials themselves do not carry meaning. They are used to provide experiences
can be discussed and reflected upon so children can build a meaningful system of mathema
It is through discussion that learners establish links and construct concepts, relate what
have experienced, filter the input based on their pre-existing schema, and assign featur
symbols and names. In this way, embedded ideas emerge as mathematical ways of think
Teaching is designed to highlight connections for the children. It is not a series of statem
made by the teacher. Children need to conduct their own dialogue rather than only hear
repeat someone else's words and phrases. Mathematical learning occurs when there is ac
with dialogue. Pseudo-conceptual understanding is developed through name learning a
reliance on rules and rote definitions. It is also through discussion that teachers gain insight
children's views and knowledge, and see how these views are matched to those of the teach
Pseudo-conceptual understanding only is developed through name learning and a rel
on rules and rote definitions. It is at the level of the specific vocabulary of geometry where m
learners develop misconceptions, particularly if they have not used the language ofshape and s
to develop connections. Many learners develop a narrow view and limited understanding ofan
as a result of their interactions with a sma.l.l number of examples; for example, many are una
of the connections between rectangles and squares whereby a square can be considered to be
a rectangle.
Most of the words and names associated with geometry are derived from Greek and
roots. Unfortunately there are some anomalies in the adoption of mathematical language
geometrical vocabulary that can lead to misconceptions, for example in the naming of polyg
When naming polygons (literally many angled shapes), it may be simpler to name shapes
as the decagon (deca meaning ten Le. ten-angled figure), nonagon, octagon, heptagon, hexa
pentagon and so on before naming quadrilaterals and triangles, which do not follow the na
convention-otherwise one would speak of 'tetragons' and 'trigons'. The differences here
from the change to the use of Latin (quad) and the word 'lateral' that refers to a side and th
of 'angle' rather than the Greek-based 'gon'.
The established vocabulary and conventions for geometry give order to the learning area a
are vitally important in building knowledge. However, if they become the major focus, diffic
may arise. There may be confusion with the way words are used in everyday life and their
precise use in mathematics. For example, for some children the word 'regular' describes the
of drink or meal that they wish to buy. For others, it means 'found everywhere' in the sen
regularly or usually found. In mathematics, it is the opposite of irregular, that is, it has the
amount. A pentagon has five sides-a regular pentagon has all angles and sides the same
having found a 'right angle', proceed co look for a 'left angle'.
The formal language of shape and space can be overwhelming in its scope and precision
for young children. Teachers in all years of the primary school need co be wary of introducing
too many new words at the one time if they are difficult or likely co lead to confusion, such as
the word 'perpendicular'. In many cases, simple but accurate everyday phrases will suffice. It
is desirable to listen co and use children's language in the first instance, gradually refining it,
via scaffolding, and introducing new key words as they become necessary and appropriate. For
instance, the words similar and congruent have precise mathematical meanings that are often
confusing for many children. However, the confusion usually lies in remembering which of
the cwo words co use in a particular situation rather than the idea or meaning of the concepts
themselves. Simple everyday phrases readily convey meaning-children can note that the
same shape means shapes are similar; when shapes are congruent they have the same size and
shape. Building connected ideas rather than just remembering names and facts is important in
developing spatial sense and in understanding geometrical concepts. Understanding and using
the concept appropriately is more important than discriminating the difficult terminology.

GEO ETRY IS IMPORTA T I TH P IMARY SC OOL

Geometry is not concerned so overtly with facts and processes co be learned and practised in the
same way that many people see number and computation. However, when delving deeper, it can
be seen that geometry is useful when, for instance, shape ideas and principles are applied to the
environment in the form of plans and maps. Bridge designers and the architects of buildings use
geometrical information in their plans and constructions. Over the years, ideas and concepts of
geometry have been vital to navigators and have underpinned the recreationai, game-playing
and aesthetic activities of many cultures. Many tasks call for the use of visual skills, as most
people need them in day-to-day living. Spatia] skills are also vital to architects, designers of
landscaped gardens, golf courses and sets for stage and screen, civil engineers concerned with
such things as traffic flow, painters, weavers, furniture and cabinet makers, dress designers and
layout artists. Spatial understanding and competence are significant components of numeracy
and are essential co functioning effectively in modern times. Recent curriculum documents
have charged teachers with the task of developing children who not only have number sense
but also spatial and data sense.
Geometry, when combined with number, is also important in the teaching of measurement,
and provides a vehicle for many problem-solving situations. In fact, Kilpatrick, Swafford and
 Geometry provides a useful vehicle for developing logical thought and mathematica
of working, such as classifYing, hypothesising, justifYing and generalising. It is also a n
place for children to interpret and describe physical environments. Geometrical ideas are
in representing and solving problems, developing arguments and analysing characteristi
properties of shapes and situations. It is useful as, via exploration, it can help childre
later adults go beyond the learning of isolated ideas to develop relationships and by using
connections find many ways to solve problems. It is for these reasons that geometry has f
part of a broad-based and 'sound education' throughout history.

LEARNING AND TEACHING GEOMETRY IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL

Primary school geometry should not just be the study and accumulation of a body of fact
as the names of shapes, their properties and later sets of theorems concerning them. R
the emphasis should be on developing spatial intuition and spatial sense ranging fro
appreciation of designs in waUpaper, tiling patterns, Celtic and Islamic decoration, trad
quilt designs and company logos, to the interpretation of maps and diagrams and rel
simple observations such as 'the diagonals of a square divide it into four identical, right-a
triangles'. Building this awareness requires the active creation by each student of know
meanings and understandings about two- and three-dimensional shapes, transformation
location. However, meaning, understanding and appreciation cannot be given to child
a teacher-dominated transmission approach to teaching. Students need a wealth of pr
and creative experiences in solVing problems by observing, analysing, describing, exp
and drawing a variety of shapes, arrangements, patterns, maps and other geometric stru
They need to engage in mathematical inquiry and investigation in much the same way
science experiment.
This content for geometry can be organised into fundamental strands such as:
1 Shape and structure-dealing with the properties of two- and three-dimensional o
and the relationships between shape, structure and function.
2 Transfonnation and symmetry-dealing with the mathematical equivalent of chan
position, orientation, size and shape and with symmetries in shapes and arrangemen
3 Location and arrangement-dealing with the representation of position and
arrangement including the use of coordinates.

These strands may be further grouped to emphasise knowledge about 20 figures a

objects, and also about location and direction. Curriculum documents reRect this emphas
usually specifically include investigations based on them. Internationally, curriculum in t
and USA use similar structures:
 symmetries

Examine how the Australian Curriculum: Mathematics, due for implementation from
2010, proposes to treat the teaching of geometry from the early years and throughout
primary and middle years.
: ••••••••• _ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ." ••••••••••••••••••• h _ •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• u u ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• :

WAYS OF WORKING IN GEOMETRY

Researchers (Battista, 2007; Davey & Pegg, 1992; Hoffer, 1981) have highlighted five ways of
operating in geometrical situations that need to be emphasised in teaching and subsequently
acquired by children. These directly relate to shape and space, are quite general in nature and
are designed to help children solve problems in mathematics, in daily life and post-school
employment:
• visualising spatial arrangements
• communicating oraBy and in writing
• drawing and making models
• thinking logically
• applying geometrical concepts and knowledge.

VISUALISING SPATIAL ARRANGEMENTS

Geometry is very visual, and visual comprehension and understanding underpins much of what
people do in their daily life. Information, often presented in a visual format, has to be processed.
People, for example, routinely engage in tasks such as assembling models or furniture bought in a kit
form, using patterns, diagrams and drawings, decorating homes with wallpaper and carpet tiles, and
attempting to follow a wiring diagram for a new computer, television or audio system. More often
nowadays newspapers, magazines and television present information in the form ofdiagrams, graphs
and other visual formats that need careful and thoughtful interpretation.
• Interpreting figural information-refers more to understanding the conventions used
in drawing diagrams, graphs, maps, signs and charts and is concerned with interpretation
and reading.

Within a classroom context, the process of visualising may be developed via activities w
children work with pictures and materials that require general actions such as:
• recognising something from a picture
• picking out the properties of a geometric figure
• seeing similarities and differences in 2D figures and 3D objects
• interpreting diagrams and sketches especially of simple three-dimensional objects, but als
of two-dimensional situations like floor or street plans
• reading a map
• recognising objects that have been turned around, inverted or viewed from a different
direction
• imagining what something looks like after some transformation, such as a rotation or
distortion
• estimating the size of an angle
• recognising embedded figures
• fitting jigsaw pieces together
• visualising a situation from a written or oral description
• completing a geometric pattern
• visualising the cross-section of a solid object
• visualising a 3D object from its net.

COMMUNICATING ORALLY AND IN WRITING

As children experience more activities with shapes and geometrical ideas, it becomes more impo
for them to use precise and unambiguous language. Shape and space has a wide and rich vocab
and a set of conventions with which children will need to engage as they develop. It is impo
for children to describe and explain ideas and relationships between shapes as part of learni
shape and space. It is acceptable for children to describe shapes and situations as accurately as
can in their natural language and for their particular level of development. This may include
everyday words; however, children will eventually need to develop a more accurate and precise w
communicating ideas in shape and space via teacher scaffolding and example, but there should n
such a heavy focus on correct terminology that it restricts the development of important geome
ideas and the motivation and positive attitude of children. Further, the difference between ever
• learning to use geometric language in oral. and written forms
• naming and describing a figure or spatial situation accurately
• interpreting an oral description accurately
• describing the properties of an object that the children are holding
• describing a concept, such as 'triangle'
• interpreting written instructions of geometric situations accurately
• describing spatial relationships
• describing the location of something in relation to other objects.

These generic ways of working can quite easily be embedded into larger tasks and lesson plans
for children in the primary school.

DRAWING AND MAKING MODELS

Along with talking and writing, sketching, drawing and model making are other forms of com-
municating that are an important pan of learning in mathematics. There can be some flexibility
allowable in the degree of accuracy of a drawing or diagram. For example, in some contexts and for
some problems a 'rough sketch' might be sufficient to communicate an idea or solution. At other
times, however, a more precise and accurately drawn figure might be needed.
The idea of representing via sketches, models, diagrams, drawing or computer packages as part
of communicating is regarded as more important for primary school children than traditional
constructions with a paiF of compasses and ruler. Less formal methods fit more closely one of
the main aims of mathematics teaching, that of solving problems. Drawing is much more than
representing with a pencil; it can be expanded to include constructing, modelling and using
computer-based drawing packages.
Drawing, modelling and representing can be developed via activities such as:
• drawing simple plane shapes
• drawing scale diagrams
• cutting out cardboard shapes
• sketching isometric diagrams of figures based on the cube
• drawing very simple perspective sketches
• sketching simple diagrams of cones, pyramids, cylinders
• making 3D models with clay, plasticine or cardboard
• making plane shapes on a geoboard
• constructing shapes using pattern blocks and other commercially produced materials.
activities such as:
• finding similarities and differences between shapes
• understanding that shape is independent of orientation, position and size
• understanding that certain ptoperties can be used to identify shapes while others cann
• classifying and sorting-realising that shapes belong to various families and that some
families are included in others
• being able to discern and continue a pattern
• conserving
• formulating and testing hypotheses
• making inferences.

APPLYING GEOMETRICAL CONCEPTS AND KNOWLEDGE

One of the reasons for studying mathematics in particular is to help children develop p
knowledge and ways ofworking to solve problems. Connections between shape and space kn
and the design and function of objects provide invaluable activities and discussion. For exa
• making curtains and patchwork quilts
• creating designs for fabrics, decorations, wallpaper and tiles
• model making and sculpture
• painting and drawing
• making and reading a map
• making toys
• marking out tennis courts, running tracks
• setting out a car park
• planning a delivery run around a group of streets
• designing the shape of industrial objects to be manufactured for sale.

,,,,,,,..",,'''''''''' m· '""., , ••

Try one or more of the activities suggested in this section with children. Keep a recor
of their engagement with the ideas and the geometry concepts and processes they
develop .
.......................................................................-
the notion of stages, the concept is a useful one for teachers as they can use it to understand and
chart children's growth and to plan their programs according to these needs. The van Hiele theory,
developed from the work of Piaget, provides significant insights into children's growth and can
help classroom teachers plan and assess learning specifically in shape and space (Battista, 2007;
Fuys, Geddes & Tischler, 1998). This use of the term 'level' is different from and unrelated to the
'levels' referred to in many curriculum documents, and is not age-related but based on learning that
children have experienced and gained.

THE VAN HIELE THEORY

Two Dutch teachers, Dina and Pierre van Hide, proposed an outline for the development of
children's learning ofspatial concepts in the late 1950s. They delin~ated five levels ofundersranding-
visualisation, analysis, informal deduction, formal deduction and rigour. Their model describes
the characteristics of the thinking process at each level, not the geometric content. The levels are
sequential and the van Hieles asserted that no child can successfully miss any level and that ideas
implicit in one level are explicit in the next. While there are different interpretations of these levels
(Horne, 1998; Pegg, 1997), the original description of five levels is still helpful in accounting for
development of geometric thinking and in organising teaching and learning activities.
VAN HIELE LEVEll 1: RECOGNHlONNISUALISATION
At this basic level a shape can be recognised and named withom reference to properties, that is,
children operate according to appearance. Children can describe a shape as a whole but will not refer
to attributes that make it unique. For example, an oblong may be described as 'like a door' or 'like
a window'; a cuboid is a 'box'. Children refer to objects with which they are familiar. At this level
children can learn shape vocabulary and may be able to identify specific shapes, for example a square.
They may be able to reproduce the shape but would not be able with any certainty to note the right
angles or that the opposite sides are paralleL Problems are solved by visual means or by trial and error.
Language is imprecise. Words like 'corner' and 'slanting' may be used to describe shapes. A number
of children in older primary classes may be operating at this level (Clements & Battista, 1992).

VAN HIELE LEVEL 2: ANALYSIS

At this level children start to notice and acknowledge attributes and properties of shapes. The
awareness of properties is now extrinsic. Initially, a square may be described as a shape with 4 sides
or 4 equal sides and an oblong as a shape with 2 long and 2 short sides. Later, additional properties,
for example 4 right angles, will be added. Children can, for example, distinguish between different
triangles and talk about the properties of these shapes. However, children at level 2 cannot understand
VAN HIELE LEVEL 3: ORDERING/INFORMAL DEDUCTIONS
At this level, the relationships between properties and shapes begin to emerge. Properties
to be dependent on each other with certain properties following logically from others. For e
when lines are parallel, corresponding angles must be equal. This understanding comes from r
upon concrete experiences with materials such as geostrips and by drawing and measuring. C
are now able to see relationships between the various geometrical concepts and give prop
a shape that uniquely define it. For example, an equilateral triangle can be defined as havi
equal angles each of 60 degrees, three equal sides, the angles will add to 180 and so on.
children at primary school will function at level 3.

VAN HIELE LEVEL 4: FORMAL DEDUCTION

Children now have an ability to reason abstractly and use togic to develop a proof. They
able to construct their own proof rather than remember proofs. They will know that an eq
triangle can be determined by saying that all its sides are equal. They will know that this is s
as they 'see' the relationships and roles of other terms. Few students reach this level w
high school.

VAN HIELE lEVEL 5: RIGOUR/METAMATHEMATICAL

Students are able to reason analytically about systems dealing with the relationships between
constructs. This is beyond most students at high school.
Source: Dina & Pierre Van Hiele, Structure and Insight. Copyright 1986, with permissi
Elsevier.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE VAN H ELE THEORY FOR TEACHING GEOMETRY

As with any model, it is important to beware ofstrict definitions oflevels. The model is useful, h
in that it helps in organising tasks and teaching, and supports the development of understa
the properties of shapes. The level at which children operate cannot be related strictly to age
progress at different rates. Development is more related to amount and quality of experien
original work by the van Hieles offered a teaching approach for each level:
• information~xperiences here acquaint children with the content and language ofshape an
• guided orientation--ehildren expiore objects and investigate relationships
• explication--ehildren talk and elaborate their findings, learn and use mathematical lan
as they discuss with the teacher and other children
• free orientation...-....children solve problems involving the ideas recently encountered
• integration-children reflect on how this learning connects with and builds on other
knowledge they have.
are not just remembering the work and ideas of other people but build their own ideas in a
guided and structured way. Neither simply memorising rules, words and processes, nor being
left to 'discover things for themselves' in 'fun activities', are necessarily productive ways to
learn geometry.
A reliance solely on textbook use when working with children to develop geometrical ideas,
presents difficulties in relation to the van Hiele theory for at least two reasons. First, textbook
pages are limited and tend to offer one or at most two activities relating to an aspect of shape
and space learning rather than multiple experiences. Second, textbooks tend to move forward and
back between van Hiele levels and are generaHy based on the author's view of the median age
characteristics of children. They often lead to the rote acquisition of names and procedures and
thus have no van Hiele level at all. Language plays a very important role in the van Hiele theory
with each level having its own linguistic symbols so that children at different levels have difficulty
in communicating clearly with each other in their discussion of shape. Hence, it is important that
teachers familiarise themselves with the language actually used by the children in their classes to
talk about shape ideas, and that they become aware of the way children think and reason at each
level. Communication among teachers and children is critical, but the language ofcommunication
needs to be at the children's level, not solely that of the teacher.

E TIGA E ,_........ DISCUS

Find a recently published textbook series and compare its treatment of shape and space
learning in relation to the van Hiele levels and suggestions for teaching,

TEACHING GEOMETRY IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL

GEOMETRY TEACHING AND CONSTRUCTIVISM
Recent reports and curriculum documents (National Advisory Committee, 2007; Battista, 2007;
Kilpatrick et al., 200 1; Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, 2000) have advocated styles
of mathematics teaching that are quite different from traditional methods of exposition, textbook
work, memorisation and practice. Many of these changes to teaching style can best be understood
from a social constructivist viewpoint (see Chapter 1, pp. 11), which suggests that:
• mathematics learning is viewed as sense making rather than purely learning set procedu
• the role of the teacher is neither to transmit the 'correct' procedure, fact or way of work
nor to allow a free-for-all discovery. A constructivist teacher plans appropriate tasks and
for talk, guides and focuses children's attention onto the learning purpose of the lesson
thus, unobtrusively directs and guides their learning.
Typically, teachers following a social constructivist approach to learning geometry woul
• use and encourage children's thinking, questions and ideas
• use open-ended questions and tasks as well as encourage children to expand their questi
and responses
• encourage children to predict the consequences of action
• encourage children to challenge gently and politely the ideas and statements of their pe
• use collaborative teaching and learning strategies
• allow adequate time for reflection and analysis.
Often the teaching style and strategies associated with constructiVism are misinterp
Clements (1997) has outlined some of these 'mis-constructions'; for example, he note
constructivist teaching is not 'unguided discovery' with no explicit goals set by the teacher.
it just placing children into groups or using manipulatives.

GENERAL STRATEGIES AND PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING GEOMETRY

Geometry in primary school mathematics should be a rich source ofinformation, mathematical a
and enjoyment for children. Recommendations from the reports cited earlier advocated that ch
• explore and investigate
• experience a variety of activities
• see a range of sizes and orientations of shapes
• use a wide range of materials
• describe activities and relationships.

In other words, children need to engage in mathematical thinking by exploring an acti

situation and then, with the explicit aid of the teacher, reflect and think about what the
done and found out. Reflection and discussion with a teacher is vitally important in deve
understandings and knowledge embedded in the activity.
Often with activities in shape and space children have fun and enjoy themselves, wh
good for motivation and developing a positive attitude to mathematics. However, it i
more important that they also learn something-'having fun' is not sufficient. Children
to build new connections to existing knowledge and develop new ways of thinking as a re
 as a primary school child.
2 Make a list ot good memories and another of not-so-good memories. Offer reasons
for you r selections.
3 What might be the classroom implications of your memories?
...............................................................................................................................................................................................- .

EXPLORE AND INVESTIGATE

r

Folding a square
This activity requires children to fold a square of brightly colqured paper. [coloured on
both sides) and investigate possible shapes that can be formed as corners are folded or
left unfolded.

Show children a large square. using brightly coloured paper with the fold lines visible.
Ask the children to imagine/visualise what shape will be formed if they fold down one of
the corners. Demonstrate how to record the silhouette of the shape.

Children are challenged to investigate. in pairs. how many different silhouette shapes
they can make by folding on the original lines. Pairs record their different silhouettes for
later sharing with the class.

Selected examples of children's work can be used to show that:

Size is not a factor in determining a 20 figure. llssues of congruence and similarity
might be included here with older children.]
Orientation is not a factor in determining a 20 figure-a square orientated without a
side parallel to the bottom of the page is still a square [not a ·diamond').
 base glued to the poster to provide a dynamic aspect when it is unfolded to show how
was constructed.

The task challenges misconceptions that many children develop through lack of exp
range of embodiments of familiar 2D figures so that they should:
• see that orientation and size do not determine the name of a 2D figure
• distinguish between 'regular' and 'irregular' examples of 2D figures.
Children explore the situation and think about the consequences of their action
significance of their findings. As they work together folding the square they are classify
as they decide if the new folded shape is the same or different from the ones already
During this phase of the task they have to explain to therr peers, and the teacher, how
are different and therefore acceptable. Sharing the activity with the class allows others to
has happened and may motivate further inquiry. This reflecting phase is important i
children grasp ideas and learning embedded in the task. A teacher may still need to
potential learning explicit and help children connect to knowledge already acquired
that it is more than an unfocused 'show and tell' session. For example, children will hav
situation whereby they made a large square (no corners folded) and a smaller square (a
folded). Some children may suggest the smaller square is a 'diamond' as they have t
rotated through 90 degrees. Discussion can establish that both shapes are squares and th
orientation have no effect on their 'squareness'.
By looking at the range of shapes made, a teacher can draw the children's attenti
varieties of pentagon and hexagon that may be found~a1l hexagons have six straigh
regular hexagon, where all six sides are of equal length, is a special case. Some children m
larger and smaller squares differently, while other children may reason that they are bo
and that size and orientation does not matter. Attention to sameness and difference
classifYing is a vital part ofworking mathematical!y and a teacher needs to help children
these and other important attributes.
EXPERIENCE A VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES

Overlaps
Children are given two squares of coloured paper. It is important that one sheet has a
darker colour than the other and is visible through the lighter piece when this is laid
over the dark paper. The situation to explore involves children overlapping the square
of coloured paper and noting the overlapped section.
 In this case the overlap produces an octagon. Children can investigate other overlaps.
They may also use different starter shapes. such as a square and a triangle. two
triangles. a hexagon and a triangle.

Using a variety of activities helps children build rich concepts ofshapes. Other activities such as
fitting two shapes, for example triangles, together to form a new shape help them see shapes made
up of other shapes in much the same way as number sense allows numbers to be viewed in flexible
and varied ways. Teachers also need to plan for the same aspect of learning to be encountered in
a series of different tasks. For example, children can experience folding activities, such as 'Folding
a square', geoboard tasks, cutting tasks, overlapping tasks and' fitting tasks as part of a series of
activities to help them develop detailed and connected concepts.

FOLD AND CUT

Cutting will offer another experience for children and another chance to explain and
describe and predict. A sheet of A4 paper is folded in half and a scissor cut made across
the folded corner.
/
/

/
/
/
/

Children have to predict what shape will be formed by the cut both for the smaller
piece and later for the larger remaining piece. Visualisation, prediction. reflection and
discussion are involved as children think about the shapes and their properties. The
activity can be extended when children cut across the fold at different angles. or fold the
paper again and repeat the cutting experiments.

The activity is useful not only to add variety to the children's experiences but also to focus their
attention when making observations. They will be undertaking fundamental ways of working
 1 With a partner complete the tasks on folding, overlapping and cutting. Record the
shapes you find and compare your findings with others. Consider possible answer
that children might find.
2 Prepare a list of possible teacher questions that can be used with the three tasks
that you will be abte to help children reflect on their findings, overcome difficulties
and understand the learning intentions of the task.
3 Pilot the tasks with a couple of children. Note how they approach the tasks,
questions they ask, difficulties they encounter, the effect of your questions and the
knowledge they bring to the task.
: -

SEE A RANGE OF SIZES AND ORIENTATIONS

For many children their experience and therefore their concept of shapes is very limited. A
knowledge of, for example, a hexagon is developed because often children only see and in
one embodiment of the shape. Too often textbooks, teachers and worksheets present onl
hexagon in the same orientation. A similar restricted view ofother shapes is often given-p
are regular, triangles are usually presented with their base parallel to the bottom of the
squares are rarely seen in a variety of orientations. Computer drawing packages often
drawing of both regular and irregular shapes but then restrict children to a stereotyped o
of the shape unless the rotate function is employed.

FOUR TRIANGLES
An activity for younger children involves fitting shapes together. The traditional tangr
tasks may be too complex for younger children, but the style of activity is still applica
in a simpler form.

Present children with four card triangles produced from a square. Show them how th
original square may be re-formed by placing the triangles as demonstrated in the
diagram below.

Four triangles cut from a square

 c
1 Devise other ways to cut the square to form tangram-like pieces. Explore each
of these section combinations to see if they are suitable to extend the 'fitting'
investigation.
2 This type of task can be used with older primary children using tangram shapes.
Explore and record which 20 figures can be made ,from combinations of tangram
pieces. (See Swan & Sparrow. 2004.1
3 Complete the 'four triangles' activity with a partner. Use the information you gain
from this to plan a lesson for a class of middle-years primary children. Note ways in
which children might experience difficulties and how you will overcome these in your
planning.
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 H
.
.

USE A WIDE RANGE OF MATERIALS

When materials are used they often tend to be limited in scope and variety. Commercially produced,
plastic examples of regular shapes are useful but only give one example for children to abstract the
features of a particular shape. For example, pattern blocks, while very useful in a number of ways in
helping children learn mathematics, can establish a narrow understanding of shapes if they are the
only material used to support children's learning. Children thinking that all triangles are equilateral
and green, whereas all hexagons are regular and yellow may be an unfortunate result of using a
narrow range of materials. At this point, it is useful to note that children are expected to develop
ideas about 20 figures from what are essentially 3D objects. This presents a contradiction that may
add to confusions experienced by some children. Nonetheless, although there are only six shapes-a
hexagon, a square, a trapezium, a triangle and two rhombuses-the blocks are so versatile that
activities can be devised for every year level.
Simple, inexpensive materials can be used to add variety to the range met by children. For
example, card tangram-type pieces, coloured paper for folding, scrap paper for cutting, geoboards,
geostrips, drinking straws and supermarket packages are all useful to help children develop a broad
and rich concept of a particular shape.
 Children have to use this starter to construct 'the whole shape' and justify why and ho
it is the whole.

1 Complete the pattern blocks activities and record your solutions.

2 What learning is embedded in the activities? What are possible difficulties that
children might encounter?
3 How would you extend this activity for more able children? How would you overcom
any difficulties that children might encounter?
: , , ,

DESCRIBE ACTIVITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS

It is important that children talk about, describe, write about and explain what they have c
and found out during their shape and space activities. By having to use language, children
clarity and connect what they have learned from the activity with what they already know.
through the use of wei tten and oral language is an important feature of developing underst
geometrical concepts.
Part of the discussion and explanation by children could be to classify, that is, to say
shapes are the same, different or have changed in some way. A teacher's questions help c
observe and focus their attention so that they can analyse shapes and shape situations.
The vocabulary of shape is important for children to know but it is not the main pu
studying geometry. It should grow naturally from the experiences undertaken by chi
from discussion and scaffolding by the teacher. Children appear to learn vocabulary bes
it. In this way they acquire a more precise use of language rather than just obtain mo
Teachers who provide more open tasks and questions tend to use language for reaso
explanation rather than for memory checking.
A variety of cultural connections could also be embedded in the experiences. Gradually,
a capacity to name shapes can be extended to an understanding of the defining characteristics
of different shapes, their properties and the relationships between them in a more abstract and
symbolic way.
Dutch educators (van den Heuvel-Panhuizen & Buys, 2005) proposed a development of
teaching for new learning for younger children that can also inform the teaching of geometry:
1 Construction with 'free' construction materials-clay, boxes, cartons;
2 Construction with geometrical materials-blocks, meccano, commercial shapes;
3 Construction with paper-folding, cut-outs;
4 Construction on paper-drawing shapes and patterns.

From recognition of shapes, children can begin to analyse shapes to identify how they are
the same and how they are different, noting specific properties and attributes. The use of shape
language will also become more precise and sophisticated, so that by the time most children reach
the upper primary years they will be working at or near van Hiele level 3. For many of these
older children, teaching will focus on building knowledge of properties and concepts of shapes.
They will begin to acknowledge the relationships of properties within a shape but also between
different shapes. For example, they will develop ideas that a square has four right angles, two pairs
of parallel sides, equilateral sides and four lines ofsymmetry, and will tessellate with itself and with
regular octagons. They will begin to realise that a square is part of the family of rectangles and is
similar to but also different from a rhombus.
Throughout this gradual development there will be a focus on and integration of language
and inquiry as children and their teachers engage in discussions, explanations, solving problems
and investigations. Work with younger children should focus on all aspects of cognitive, social,
physical and affective growth. Some tasks should be of more substance and depth, and engage
children for longer to balance more easily finished tasks. Some work should be in the form of
play and be less teacher structured although children should still be challenged to think about
and describe what they are doing and to explore new possibilities and directions.
As children become older and have had more experiences their tasks can become more abstract.
They can be expected to be more systematic in their exploration and to move from outlining general
characteristics to more precise descriptions. There is, however, no clear and definite progression, as
many children will not follow the same route through these ideas as they learn. Questions remain
of where to start, what to do first and what comes next.
have the difficult task of identifying and planning for these needs in a class of 25 or more
'TUNING IN'
Tell me everything about ...
One way to find out what children know is to ask them. This often produces enl
and sometimes surprising results for the teacher when it is used at the start of some w
also at the completion of a teaching sequence. Asking children to tell, draw and write o
things they know about a square or a diagram on a page is so much more informative of
knowledge than a test question.
Concept maps
Another way to find out not only what children know but also how they are connecting
relationships is to use concept maps (Mansfield & Happs, 1991). In this technique children
an idea or statement or fact. From here they begin to write i"n other things that can be rela

<
With itself
Can tessellate Unit of measure for area

~'1'900'

SQUARE

One of the famiLy of rectangLes Four right angLes

Beginning of concept map for SQUARE

It is also a useful exercise for teachers to attempt when planning learning in a p

mathematical area. Teachers can compare their concept maps with those of the children t
missing sections. The missing sections can then form the focus for teaching and learning
The results of these 'tuning in' techniques can be used to put children into no m
three rough groups-those children with limited knowledge and connections of the con
those with extended knowledge, and the rest who fall somewhere between the first tw
A teacher can then focus questions and tasks more appropriately to the needs of chil
achieve a closer match and degree of challenge.
EXTENDING TASKS
Open-ended questions and tasks (Sullivan & Lilburn, 2006) are a good vehicle for ch
explore and discuss, as well as providing opportunities to learn shape and space ideas. Child
 ,
,,
,
,
,
,,

In pairs children explore cutting prepared squares to see how many different shapes can
be formed. The example offered above shows a triangle and an irregular pentagon being
the result of a cut across the corner of the square. Some children may prefer to continue
the exploration by drawing lines onto pre-drawn squares rather than cutting each square.
Children explain to each other, the teacher and, in a sharing session, their peers,
how shapes are similar and different. Reasons and justifications will be needed as to
why shapes have been recorded as 'different' before they are allowable.
Discussion with the teacher can begin to consider the different sorts of triangles
possible. different forms of pentagons, whether it is possible to cut a hexagon,
and how a square can be formed from combinations of other shapes such as two
isosceles. right-angled triangles.
Children devise a way to record, describe and explain their findings and any patterns
and relationships they have noticed. They may use cut squares of coloured paper. or
an A4 sheet of squares onto which they draw the cutting line.

Two general ways of extending tasks in order to challenge children who grasp the idea
quickly are:

FIND MORE
An approach to target the amount of work as well as the complexity of the thinking
required of children is varying the task according to children's needs and abilities.

Children initially find one example, then gradually find another. several examples,
or, where possible or appropriate, find all cases. In 'Slicing the square', children are

c
 This approach allows the activity to be extended for those children who have found most
of the examples applicable to them. The teacher could pose the question to the children
starting with the stem What if. In 'Slicing the square' questions could take the form:
What if you could use two straight cuts?
What if the cut was not straight but could have one bend in it?
What if you started with a triangle rather than a square?

GEOMETRICAL CONTE T IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL

TWO-DIMENSIONAL (20) FIGURES
The study of 2D figures forms the bulk of the geometry content for many primary school ch
The terms '2D figures' and '3D objects' will be used following the recommendation of Wil
colleagues (2005) to avoid possible ambiguity with the word 'shape'. Plane shapes, as they a
known, have two dimensions-length and width. They lack depth, the third dimension, and
cannot be picked up and handled. It is this lack of depth that puts them into conflict with n
everyday language and usage in the classroom. Here it is usual for teachers to ask children t
round the yellow hexagon from the pattern block collection or the thick triangle from the at
set. In strict mathematical terms the children are tracing round not a hexagon but a hexagona
to draw their hexagon. They draw their hexagon from the 'face' of the shape. Furthermore, te
and children often refer to coins as circles and commercially produced plastic geometric
found in most classrooms as squares and triangles. While we can note that these are cylinders,
and triangular prisms, such rigidity and pedantic use with young children would be very con
for them. The colloquial and everyday use can be gradually 'scaffolded' to an understand
the conventional mathematical use.
The usual 2D figures encountered within the primary school classroom can be classified
attribute of their side into three groups:
• those figures bounded only by straight lines, for example triangles
• those enclosed by curves, such as circles and ellipses
• those bounded by a combination of straight lines and curves, for example semicircles.
The first group are known as polygons and include most of the shapes familiar to p
children. The name polygon is derived from the Greek words poly for many and gonia (a kn
angle and means many angles. All three groups of shapes-polygons, curved lines and
straight and curved lines-have the important defining features of being simple and closed
 DiC ) OJ <:>
SIMPLE·~ (J 00
OCD G,f17
NON-SIMPLE

J%@
Closed and simple shapes

Two other attributes are important for children to meet in their study of shape and space.
These features allow the shapes to be classified into convex and concave (having an interior angle
greater than 180 degrees) groups.

CONVEX SHAPES CONCAVE SHAPES

Convex and concave shape examples

Sorting and classifying activities, apart from being afundamental way ofworking mathematically,
are most useful to help children notice the features necessary for the three groupings mentioned
above.
 by the first child.

Once this is guessed another child begins the secret sorting of the same group of
20 figures.

Has secret feature Does not have secret feature

o o

This task may be teacher directe~irecting children to sort the shapes that have straight si
a pile and make another pile of the rest--or open, where children think and make decis
themselves. A teacher-directed style requires children to hear and follow instructions and all
teacher to focus children's attention on a particular attribute that might be missed, while
open task requires them to act in a mathematical way. Both styles of task are useful in a
children's knowledge.

CARD SORT
Blank playing cards can be used to overcome the problem of the coin as a cylinder
issue.
Two-dimensional shapes from all three groups (straight sided, curved and
mixedl can be drawn onto the cards. Shapes should vary in size, regularity and
orientation.
The cards can then be easily placed into piles as children apply their sorting criteria.

As chHdren reflect on what has happened and explain their reasons for sorting decisions, the
of polygons (simple, closed and straight sided) can be drawn out and made explicit.
 • Begin a collection of children's books that may act as a stimulus for work in
geometry, for example Rosie's Walk; The Greedy Triangle,
: :

POLYGONS
Children quickly become familiar with recognising and naming common shapes such as circle,
square and triangle. Earlier discussion noted the need to develop children's concepts of these words by
offering them in a range of orientations, sizes, contexts and materials, rather than just concentrating
on shape recognition and naming of stereotypical examples. The classification system for polygons
is easily accessible for most children and generally follows a consistent pattern, based on the number
of angles in a shape, though many see it as based on the number ,of sides. The numbers are generally
derived from the Greek word for that number. So a polygon with eight sides is an 'eight-gon' or
octagon. Using the English word 'eight' initially allows children to connect to the number of angles/
sides before they have to use and remember the Greek prefix octa. Confusion occurs for many
children with the use of Greek words if strong connections and images have not been established.
The simple pattern does not, however, begin with the same logic. A shape with three angles is not a
'trigon' but a triangle, while a general name for a polygon with four angles is not a 'tetragon' (using
Greek words) but a quadrilateral. This word combines the Latin words of quad for four and latus for
side. From this point the naming system is more logical and regular as it uses words for both number
and angle:
• 3 angles (and 3 sides) triangle
• 4 angles quadrilateral
• 5 angles pentagon
• 6 angles hexagon
• 7 angles septagon or heptagon
• 8 angles octagon
• 9 angles nonagon
• 10 angles decagon
• 11 angles undecagon
• 12 angles dodecagon

It is useful to begin by naming those polygons that are consistent with the main pattern of
number and angle (such as 8-gon) before special cases such as quadrilaterals are mentioned. This
allows the main pattern to be established first and the irregular names to be learned in contrast to
them, in the reverse of the typical teaching approach.
other hand, pentagon and hexagon are general terms and refer to a wide variety of five- and six-s
polygons respectively, which are only regular when their angles and sides are equal. Children nee
develop concepts of these polygons that note the differences and similarities contained in the na
Activities such as 'Slicing the square' and 'Folding the square' illustrated earlier will offer chil
experiences of this idea often not gained from stereotypical textbook diagrams or commerc
produced plastic shapes.

CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPES
The complete system of classification is more complex than the simple system described ab
It involves cases where some shapes are included in the group and under the name of ano
shape. For example, a square is induded as a special case of the group 'rectangles'. So a square
rectang]e. This is a difficult idea for children (and adults) to grasp. The use of the word oblon
the shape many children call a rectangle may help with the inclusive idea. It will only gradu
become clear to children through many experiences and much discussion and as they move f
van Hide level 3.

TRIANGLES
As children work with triangles in different situations and tasks, they gradually notice that w
all exampIes can be grouped in the family 'triangles', there is a difference between triangles w
one considers the angles. Triangles can be classified as scalene, isosceles and equilateral. A sca
triangle has no angles (and consequently no sides) that are the same size. An isosceles tria
has at least two angles, and two sides, that are the same size. The word isosceles is derived f
the Greek word isos meaning equal, and the word skelos meaning leg. An equilateral triangle
three angles and three sides of the same size. An equilateral triangle is therefore a special case o
isosceles triangle as it also has 'two equal angles'. Triangles with right angles can be both sca
and isosceles.

SCALENE ISOSCELES EaUILATERAL

-
Acute angles

I ~ight angled
~tuse angled
The seven types of triangles
 triangles.
Each group then explains to the teacher and class the criterion they used for sorting,
how they are triangles and how they are different.
The teacher can then set a further task to sort the triangles into the 'different" pile
but concentrate on the angles and ignore size, colour of pen, who drew it and other
attributes children may use for classifying. Children record the attribute/criterion
they have used each time. Establish the number of different triangles in each group's
pile [note that there are no more than seven different triangles) and ask them to
consider the attribute of angle size.
Provide the following table and ask them to place their cards with triangle drawings in
the appropriate spaces and be able to justify their selection.'

~
Zero Two Three

The third angle

Acute angles

Right angle

Obtuse angle

WHAT GOES IN THE MIDDLE?

Present the children with an envelope containing a number of pre-drawn and
pre-cut isosceles, equilateral, scalene and right-angled triangles of different sizes
and orientations.
In small groups, children play the 'Guess my secret rule', One child decides on a
secret attribute for the triangles and sorts them according to this rule into two piles,
Pile 1 has the secret attribute while pile 2 does not have the attribute. The others in
the group have to establish the secret sorting attribute.
This is recorded and another member of the group repeats the secret sorting with
a different attribute, which is also recorded to avoid repeating and to use later in
 only two equal angles

Ask the children to place the pre-cut triangles in a correct place on the diagram
and justify their placement. They need to consider the blank sections [marked? on
the diagraml and what might be put in these sections. They may even try to draw an
appropriate triangle for one of these sections if one is not available in the envelope.
Children could draw or make and glue examples of each sort of triangle onto the
diagram. The triangles can then be described in terms of their properties.

Another general style ofactivity based on Wollygoggles and Other Creatures (O'Brien, 1980) ca
across much geometry content such as triangles, parallelograms or concave and convex shapes

POLYGONS OR NOT?
Present children with a sheet that has examples and non-examples of polygons and a
mixed group of shapes that they have to sort according to the feature or features they
established for polygons.

These are polygons

Shapes that cross over and are straight-sided, enclosed and simple may be incorrectly
called a polygon.

The use of the word 'shape' may cause difficulties. In general talk and conversation it is
used in a number of ways as First Steps in Mathematics highlighted:

Using the word shape' to describe both the property of the thing and the thing
itself can cause confusion. Asking students to 'describe the shape of this
shape' highlights one problem. The other problem is that students have to be
able to think of 'all rectangles' as being 'the same shape', while mathematically
speaking all rectangles are not the same shape. [Willis et at., 2005, p. 711

PAINT THE TRIANGLE

This activity uses properties of triangles and develops properties of other polygons, as
well as an ability to visualise.
Ask children to close their eyes and imagine a large equilateral triangle.
Then take a large paintbrush and paint the triangle completely with white paint.
Next imagine a pile of three smaller black triangles at the side of the large white triangle.
Take one of the smaller black triangles and place it into one of the corners of the
white triangle. Repeat with the other two triangles. placing them in turn into the
remaining corners of the white triangle.
to whether the black triangles meet, overlap or are separated. If one or more shape names a
submitted they can be used for a further challenge after the next section. Children explain and
how they managed to produce, for example, a triangle. The rest of the class listen to the reaso
note the drawing to see if they agree that it is possible.
The teacher can offer further challenges to see if the children can find a way to
for example, a white oblong. Discussion can highlight the fact that some children int
the word triangle in different ways and how some children have a limited view of a tri
For example, many will only imagine equilateral triangles. Variations on the answer c
recorded by drawing the types of triangles used and shapes produced along with commen
explanations.

JOINING TRIANGLES
Ask children to select the equilateral triangles from the pattern block set [or provide
a set of cut-out triangles] and then to join two of them together by their sides to see
how many different shapes they can make.

Two triangles make a rhombus

Explore combinations of 3 triangles. and then 4 and 5 and 6 to see how many new
shapes can be made. Record the shapes ensuring they are different.

QUADRILATERALS
The key to the system for naming these shapes is determining the minimum number of attr
that the general set must possess. For example, the parallelograms are a set of 2D figures wi
pairs of parallel sides. So squares, oblongs and rhombuses are all parallelograms. The set that in
the others is the one with the least number of attributes. Squares and oblongs have all the
properties of parallelograms and additional, special properties. For this reason, students mus
experience with a wide variety of each shape. Otherwise false properties based on limited expe
such as orientation or 'slantiness' in the case of parallelograms, may be included in the chi
criteria for a particular shape.
 A quadrilateral

A trapezium is a quadrilateral with only one pair of parallel sides. Within this group are a
special cases such as a right-angled trapezium, an obtuse-angled trapezium and an isosce
trapezium.

I A trapezium
/
A right-angled trapezium

An obtuse-angled trapezium
/ \
An isosceles trapezium

TRAPEZIUM TABLES
In some schools, the children's tables are shaped like trapeziums. In some cases they
can seat five children in the following way.

1 2
 How might the tables be arranged so that children may sit in a group format? T
may only be joined at matching sides.

What is the maximum number of seats with the minimum number of tables? D
consider more than six tables.

Put results into a chart to show the number of seats. the number of tables and
arrangement.

A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of paraUellines. A special c

the sides are of equal length. This produces a rhombus. Another special case of
is a rectangle where four angles are right angles. Two other cases of this inclusion
mentioned now so teachers are better able to prepare their students to meet it
A rectangle is a four-sided plane shape with four right angles. The four right ang
requirement. No condition is imposed on the length of the sides. Hence, a square
angles must be a rectangle. In a similar way a square is a rhombus because a rho
shape with four equal sides. It should be noted that in this case no condition is imp
of the angles. A square is both a special sort of rhombus and a special sort of recta
Children who are used to calling a shape with four right angles and two pairs
a rectangle will find it difficult to accept the notion that a square is a rectangle
this idea at some later time. It is. advisable to call a figure with four right angl
of sides longer than the other an oblong rather than the more general term rec
later stage children can be led to see that both squares and oblongs can be group
called rectangles.
While many children use the general, everyday word diamond to describe shapes
there is no mathematical term 'diamond'. This confusion is further compounded
see the icon for diamond and the image of a diamond on playing cards. Each of
a rhombus. Added to this are the blue and brown pieces in a pattern block set w
diamond and are often called diamonds but in fact have a face of a rhombus. A 'ba
adds further uncertainty, as it is a special rhombus called a square. It is normally
the stereotypical orientation of a square.

A playing card diamond [rhombus) A basebal'l diamond [squ

 There are two other four-sided figures that teachers and children should know. These are
kite and the arrowhead. The latter is sometimes called a chevron (French for arrowhead) in so
textbooks. Both have two pairs of adjacent sides that are equal. The kite has all angles less t
180 degrees while the arrowhead has one angle greater than i 80 degrees.

A kite An arrowhead

The difficulty and complexity of this area lies between the idea of properties of a sh
and its defining features. A rectangle, for instance, is defined as a quadrilateral with all
angles right angles. It has many other properties that can be deduced from its definition. F
understanding of the classification of shape comes with seeing the relationship between sha
and the relationship between properties within a shape. In order to ensure a full understand
and recognition of a particular shape, chi'ldren need to see and discuss non-examples as wel
examples and understand the idea of inclusion.
The table below offers a start with attributing properties to quadrilaterals. The list can be exten
to include aspects of angle size, parallelism, symmetry and further properties of diagonals.
 Diagonals at right angles V' V' V'

Some properties of four-sided shapes

This geometrical content is offered as background so that teachers are aware

between the ideas and can develop them in a confident and competent manner wh
are at a level to accommodate this formal thinking.
A geoboard, a board with equally spaced rows of nails on which rubber bands
show shapes, is a valuable way to help children experience the variety of quadr
commercial boards are made of plastic and come in a variety of sizes but 3 x 3 o
'nails' would be the most appropriate sizes. Geoboards can be used to produce exa
quickly so that children can experiment and change their minds without need
on paper.

• • • •
~
'ii'\
'ii' 'ii'
~

Board Paper
 INVESTIGATING FIGURES WITH FOUR SIDES
4 x 4 geoboard with elastic bands and the equivalent 4 x 4 dot paper for recording.

Produce and record as many different four-sided shapes as possible.

Use the different quadrilaterals for sorting in the style of 'secret sorting', Here the
sorter does not reveal the attribute selected until the other children have deduced it
from perusing the two piles of quadrilateral drawings on dot paper.

The teacher can keep track of sorting criteria used. These can be used to discuss
properties and special features of quadrilaterals.

Other challenges can be set for the children to introduce them to variations from the normal
portrayal of 2D figures. A plastic overhead projector geoboard can be used to demonstrate this
thinking to the whole class.

Many children are unable to name shapes such as pentagons, hexagons and so on as
they cannot connect the name and the number of sides. This is usually due to limited
experience with the shapes and an emphasis purely on remembering names from
drawn examples,

Some children develop a limited concept of polygons, only recognising a portrayal of a

regular shape in one orientation. For example, when asked to draw a hexagon, children will
invariably show a hexagon with all sides of equal length and in an orientation with a side
parallel to the bottom of the page.

o
Rarely will they acknowledge the existence of other members of the hexagon family or
hexagons placed in different orientations.
 In the early years, children may meet drawings of 20 figures that are always in
same orientation. For example. triangles and squares may have a side placed p
to the bottom of the page. Consequently, they may be able to recognise and na
square when it is presented in a 'normal' orientation but be unable to identify i
is rotated and presented in a different position, even calling it a 'diamond' rath
square,

D Square Rotated square

Most young children can recognise circles and squares but they are less comfortab
triangles and rectangles. They have difficulties with 'long thin rectangles' and trian
where the 'point' is not at the top. Further work in identifying and discussing the c
and non-critical attributes of shapes along with exposure to examples and non-ex
particular two-dimensional figures is needed,

Children often concentrate on one particular attribute or feature of the 20 figure to

the exclusion of others, For example, children consider only the 'sides' and ignore
important aspect of angle,

1 List all regular 20 figures up, to a regular hexagon. Should the list include a
rhombus? Justify why or why not.
2 Draw examples of the seven types of triangles onto blank playing cards. Place
into the correct position in the diagram shown on page 422. For each placemen
justify your choice.
3 Prepare useful teacher questions for this task when used with children. Identify
likely difficulties and prepare your teaching approach to overcome these situati
4 For the activity 'Paint the triangle' identify the possible answers for the uncover
shapes. Draw diagrams so that you may convince another person that this is a
possible answer.
.... ' , , ' " , " ' ' '
 There are other properties of circles that oider primary children can start to experie
those relating to tesseUation. It is important that they have established these properties
and reflection before they are faced with using them in abstract ways via various for
pi. The relationship between the radius and diam~ter is important for children to
diameter is double the radius and the radius is therefore half the diameter.
The relationship between the diameter and the circumference and subsequently that o
and the circumference can be established. The connection between the two-the circu
approximately three times longer than the diameter---ean be grasped in a very practic
before the abstractions are introduced. The circumference and diameter of various circ
can be measured using a tape measure and then recorded on a chart.

OBJECT DIAMETER CIRCUMFERENCE ~ RATIO

_ _---Jl-
The calculation of the length of the circumference measurement divided by th
the diameter can be performed quickly and accurately using real data and a calc
answer is recorded and forms the focus for reflection and discussion with the teac
the relationship is made explicit and established. The Greek letter pi (1t) used to
the constant ratio was proposed by the Swiss mathematician Euler in the eightee
because it is the first letter of the Greek word for perimeter (perimeter in a circle is
as circumference). While the values oPt and 3.14 have been common approxima
they need not be introduced until children have worked with the more general
circumference being a little more than three times the diameter and six times the rad
many calculators have a 1t key that provides a greater degree of accuracy than the v
3 used in pre-calculator days.
Before the end of primary school, children can begin to explore and compare o
curved shapes such as the ellipse and the oval.
'pointier' at one end than the other. It has one axis of symmetry-un~ike the ellipse, which h
two, and the circle, which has many.

axis of symmetry - - .,,

::~'f
aXIs a symmetry

oval elli pse

In general usage, however, oval is often incorrectly a synonym for ellipse, as in the term 'footb
oval', which ma}'llead to initial confusion in relation to its properties.

Common usage of the word oval, especially in sporting co~texts, may lead to an inaccurate
idea of an oval being an ellipse rather than egg-shaped.

Children may confuse formulas for area and circumference because they focus on the use
of 1t if it is introduced in an abstract way without any or sufficient practical experience.

FURTHER PROPERTIES OF 2D FIGURES

Two-dimensional shapes can be analysed further by considering their angles, diagonals, paralleli
and their symmetries, as well as their ability for tessellation. While these are presented separately, i
important to note the connection of angle to measurement and location; of symmetry to symme
and transformation; and the integrative nature of all of them when describing shapes and solv
problems.
ANGLES
Angle is a form of measurement and its development follows a general teaching and learning approa
of the identification of an attribute to be measured by comparison, the use of non-standard un
and finally the use of standard units as discussed in the chapter on measurement. For ma
the concept of angle is difficult to grasp. It has a number of distracters and difficulties,
orientation of the drawn angle and the length of the lines enclosing the angle. Teach
present children with materials--for example angle arms, angle wheels and Rotagrams
cirdes of clear semi-stiff plastic are combined so they are able to turn to show via drawn l
of the angle)-and images to highlight the feature of angle and its dynamic nature. Th
aspect is not possible with static drawings on textbook pages.

Rotagram

Children can develop the basic idea that an angle measures the amount of turn
direction to another. From this understanding, teachers can help children understand
are measured. Angle arms and Rotagrams can be used to show the connection be
and the conventional representation of angle on paper, where two lines radiate from
point.
The three aspects of angle, angle as a corner, angle as the shape made when two l
from a common point, and angle as a measure of turn, need to be integrated into a co
of turning. This will allow the general concept of angle to be established before referen
to any specific angle such as 'right angle'. The use of right angle with its connection
in rectangles and other objects will come later. It will be included as JUSt one of a serie
angles rather than something that is separate from the general idea of turn.
A teaching development can begin much in the same way as any other measureme
Initially, angles can be judged by means of direct comparison where one angle is sup
on the other. This situation will require children to understand what exactly is being
and avoid the distracters of length of the lines or sides marking the angle. Later c
may be made by means of an instrument such as a Rotagram, which shows the ang
Other non-standard instruments can be used to help children compare and order an
things, polygons, polyhedrons and pre-drawn angles. An angle measure constructed fr
of paper is quite versatile and easily transportable. The circle has a full turn of 360 de
was developed from the Babylonians who worked with the idea of 360 small steps in
The paper circle can be folded in half and halfagain to give non-standard measures for c
of a 'half turn' and a 'quarter turn'.
 A further halving of the circle paper by completing another fold provides the more ac
comparative of an 'eighth turn'.
As children begin to compare angles in terms of the standard unit of degrees, a relatively sim
division of 360 can provide 180 degrees (half turn), 90 degrees (fourth or quarter turn) a
45 degrees (eighth turn). When working with aspects of direction and location the use of 'tu
can be related easily to the physical act of turning by children and a connection made to beari
Throughout all this work children should be estimating the size of angles in terms of 'turn' a
building personal referents or benchmarks for a quarter and eighth turn.
The final stage of the measuring phase is the introduction of the degree as the standard uni
measuring angle. It is advisable that children use a full-circle protractor in the first instance. A f
circle protractor with a movable line is even better since this instrument emphasises the link betw
angle size and rotation. The full-circle protractor also connects to the Rotagram of the earlier st
and avoids the confusions and difficulties most children experience with the half-circle protracto

Circular protractor

In addition to these activities, analogue clocks can also be used to explore angle size. E
five-minute interval corresponds to 30 degrees (a twelfth turn). This gives a ready reference
estimation purposes. It would also be useful to have a wall chart displaying various angles, especi
angles from 90 degrees up to 360 degrees with their connections to earlier benchmarks of qua
and eighth turns. The clock also enables children to see that angles greater than 360 degrees
exist; for example, the minute hand turns through 720 degrees every two hours and so on.
ANGLES IN POLYGONS
Measuring angles accurately with a protractor is very difficult for many primary scho
There will need to be some allowance for error in measuring and scale reading. This t
error presents difficulties when working with children to establish the sum of angles i
For example, a tolerance of a few degrees on each angle measurement could lead to t
conclusion that the angle sum of a triangle is 189 degrees rather than the actual 180 deg
An action proof, however, retains the investigative and active principles of tea
providing an accurate and visual representation. The teacher asks the children to dra
on the provided paper-make sure that they produce a variety of triangles with a ra
and angles. The children then mark each corner with the number 1 or 2 or 3.

Each corner is then torn from the triangle. The torn and numbered corners are fitted t
the numbered points touching. This should form a straight line, which children can me
folded circle measure. Many should, however, be able to relate the angle to a half turn (18

A similar activity can be undertaken to establish that the angle sum of any qua
360 degrees (a fuB turn).
The same approach may be used with other polygons but not in such an effective and
way due to the angle total being greater than a full turn. Instead, polygons other than t
quadrilaterals are more effectively seen as the sum of triangles.

1 Draw a range of quadrilaterals. including the arrowhead. Use the corner-tearing

method to convince yourself that all quadrilaterals have an angle sum of
360 degrees.
 CHOP INTO TRIANGLES
Ask children to draw round a regular pentagon, a regular hexagon or other regular
polygons that are to hand.
Demonstrate how to 'chop' the shape into triangles by selecting a corner [vertex] and
drawing lines to each of the other corners without allowing the lines to cross each
other, Have children explore 'chopping' other regular polygons into triangles in a
similar way,

A pentagon 'chopped' into 3 triangles

Children can report to the class how many triangles they have for each polygon. Some child
may have drawn extra polygons and may offer insights into them. Some children may be abl
describe and explain the relationship between the number of sides of the polygon and the num
of triangles constructed. A table of results is useful to help children see the pattern that eme
from chopping into triangles.

SHAPE NUMBER OF SIDES NUMBER OF TRIANGLES SUM OF ANGLES

Quadrilateral 4

Pentagon 5
Hexagon 6
Octagon 8

Decagon 10
Dodecagon 12
 Through discussion and thinking draw out the following relationships:
• The number of triangles for a polygon is always two less than the total of sides for the
polygon. For example. a pentagon has three triangles: 5 - 2 = 3.
• The angle sum of a polygon can be cateulaled by adding the angle sum of each t
drawn in the polygon. For example, a pentagon has three triangles so the angle su
pentagon is 180 + 180 + 180 = 540.
• Tlhe size of each angle of a regular polygon can be calculated from the angle sum
shape is regular then all the angles are the same size. Thus, for a pentagon the ang
of 540 is divided by the number of angles. 5, to give 108 degrees for each angle.

o
j ., " "'''' '" " "..............
Construct a table with similar properties to the four-sided shapes tab'le [see p. 429
and title it Properties of polygons. Include columns for triangle, pentagon, hexagon
octagon and other polygons and rows to note the relationships and information
about angles.

DIAGONALS
A diagonal of a polygon is a straight line drawn between two non-adjacent vertice
connects two corners that are not next to each other. While triangles have no d
quadrilaterals have two. A special case with polygons is a concave figure. In this cas
diagonals will be outside the figure. For example, in quadrilaterals the arrowhead is con
have one diagonal outside.

Diagonals in a quadrilateral

~~
Quadrilateral (arrowhead) with exterior diagonal

Diagonals are properties of 2D figures and provide a further way to classify polyg
sides are presented in orientations other than in the 'usual' way. For example, the opposite s
of a kite are not parallel but many children who have only experienced oblongs find this diffi
to understand.
Sufficient 'hands on' and 'heads on' (where children think about the activity) experiences w
a variety of materials, shapes, sizes, orientations, reflection and discussion will help child
develop a wider and more stable concept of parallel lines. The stereotypical, real-life example
railway tracks and roads may confuse some children as they see tracks and roads bend and cu
as they go round corners or see them apparently meet as they are depicted in art. While the tra
in reality, remain the same distance apart, they do not match the need for parallel lines to
straight. Better examples to use are louvres on doors, and Venetian blinds.
. I

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. --.. "

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u
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-~

VJ

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.....,
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i>l
~
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o
VJ

Venetian blinds with closed slats

Children will then build the concept of paraUeilines as straight lines that are the same dista
apart and hence never meet or cross. They poim in the same direction and have the same slo
Parallelism can be checked in regular polygons when children meet pre-formed static shapes
dynamic models constructed from geostrips or thick cardboard strips with paper fasteners. W
the dynamic models children can observe the effect of movement on pairs of sides and the w
for example, a square changes into a rhombus. Discussion and reflection on shapes can lead
children seeing the relationship between parallel lines and angles.
 Consider parallelism in a range of quadrilateraLs and other polygons. Add a further
called parallelism to the properties of polygons table [po 4381 and complete stateme
about the various polygons.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• u

LIKE L
The issue of 'right" angles and 'left" angles provides difficulties for some children
because the reasoning seems sound.
An angle shown with a different orientation or using lines of different length also
present difficulties for children. For example. some children will consider angle
be larger than angle A because the lines are longer or because there is a larger
at the end.

~
Angle A Angle B

Children in the early stages of measuring angles are often inaccurate in their readin
scale and in the use of the measuring instruments. This may result in the incorrect
being given for important relationships in 20 figures; for example. a few degrees of
in measuring might lead children to the conclusion that the total number of degree
interior angles of a triangle is more than 180.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL (3D) OBJECTS

Children meet and interact with 3D objects from their earliest days as they move around,
up and play. It is important for schools and early childhood teachers to build on these
and help children connect their world with the more abstract mathematical representat
school. The real world is in three dimensions. Young children come to school from home
and kindergarten, where they played with building blocks, cans, balls, containers and
real objects. Everything children see and touch has three dimensions: width, height
Geometrical learning begins with children exploring these solid shapes, working out h
them, if they will sit flat on the floor, how they can be stacked, whether one will fit ins
empty with a hollow middle, for example when constructed from Polydron, or skeletal with j
their edges used when they are made from tooth picks and small balls of plasticine or geoshap
Three-dimensional objects can be classified in three general categories:
• those with all their surfaces or faces flat, for example prisms and other polyhedrons
• those with curved surfaces only, for example spheres
• those with a combination of flat and curved surfaces, for example cylinders and cones.

POLYHEDRONS
A 3D object with all its faces or surfaces flat is called a polyhedron. The word is derived from the Gr
words poly meaning 'many' and hedron meaning 'face'. Polyhedrons, therefore, are solids with ma
faces. As with 2D figures, it is important that children eventually acquire the vocabulary and nam
of common 3D objects but this should not be the focus via rote learning of names and definitio
Usually, children wiU gradually learn and use the mathematical names and terms as they experie
and discuss shapes and their properties. A more precise and sophisticated working definition
shapes and ideas will emerge as children experience rich and thoughtfully prepared activities. I
suggested that children develop spatial language in much the same way as they learn to talk ab
various animals and objects-by hearing it used appropriately by others (their teachers and pee
and being encouraged to use progressively more exact language in describing their experiences.
children become familiar with more advanced concepts such as vertex, edge, face and angle, th
descriptions will contain additional information. By the end of primary school, a description of o
particular shape should be sufficiently specific as to exclude all other shapes.

Names for 20 figures and 3D objects may be confused because of the similarities in
the beginning of the names, for example. dodecagon and dodecahedron.
Naming conventions for the parts of 20 figures and 3D objects may also be
confused. 20 figures have 'sides' while 30 objects have 'faces' and 'edges'. Here a
corner is called a 'vertex'.

PLATONIC SOLIDS
An interesting subclass of polyhedrons is the Platonic solids. AU faces of a particular Platonic so
must be identical in shape and size, all edges must have the same length, all angles must be
same and all vertices must be identical. This means that all vertices must be surround
the same plane shapes and in the same order. These properties give each shape an e
symmetry-any face can equally be the base. Sometimes they are described as regular o
There are only five such figures and they were identified and developed from th
the Greek philosopher and mathematician Plato, hence Platonic. He concluded that they
fundamental building blocks (the atoms) of nature and assigned each of them to
elements of the universe. The tetrahedron was allied to fire, the cube or hexahedron
octahedron to air and the icosahedron to water. The remaining dodecahedron was
the cosmos, as it was so different from the rest having 12 pentagonal faces.

Number of identical faces Shape of face Name

- -- --
4 Equilateral triangle Tetrahedr
6 Square Hexahedron !
8 Equilateral triangle Octahedro
12 Regular pentagon Dodecahed
20 Equilateral triangle ,e Icosahedr

d\
J\ rR\ AC1 ~
U~W~W
Tetrahedron Hexahedron Octahedron Dodecahedron Icosahedron

PYRAMIDS AND PRISMS

Prisms have two identical, parallel faces joined to one another by rectangles. Boxe
cereal cartons are commonplace examples. Children may also be familiar wit
chocolate boxes and other similar commercial packaging. These provide motivation
connection to real things. The end faces may be of various shapes not just triangle
of the end face determines the name of the prism. When a prism is cut in cross-se
to its base or end it would form two smaller versions of the same prism because th
would remain the same.

.
@Q B ~
,
[jJ
f_ 'J-:'

_.. -.- \,

pentagonal \
square prism hexagonal rectangular p
prism or cube prism or cuboid

Pyramids have one face with at least three straight edges; the faces joining these
triangles that meet at one common point. The commonly recognised pyramid from Egy
 square-based hexagonal-based
41·
" "'",

pentagonal-based triang ula r-based

pyramid pyramid pyramid pyramid

Children often have difficulties distinguishing pyramids from prisms as they tend only
meet limited examples of each. Typically, the pyramid is presented as being similar to
'Egyptian pyramid' with a square base, while the prism is given as a triangular prism similar
ones seen in science and the refraction of light and the spectrum. There are many others t
fall into each category and children need to experience them and note their similarities a
differences. These are much easier to see when examples are shown in net form. For examp
the end faces and rectangular other faces of a prism are more obvious to some children
this format.

A triangular A hexagonal A square-based A pentagonal-based

prism net prism net pyramid net pyramid net

SPHERES, CYLINDERS AND CONES

One property of polyhedrons usually found by children as they play and interact with collectio
of 3D objects is that some of them do not roll. They can only slrde along a tabletop or dow
small incline. Those with both flat and curved surfaces, such as cylinders, which have t
identical, flat surfaces joined to one another by a single curved surface, can slide and roll. T
two flat surfaces are bounded by curves, not necessarily circles. Connections are easily made
soup or baked bean tins and containers such as Pringles rubes. Cones have one flat surface who
boundary must be curved and a single curved surface extending to a point. Again, connectio
can be made to witches' hats, traffic or ice-cream cones and other similar objects. Spheres w
a complete curved surface can be compared to table tennis balls. These 3D object
slide depending on how they are placed on a table or floor.

bJo g6. · . ©
.---_ .. _---. ..----- .. --_....... -'

§b @
Cylinders Cones Spheres and other shapes

1 Obtain a series of circles made from thin card or paper with a similar diameter.
thin, pizza-like section from one of the circles and Ibend the remaining c,ircle to
two cut edges together. The resulting shape will be a cone.
2 Repeat the action on the other circles but each time make the pizza section lar
Compare the resulting cones and make a general statement about the cones a
pizza sections. r
:

OTHER 3D OBJECTS
It is possible to have 3D objects other than the Platonic ones and the examples of p
cylinders, spheres and pyramids described so far. Often they are quite complex in s
present problems for children when they attempt to make them from card and a pre
diagram. With the advent of newer construction materials in geometry such as Polydr
geoshapes that are made from plastic and have interlocking edges, the construction o
larger and more spectacular polyhedrons is accessible to older primary-aged children.
soccer balls are constructed of a combination of panels that are regular hexagons
pentagons. Careful observation and discussion with the children will establish tha
follow a pattern at each vertex of a hexagon, a hexagon and a pentagon. This can be gi
(6, 6, 5) to represent the 20 figures after the Schlafi system (Cundy & Rallett, 19
as children check that this pattern exists at each vertex they will be able to construct
polyhedron, which happens to be known as a truncated icosahedron and has 32 f
12 regular pentagons and 20 regular hexagons.
 A truncated icosahedron made from geoshapes

The Schlafi system of coding works with regular 2D figures as follows. Each regular 2D figu
is given a code number that corresponds to the number of sides it contains. For example, a squa
has four equal sides. It has a code of 4. A regular hexagon has a code of 6 and a dodecagon a co
of 12. It is possible to describe polyhedrons by their faces and how these faces meet at a verte
When this system is applied to a cube, for example, a code of4,4,4 is generated which acknowledg
the three squares that come together at a corner. The code can be checked at any vertex on t
cube. A code of 3, 3, 3 will produce a tetrahedron.

Other interesting polyhedrons may be constructed following the codes given below.

CODE FOR EACH VERTEX OFFICIAL NAME

3, 3, 3 Tetrahedron
4, 4, 4 Hexahedron !cube]
5, 5, 5 Dodecahedron
3, 6, 6 Truncated tetrahedron
3, 4, 4 Cube octahedron
 3, 8, 8 Truncated cube
4, 6, 6 Truncated octahedron
4, 6, 8 Great rhombicubeoctahedron
3, 5, 3, 5 Icosidodecahedron
3,10,10 Truncated dodecahedron
5, 6, 6 Truncated icosahedron
3,4,5,4 Small rhombicosidodecahedron
4,6, 10 Great rhombicosidodecahedron
3,4,4,4 Small rhombicllbeoctahedron
3, 3, 3, 3, 4 Snub cube
3, 3, 3, 3, 5 Snub dodecahedron
---------------
TWO DIMENSIONS TO THREE DIMENSIONS AND BACK A
It is important for older primary school children to be able to visualise what a 20 repr
a 3D object will look like ifit is to be constructed. Equally important is the ability to re
object in a 2D way. Adults move freely between 3D objects and 2D representations
stylised mathematical way. for example, the following is a 2D stylised representation o

LV
Children need to experience these conventions and representations and discuss th
to help with these connections between 2D and 3D is via the use of nets, which are
of 3D objects. A net has all the constituents of the 3D object-the correct number
faces, edges and vertices-but has yet to be folded into 3 dimensions.

NETS OF 3D SOLIDS
From early years onwards children often work with nets-the 2D form ofa 3D object
3D objects. Much of the work, however, does not involve mathematics and thinking by
as it is often merely a cutting and gluing exercise. Providing children with a pre-drawn
net is of limited value in learning about 3D objects. A broader approach is needed to i
children in recognition and discussion of faces, edges and vertices as shown on the n
corresponding 3D object. Further tasks can involve converting a 3D object into a n
along some of the edges and then folding it flat. Older children can begin to consi
configurations that might be used to construct a cube or other simple polyhedrons,
tetrahedron.
 six squares that will fold to make a cube. Using materiaLs such as Polydron allows
for nets to be constructed and folded quickly in a more engaging and dynamic way.

Cross-shaped net for a cube

In pairs. children discuss the similarities and differences of the new Polydron
combination they have found. This is recorded on square-centimetre graph paper
with individual squares to represent the Polydron. Children explain to each other, the
class and teacher how each combination is different and how it folds to make a cube.
Rotations and mirror images of examples already recorded will need to be identified
and removed.

Some children will attack the problem in a haphazard and random way; others may ta
a more systematic approach by considering the movement of only one square at a time aroun
stable base. Children can record their answers with the combinations of geoshapes or Polydro
recorded on graph paper, or smaller versions of the net may be made from paper that can be glu
to a chart by a base square and then folded to show how it makes a cube in a dynamic way.
It is also important for children to explore transformations from 3D to 2D as well as the oth
way round. This can be done via asking children to visualise and then draw an object as in
following example.

COLLAPSING THE KELLOGG'S

This activity uses a Kellogg's cornflakes box, an example of a rectangular prism.
Present the children with the cornflakes box and ask them to visualise it if it were cut
along some of the edges and opened out flat on the table.
 Children describe how each piece of their opened-out box will re-form to make
original box.
They might suggest how other net combinations might also be formed to make
box.

Children can begin to connect the flat 2D figures of their net with the faces and
3D box. In a similar way to 'More than a cross?' children can glue their solutions a
the 2D net's connections to the 3D version. Other readily available, commercial pac
as Toblerone packets, can be used for similar activities. Older primary school childre
visual problems involving 3D objects and net construction. This is another way to h
connect the net with the features of a 3D object.

VISUALISING THE NET

Present the children with a construction of a combination of four cubes, for examp

Pairs of children draw the net for this cube combination using the least amount of
and without making the nets for four separate cubes and sticking them together.

Discussion should centre on the methods children use to solve the problems and the
of the net to pans of the construction.

SKETCHING 3D OBJECTS
There are a number of mathematical conventions related to drawing 3D objects that c
to know so that they can both draw and interpret drawings in accurate ways. These
include:
• the use of dotted lines for edges that cannot be seen, and . .
• non-parallel drawings of parallel lines with the use of vanishing points.

Older children can begin to represent 3D objects in 2D sketches and drawings. Co

produced materials, such as the DIME Build Up pack and its associated bookle
excellent basis for children to develop the skills of drawing 3D objects on isometri
The materials, based around arrangements of cubes, engage children in both visual pro
visual interpretation.
 ····· .
.. ..
...... .. .. •••
• ••
•

Are these the same shape How many cubes

or different shapes? are in this figure?

Interpreting figural information skills can be improved through exercises and problems involv
reading, understanding and the interpretation of graphs, charts and diagrams and by teach
children something about simple 3D drawing including isometric and perspective sketches.

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• •

fTt?i @ W • •
• • • • •
• • •
•
• • • ••
• • • • • • • •• • • • • •
•
• • •• • • • • • • • • •• • • •
• • • • ••
• • ••
• • • • • • • • ••
• • • ••••••••••• • • •••• •• • • •
Isometric sketches

Towards the end of primary school the children should be able to visualise, sketch and descr
3D objects. Drawing cubes and other shapes based on rectangular solids can be done on isomet
dot paper in a landscape format. Drawing such isometric views is a useful skill that is eas
acquired and children generally find it enjoyable.
An activity for older children, 'Bird's-eye view', offers interesting challenges, develops w
of representing 3D objects in a 2D format, and requires the interpretation of 2D drawings
construct 3D objects.

BIRD'S-EYE VIEW
This activity asks children to solve the problem of representing three dimensions in a
20 way that is easily understood by others. Give children a small 4 x 4 square grid and
some small wooden or plastic cubes. Have them make the following shape from seven
cubes. There is only one layer deep of cubes.
 r-

I--- ~

I
Front view

Challenge children, in pairs. to devise ways to show the 'building' from the top as if
were flying over it in a helicopter. They have to account for the fact that the building
up to three storeys in their answer.

Children show and describe their methods for showing 3D in a 20 way. Typically these
• Some form of colour coding or shading with a key, for example red is one layer of
high, green is two layers, etc.
• The use of smaller squares within a larger one to represent an extra layer.

@]
This shows two cubes high

• A numbering system whereby a number in a square represents the number of cube

I 1 I 3 I 1 I 2 I
Children can discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method. They the
preferred method to show a bird's-eye view of a building designed by them on the
using 10 cubes. Further challenges can be set for children requiring them to draw their
'silhouette' form from each side (left, right, front and back). Other children then have
the cube building and draw its bird's-eye view using the agreed representation system.

Some children have difficulty 'seeing' the 3D representation.

For some children there is a difficulty working with isometric paper as this new
learning may clash with learning perspective drawing in art.
 • Investigate Pentominoeslcombinations of 5 squaresl in a simitar way. Which
combina.tions will fold to form an open box?
•••............... ~ ..0 , ~' u ••

TRANSFORMATIONS
This aspect of geometry focuses on the process by which an original shape is transformed int
new one, rather than on the individual shape per se. The three main processes by which shapes
changed are translation (slide), rotation (turn) and reflection (flip). Associated with these are ot
processes of enlargement and dilation.
Transformation is used extensively in pattern making and design in many and varied cultu
throughout the world. Common examples are where shapes are repeated or turned in some w
to form linear patterns, especially in fabric printing and weaving. Ancient Greece and Rome m
extensive use of transformational geometry in their designs for borders and decoration.

This border pattern of triangles is a common one.

Fijian tapa cloth

TRANSLATION
The simplest transformation is that of translation, or slide. Here the original shape is
straight line to a new position where it forms another image. Typically, as many patterns
format, the movement would be from left to right. However, this does not always have to
as the original can be translated to the left, to the 'north' or 'south' of the original, or at a
long as it is completed in a straight line and does not change direction.

Slide or translation

Everything in the new image is the same as the original. It is only different in i
The process of translation can be repeated a number of times in the same direction t
linear pattern.

REFLECTION
Another process for transforming an original shape is by reRection, or 'Ripping', about a '
fu with translation, all properties of the new image, its size oflines and angles for exam
 Flip or reflection

The reflection may be about any of the sides of the original. Usually, however, it is on
right-hand side to form a linear pattern. The pattern when extended shows examples of vert
or bilateral symmetry.

ROTATION
The third simple transformation in which ail the properties of the object are retained in the image is
rotation. In this case the object is rotated through an angle about a point to give rise to the new im
The point is called the centre of the turn. The angle of the rotation can be anything from zero degree
360 degrees. However, interesting patterns are generated by multiple turns through angles that are fac
of 360 such as 30, 45, 60 and so on. Such patterns also illustrate rotational symmetry. Standard draw
packages on most computers include flip, slide and turn options. Children could use such package
expiore the changes made to a shape or a letter from the alphabet when these tools are used.
.' COMBINATIONS OF TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES
Combining two or more of the methods for transformation may form interesting linear patterns.
example, a linear pattern can be constructed by using a combination of reflection and translatio

A linear pattern using reflection and translation of the original image

TRAPEZIUM TRANSFORMATION PATIERNS

Pattern block pieces are useful for creating patterns using the different forms of
transformation. Children can quickly manipulate the pieces to construct their pattern.
Provide children with a quantity of trapezium pieces to make the pattern rather than
using one piece as a template. Ask children to make and record a linear pattern where
the piece is translated (slid!. then one where the piece is reflected (flipped!. and then a
pattern where the piece is rotated [turned!.
Children can then be set a task where they investigate patterns that can be made when
two forms of translation are used.
 •••• u.,.lt ••••••• ,· •• • •• •• ··.! ·· , ·····•, · ULOI.J· •••_•. ''UI~· ••••••.'':r_•.•. 'L.. 'l..l..U..l.Llf.Y.'' _..u. u.u.u. UJ •• • lI.u •• ! , lI

Obtain copies of The Multicultural Mathematics Classroom: Bringing in the World

[Zaslavky, 19961 and Mathematics from Many Cultures (Irons et at., 19941 or simila
books that illustrate designs for cloth, pottery and other artefacts from different
historical and cultural groups around the world.
Identify and copy examples that illustrate patterns made by different forms of
transformation to be used later as a teaching aid.
Outline how these might be used as discussion starters and examples for patte
children to explore the idea of transformation in linear patterns and construct bor
patterns.

OTHER TRANSFORMATIONS
Enlargement is another form of transformation where the original shape is enlarged by
number greater than one: Dilation is a form where the original shape is reduced in size,
to enlargement but here the factor used is between zero and one. In both cases, the shap
but not congruent to the original. Similar changes can be made when the second grid is
or is distorted in some way, for example the grid lines are not straight but follow a w
Children can produce designs similar to the effect of fairground distortion mirrors.

TESSELLATION
Tessellation can be an exciting and motivating area of geometry for children. There se
affinity for children with the fitting of shapes and the colour and pattern of the finishe
The word tessellation comes from the Latin tessara, which was a square tablet. Smaller
versions used for making mosaic floor coverings were known as tesseLla, hence the c
tessellation and surface covering. There are many excellent examples in books of Rom
which may be a useful discussion starter for work in tessellation. However, many o
mosaics became pictures rather than the stricter ma-rhematical meaning of tessellation
plane with a pattern in such a way as to leave no region uncovered. Through discussion ch
understand that mathematical tessellation uses pattern rather than a random placing of
making of pictures, which belong in the art domain. Often, however, work in tessella
a low-level, 'busy work', art exercise where starter patterns on black-line master sheets a
and coloured. That sort of activity misses the essential mathematical ingredients of d
reflection, and relating to the underlying mathematics content of, for example, patte
There also needs to be a development of work in tessellation from the fitting of regula
find which tessellate and which do not and why this is so. The work of M. C. Escher p
sophisticated use of translation, pattern and angle that are well suited to older children
Tessellation work can be a good vehicle for the application of spatial ideas and so
problems; for example, children in the middle primary years can be set the task of pro
 Tessellations with a variety of tiles

Red Cuisenaire or other coloured rods can be used as manipulatives (bricks) to allow child
to experiment with possible combinations and designs. This serves as a way of recording childre
work and provides a basis for discussion of the patterns completed.
Similar tasks can be set using regular polygons fOF floor and wall tiling designs. It is possi
here to arrive at the 3 regular and 8 semi-regular tesseIlations.

Tessellations with a variety of tiles

These are known as demi-regular tessellations. A good example of this is the 3, 4, 3,

tessellation.
 Demi-regu~ar tessellation

Children may also investigate tessellation patterns that may be made using reg
tiles and 'gaps'. These 'gaps' are left when two or more polygons come together
quite make a complete 'turn'; for example, four pentagons leave a 'gap' of a rhom
'gaps' are possible with pentagons. Octagons are another useful shape to inves
shapes that do tessellate such as squares. These tessellations are best recorded wi
a digital camera.

ISLAMIC PATTERNS AND TESSELLATIONS

Pattern making using shape and space has been a feature of numerous cultures and
for thousands of years. Patterns help people understand the world as well as help them
anticipate. They form a vital part of the aesthetics of many cultures. This activity is a
Delaney and Dichmont (1979) and is suitable for older children. It is more complex
and embeds elements of diagonals in polygons, symmetry and transformation within
of the pattern.
 Some of the lines can then be picked out and emphasised to form a tile design or
template that can then be translated horizontally and vertically on the large dot paper to
form the overall Islamic-type pattern.

~
'
.... ...
, - -
.
I

, ,
- -- - - -

The lines on the final version can be drawn in colour.

Discussion of the finished design will identify the unit of the pattern, the features of its des
and the effect of it being combined with other translations. Comparisons can be made with ot
finished designs from the same starting square but with different lines emphasised. Children
search the Internet for examples of Islamic patterns from the Alhambra in Spain or other fam
Islamic sites. Other children might like to consider the effect they can achieve by starting from
different base such as a regular hexagon or adding more lines to a larger square that is compo
of a 5 x 5 grid of smaller squares.
ESCHER TESSELLATIONS
Many of the art works from the Dutch artist M. C. Escher demonstrate excellent examples
tessellation, albeit at a more complex level. The basic technique can be simplified to make it access
to older primary school children. Some of his work shows tessellations of animals and birds that
formed from a simple base tile.

ESCHER-LIKE TESSELLATIONS
A square is a good starter base tile. Use square grid paper and have children mark out a
'0 x , 0 larger square. This will act as a guide for the translations that will take place.

Have children draw a piece to be cut from one of the four sides.
This is then translated to the opposite side and fixed into place with sticky tape.

~ Cut and

D
Starter shape
~

Next stage
'eanslat.

Final tile

The final tile made from squared paper is then used as a template as a new tile is drawn
firm card. This is used to tessellate the piece of paper: Each tile can then be anthropomor
into a cat or a fish or something else that seems appropriate for the shape.

Children start with a simple tile [square, rectangle or hexagon!. They follow the ge
Instructions to cut and translate to produce a new tile. They have to make a numb
of these to be the test tiles to see how they will tessellate. Once this is established
they can use one as a template to tessellate the area. The tiles are then changed i
Escher-like figures.

Tessellation of mice !copyright Kit Sparrowl

 needed pattern and regularity of the tile placement.
When drawing round a tile template subsequent tiles are slightly enlarged and may
not fit Into the allocated space, suggesting that the tile will not tessellate .

•• "w •• • ' •• 0...... . '

1 Investigate whether all quadrilaterals and all triangles will tessellate with themselves.
2 Collect photographic examples of tessellations.
3 Explore Tesselmania and <www.worldofescher.com/store/mania> and other
websites. Identify how they could be used on an interactive white board.
.................................................................................. .

SYMMETRY
Human beings seem to have some innate appreciation for bilateral symmetry. For example, you
children's drawings and 3D constructions with blocks and similar materials often reAect the bala
that is characteristic of bilateral symmetry. There is also a tendency to avoid or dislike 'lopsidedn
in architecture, art and natural objects.

TYPES OF SYMMETRY
There are two types of symmetry, bilateral or line, seen in reAections in mirrors, and rotational, gi
by a sequence of partial turns about a central point. Rotational symmetry, while reasonably comm
in nature and architecture, seems to be less recognised and understood by children.

Bilateral symmetry
 Bilateral symmetry is commonly shown in classrooms through younger children
'butterfly' pictures from folded paper containing blobs of paint along the creas
squashed out to provide a print on each face of the folded paper when it is opened.
activities include finding the line or axis of symmetry in a drawing of an object o
the whole shape where a half is given. All of these activities are helpful in develop
concepts of symmetry. To be more effective, however, teachers need to have childr
how they know something is symmetrical and why they placed their line where they
Completing the shape activities typically requires children to use a vertical line
Tasks should develop further aspects of bilateral symmetry so that children are aware
lines mat are horiwntal to the foot of the page, at an angle to it, and the fact th
have two or more lines of symmetry. This is particularly important for analysis of the
properties of polygons. Children love to use pattern blocks and many immediately b
patterns with the blocks that exhibit vertical line symmetry. Teachers can use this m
set similar problems to be solved.

RANGOLI PATIERNS
As part of the celebrations for the festival of Divali, Hindu people often construct R
patterns at the entrance to their homes, usually from coloured powders and spice
The patterns are an excellent example of horizontal and vertical line symmetry. Th
final designs are meant as a sign of welcome to visitors, and a tribute to Lakshmi
goddess of prosperity.

...
Provide children with square format dot paper to guide the accuracy of lines and
coloured areas. Make a square on the dot paper that is 7 dots by 7 dots.

~
·..
·. . ..
•• •••
....
~
~

••• ••• •
•••••••
•••••••
Mark lightly the horizontal. diagonal and vertical lines of symmetry. Begin at any c
and mark in some lines to join dots.

The development of a Rangoli pattern

 symmetries.

TESTING FOR SYMMETRY

A simple test for bilateral symmetry in a 2D figure is the fold test. If the shape can be folded over
a straight line (the mirror line) so that one half of the figure coincides exactly with the other, th
the figure has bilateral symmetry. Many children experience difficulties with using mirrors to test
symmetry as they misunderstand the role of the mirror and forget to project the image beyond
mirror. The Mira, a commercially produced semi-transparent plastic mirror, is better for testing l
symmetry as it allows the correct pattern to be reflected but also allows children to see through
Mira to their work for comparison.
To test a 2D figure for rotational symmetry, the turn test is used. If a tracing of the figure c
be rotated about a central point of the original shape through an angle of 180 degrees or less
that the tracing coincides exactly with the original shape then the object has rotational symmet
Some shapes will fit inside their outline more than once and it is this feature that can be used
classify their degree of rotational symmetry.

....~I-----:-- Centre of rotation

An equilateral triangle

In an equilateral triangle, the X can be rotated to three different positions to fit within
triangle outline. Because it can be placed three times in one complete revolution of 360 degree
is categorised as having 120 degree rotational symmetry or symmetry oforder 3. A regular hexag
would have order 6, while an oblong will be order 2.

1'~ 0 1 ,1---- Centre of rotation

~
....

An oblong has order 2 rotational symmetry

 A shape that has two or more lines of symmetry always has rotational symmetry
that has rotational symmetry may not have line symmetry,

t·····., ,.

1 If a shape with 'order 2' rotational symmetry turns an angle of 180 degrees how
many other orders of symmetry are there?
2 Draw diagrams to illustrate this.
3 Explain how you know you have found them all.
4 Examine a 'complete the other half of the shape' task. Identify aspects of the ta
that make it more difficult.
: , '-

.\,uLTIE
Children may have difficulties when a shape has lines of symmetry that are at
angle rather than in a vertical or a horizontal orientation.
Other shapes may at first sight seem to have line symmetry, for example the
diagonal in an oblong. This is particularly likely when consideratIon of an oblon
follows children finding lines of symmetry in a square. There is a strong tenden
overgeneralise and to follow 'what looks right'.

ALPHABET SYMMETRY
Provide children with a sheet containing the letters of the alphabet. Select a simpl
serif font such as Helvetica and print out a sheet of upper case letters in a large fo
size. Classify these letters according to their symmetry.
Children demonstrate the symmetry they have detected in the letters. They sho
where they have placed the 'mirror line', Some may also indicate rotational
symmetry-these generaLLy will be children who have a more advanced grasp o
the symmetry concept. Children will note that there are a variety of symmetries
shown within the alphabet ranging from no symmetries to multi-lined symmet
rotational symmetry.
Letters can be classified and shown in a table:
 symmetry K QR

Further investigations of symmetry in words are also motivating:

OHIO o M
H U
I M
o
Sentences may also be used, such as the palindromic sentence of Ferdinand De Lesseps,
famous engineer:
AMANAPLANACANALPANAMA
or
MADAM I'M ADAM

The following idea, originally proposed by Geoff Giles, provides a very useful assessment task

THREE PIECES
Provide children with three pieces of card in the proportions shown.

Ask them to fit some or all of the pieces together to form symmetrical shapes and
record them in silhouette form on square grid paper.

ih- Uoe 0' 'ymme'"

I
i
-T-
- ~-

I
!

Children show where the line of symmetry is placed on the shapes or how each
shape shows symmetry.
 Teachers can note the lines of symmetry children find. Many will only show verti
but by questioning and causing them to think and reflect on the situation childr
that there are other ways to find symmetry within shapes, for example, with mor
and rotational symmetry. Selected examples of the shapes produced can be recorde
glUing coloured paper to a larger A3-sized sheet of paper or poster. Lines or rotation
can be drawn onto the shapes along with explanations of the symmetry and com
the activities.

D
I..·.·· · ..
1 Collect examples of logos from banks, businesses and cars [for example the
Mitsubishi car badge logo) that show symmetry.
2 Identify the symmetries used in these designs and classify them in a Venn dia
3 Work through the 'THREE PIECES' investigation and record examples of as m

[ ~~.~.~~.~.~.i~.~.. ~.~.:.~~.. ~.~.~ ..~~~.~.: , ,

LOCATION AND ARRANGEMENT

The final aspect of geometry brings together knowledge and understanding relatin
arrangement and direction. It involves grids and maps. Aspects of angle are associated
and need to be connected to these ideas.
The idea of location begins to develop from an early age as children are asked
onto tables, stand next to the shopping trolley and are warned not to play behind
the next few years the concept of location will develop in sophistication and accura
relate location to grids and maps and provide answers to the following questions:
• Where is it?
• How far away is it?
• Which way is it?
As they build their understanding of locations, children develop skills that relat
distance and position. These skills and understandings are built through a range
that include play, physical activity in such things as PE, literature, art, model ma
discussion with the teacher.

THE LANGUAGE OF LOCAHON

Initial work with young children revolves around the use and understanding of th
associated with location. Children need to be introduced to and use everyday word
such as behind, in front, next to and on top of. Their understanding of the wor
develops through use and experience to include, for example, under, above, near, o
beside and to the left. Gradually, they are introduced to the idea that movement an
be added to the instructions. Children now add words like forward, backward and
position of the viewer. What is on the left of an object for me as I look at it from the front, is
the right for you as you look at it from the rear. Remember conversations that seek to clarify
left or your lett?' as people attempt to understand location from different viewpoints and diffe
perceptions. Much of the learning here is incidental and occurs in informal, everyday situation
children carry oUE requests to 'put the book behind the table' or are asked to 'line up next to
climbing frame'.

BARRIER GAME
Simple barrier games are useful to help children give and receive positional
instructions.

One child builds a simple shape from joining cubes or pattern blocks.

A second child attempts to recreate the shape from the instructions and descriptions
offered by the first child. Neither child can see the other person's shape due to the
intervening barrier.

When the shape is completed the children can compare it to the original and discuss the
difficulties they had with giving and understanding the instructions.

Similar tasks can be planned whereby children have to look at a design from pattern block
a strllcture constructed from typical plastic construction materials. The original constructio
placed outside the classroom (or our of sight) so the 'messenger' has to view the construction
then teU someone else how to build it and where to place each piece.

Words such as 'next to' and 'above' have a range of interpretations and children will
need time to develop the necessary precision.

DIRECTION
The early uses of directional language arise from the use of positional words and ideas. Child
begin to develop navigational words such as left and right, clockwise and anticlockwise. To t
are added ideas of distance and measurement as children 'stand by the desk, turn to
move forward five steps' or they 'play robots' where class members direct a robot c
forward three steps, turn to the right ...'. Children in the middle primary years can
programmable toys such as 'Roamer' or 'Beebots' and progress to computer program
that use similar instructional language.
A 0-99 board can be used to set children problems that require them to devise
directional language to move from 25 to 37 (down one square, right two squares
to 46. Not only can there be connections to other areas of mathematics such as n
are also connections within geometry strands as children attempt to make the 'R
an outline of a hexagon or program in LOGO for the 'turtle' to draw a regular pen
are also strong connections to angle and the idea of turn. Initial instructions for lef
become quarter turn or half turn which lead to the use of angle and degrees. A qua
then become 'turn 90 degrees' while a half turn is 180 degrees.
Points of the compass, for example north, south, east and west, can be used to
directional and navigational language of children. Gradually, the more sophistica
points of the compass, for example NNE, can be incorporated. This idea connects ni
full range of points of the compass to the use of bearings. Rotagrams are an excell
teaching and learning support materials to help children develop these ideas.

MAPS
Young children have quite sophisticated notions of maps but often emphasise f
syncratic to the drawer of the map. For example, the main feature of children's
be their home, which is given a central place and drawn in a larger format. Other
show side views of objects along with some top views or combinations of both s
the same building.
A useful whole school task, whereby multiple work samples may be obtained, is to
to draw their route from their home to school and to put onto the 'map' all th
information. The information provided will show a growing sophistication of the us
conventions.
Children begin by drawing maps of familiar places such as the school and local are
experience maps of large areas such as their state or Australia. They can also consi
special areas and for special situations, for example the Melbourne or Sydney train m
more of a diagram and in that sense are unlike road maps.
Teachers can help children reflect on the order of things on theirfamilliar maps and
position to other objects. Gradually, children add to their repertoire of ways of
locating and describing features. Their sketch maps of routes to school can develo
and scale as well as conventions of top or bird's-eye views. In time, they start to c
with the idea of describing location by the use of grids and connections can be made
of mathematics such as graphs and data presentation.
Early ideas of position with a grid usually follow an alpha-numeric system (a co
letter and number), for example B3.
 A B c o E

An alpha-numeric grid

It would be useful to begin the letters and numbers from the bottom lett-hand corner of
grid. Note here that the spaces between the grid lines are marked with the letters and numb
and the coordinate B3 refers to the whole square. The teacher may also wish to place the let
across the bottom of the grid and the numbers to the side so that children become familiar w
the later convention of writing the x (across) coordinate before the y (up) coordinate. Local
street directories use a similar system to identifY the position of a particular street in the subu
or central business district. A street directory, which includes the school and local homes, can o
a realistic and relevant example of the application for the children and is much more motiva
and appeaJing for the children than stylised examples found in worksheets or textbooks.
The move from using the alpha-numeric system to 'ordered pairs' appears at first sight on
small development. It is, however, a source of considerable difficulties for children.

3
x
2

o
o 2 3 4 5

A grid for ordered pairs showing 12.3)

Teaching approaches to help children develop these ideas usually involve 'battleship'-t
games and pirate treasure maps.
 FIl.~UL

Children may confuse the order to which the pair 12. 31 refers and not realise th
mathematical convention is to go across [the x coordinate) first. then the up [th
coordinate!'
There may be confusion between the grid lines and the square in which a point
occurs following from the earlier introduction of street map conventions.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
As with other topics in mathematics, a major aim in studying geometry is to develop an
ofits place in our cultural heritage and its application to the solution of problems. Teach
is not a matter of passing on information. It should assist children to develop processes o
analysis, description, classification, visualisation, representation, exploration and infe
this successfully, teachers need to listen to and observe children carefully so they beco
how chUdren learn. This will enable them to introduce children to appropriate activi
each individual's level of functioning.