In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds number Re is a dimensionless number that gives a measure of

the ratio of inertial forces toviscous forces and consequently quantifies the
relative importance of these two types of forces for given flow conditions. The concept was
introduced by George Gabriel Stokes in 1851,[1] but the Reynolds number is named after Osborne
Reynolds (1842–1912), who popularized its use in 1883.[2][3]

Reynolds numbers frequently arise when performing dimensional analysis of fluid dynamics
problems, and as such can be used to determinedynamic similitude between different
experimental cases. They are also used to characterize different flow regimes, such
as laminar orturbulent flow: laminar flow occurs at low Reynolds numbers, where viscous forces
are dominant, and is characterized by smooth, constant fluid motion, while turbulent flow occurs
at high Reynolds numbers and is dominated by inertial forces, which tend to produce
random eddies,vortices and other flow instabilities.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Definition

o 1.1 Flow in Pipe

o 1.2 Flow in a non-circular duct

o 1.3 Flow in a Wide Duct

o 1.4 Flow in an Open Channel

o 1.5 Object in a fluid

 1.5.1 Sphere in a fluid

 1.5.2 Oblong object in a fluid

 1.5.3 Fall velocity

o 1.6 Packed Bed

o 1.7 Stirred Vessel

• 2 Transition Reynolds number

• 3 Reynolds number in pipe friction

• 4 The similarity of flows

• 5 Reynolds number sets the smallest scales of turbulent motion

• 6 Example of the importance of the Reynolds number

• 7 Reynolds number in physiology

• 8 Reynolds number in viscous fluids

 • 9 Where does it come from?

• 10 See also

• 11 References and notes

o 11.1 Further reading

• 12 External links

[edit]Definition

Reynolds number can be defined for a number of different situations where a fluid is in relative
motion to a surface (the definition of the Reynolds number is not to be confused with
the Reynolds Equation or lubrication equation). These definitions generally include the fluid
properties of density and viscosity, plus a velocity and a characteristic length or characteristic
dimension. This dimension is a matter of convention - for example a radius or diameter are
equally valid for spheres or circles, but one is chosen by convention. For aircraft or ships, the
length or width can be used. For flow in a pipe or a sphere moving in a fluid the internal diameter
is generally used today. Other shapes (such as rectangular pipes or non-spherical objects) have
an equivalent diameter defined. For fluids of variable density (e.g. compressible gases) or
variable viscosity (non-Newtonian fluids) special rules apply. The velocity may also be a matter of
convention in some circumstances, notably stirred vessels.

[4]

where:

 is the mean fluid velocity (SI units: m/s)

 L is a characteristic linear dimension, (traveled length of fluid, or hydraulic radius
when dealing with river systems) (m)
 μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m² or kg/m·s)
 ν is the kinematic viscosity (ν = μ / ρ) (m²/s)
 is the density of the fluid (kg/m³)
 Q is the volumetric flow rate (m³/s)
 A is the pipe cross-sectional area (m²).
Note that this is equal to the ratio between , which is the drag (up to a numerical

factor, half the drag coefficient), and , which is the force due to viscosity (up to a
numerical factor depending on the form of the flow).

[edit]Flow in Pipe
For flow in a pipe or tube, the Reynolds number is generally defined as:[5]

where:

 D is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (m).

[edit]Flow in a non-circular duct

For shapes such as squares, rectangular or annular ducts (where the height and width
are comparable) the characteristic dimension for internal flow situations is taken to be
the hydraulic diameter, DH, defined as 4 times the cross-sectional area, divided by
the wetted perimeter. The wetted perimeter for a channel is the total perimeter of all
channel walls that are in contact with the flow.[6]

For a circular pipe, the hydraulic diameter is exactly equal to the inside pipe
diameter, as can be shown mathematically.

For an annular duct, such as the outer channel in a tube-in-tube heat exchanger,
the hydraulic diameter can be shown algebraically to reduce to

DH,annulus = Do − Di
where

Di is the inside diameter of the outside pipe, and

Do is the outside diameter of the inside pipe.
For calculations involving flow in non-circular ducts, the hydraulic
diameter can be substituted for the diameter of a circular duct,
with reasonable accuracy.

[edit]Flow in a Wide Duct

For a fluid moving between two plane parallel surfaces (where the width is much greater than the
space between the plates) then the characteristic dimension is twice the distance between the
plates.[7]

[edit]Flow in an Open Channel

For flow of liquid with a free surface, the hydraulic radius must be determined. This is the cross-
sectional area of the channel divided by the wetted perimeter. For a semi-circular channel, it is
half the radius. For a rectangular channel, the hydraulic radius is the cross-sectional area divided
by the wetted perimeter. Some texts then use a characteristic dimension that is 4 times the
hydraulic radius (chosen because it gives the same value of Re for the onset of turbulence as in
pipe flow),[8] while others the hydraulic radius as the characteristic length-scale with consequently
different values of Re for transition and turbulent flow.

[edit]Object in a fluid
The Reynolds number for an object in a fluid, called the particle Reynolds number and often
denoted Rep, is important when considering the nature of flow around that grain, whether or
not vortex shedding will occur, and its fall velocity.
[edit]Sphere in a fluid
For a sphere in a fluid, the characteristic length-scale is the diameter of the sphere and the
characteristic velocity is that of the sphere relative to the fluid some distance away from the
sphere (such that the motion of the sphere does not disturb that reference parcel of fluid). The
density and viscosity are those belonging to the fluid.[9] Note that purely laminar flow only exists
up to Re = 0.1 under this definition.

Under the condition of low Re, the relationship between force and speed of motion is given
by Stokes' law.[10]
[edit]Oblong object in a fluid
The equation for an oblong object is identical to that of a sphere, with the object being
approximated as an ellipsoid and the axis of intermediate length being chosen as the
characteristic length scale. Such considerations are important in natural streams, for example,
where there are few perfectly spherical grains. For grains in which measurement of each axis is
impractical (e.g., because they are too small), sieve diameters are used instead as the
characteristic particle length-scale. Both approximations alter the values of the critical Reynolds
number.
[edit]Fall velocity
 The particle Reynolds number is important in determining the fall velocity of a particle. When the
particle Reynolds number indicates laminar flow, Stokes' law can be used to calculate its fall
velocity. When the particle Reynolds number indicates turbulent flow, a turbulent drag law must
be constructed to model the appropriate settling velocity.

[edit]Packed Bed
For flow of fluid through a bed of approximately spherical particles of diameter D in contact, if the
voidage (fraction of the bed not filled with particles) is ε and the superficial velocity V (i.e. the
velocity through the bed as if the particles were not there - the actual velocity will be higher) then
a Reynolds number can be defined as:

Laminar conditions apply up to Re = 10, fully turbulent from 2000.[9]

[edit]Stirred Vessel
In a cylindrical vessel stirred by a central rotating paddle, turbine or propellor, the characteristic
dimension is the diameter of the agitator D. The velocity is ND where N is the
rotational speed (revolutions per second). Then the Reynolds number is:

The system is fully turbulent for values of Re above 10 000.[11]

[edit]Transition Reynolds number

[citation needed]In boundary layer flow over a flat plate, experiments can confirm
that, after a certain length of flow, a laminar boundary layer will become unstable and become
turbulent. This instability occurs across different scales and with different fluids, usually
when , where x is the distance from the leading edge of the flat plate, and the
flow velocity is the freestream velocity of the fluid outside the boundary layer.

For flow in a pipe of diameter D, experimental observations show that for 'fully developed' flow
(Note:[12]), laminar flow occurs whenReD < 2300 and turbulent flow occurs when ReD >
4000[13]. In the interval between 2300 and 4000, laminar and turbulent flows are possible
('transition' flows), depending on other factors, such as pipe roughness and flow uniformity). This
result is generalised to non-circular channels using the hydraulic diameter, allowing a transition
Reynolds number to be calculated for other shapes of channel.
 These transition Reynolds numbers are also called critical Reynolds numbers, and
were studied by Osborne Reynolds around 1895 [see
Rott].

[edit]Reynolds number in pipe friction

Pressure drops seen for fully-developed flow of fluids through pipes can be predicted using
the Moody diagram which plots the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor f against Reynolds
numberRe and relative roughness ε / D. The diagram clearly shows the laminar, transition, and
turbulent flow regimes as Reynolds number increases. The nature of pipe flow is strongly
dependent on whether the flow is laminar or turbulant

[edit]The similarity of flows

In order for two flows to be similar they must have the same geometry, and have equal Reynolds
numbers and Euler numbers. When comparing fluid behaviour at corresponding points in a
model and a full-scale flow, the following holds:

m marked with 'm' concern the flow around the model and the others the actual flow. This allows
engineers to perform experiments with reduced models in water channels or wind tunnels, and
correlate the data to the actual flows, saving on costs during experimentation and on lab time.
dimensionless numbers as well,
Note that true dynamic similitude may require matching other
such as the Mach numberused in compressible flows, or the Froude number that governs
open-channel flows. Some flows involve more dimensionless parameters than can be practically
satisfied with the available apparatus and fluids (for example air or water), so one is forced to
decide which parameters are most important. For experimental flow modeling to be useful, it
requires a fair amount of experience and judgement of the engineer.

es of Reynolds number [14][15]

Bacteria ~10−5
Spermatozoa ~10−4[16]
Ciliate ~10−1
 Smallest Fish ~1

Blood flow in brain ~ 1 × 102

Blood flow in aorta ~ 1 × 103

bulent flow ~ 2.3 × 103 to 5.0 × 104 for pipe flow to 106 for boundary layers

 Typical pitch in Major League

Baseball ~ 2 × 105
 Person swimming ~ 4 × 106
 Fastest Fish ~106
 Blue Whale ~ 3 × 108
 A large ship (RMS Queen Elizabeth
2) ~ 5 × 109

[edit]Reynolds number sets the smallest scales of turbulent motion

In a turbulent flow, there is a range of
scales of the time-varying fluid motion. The size of the largest scales of fluid motion (sometimes
called eddies) are set by the overall geometry of the flow. For instance, in an industrial smoke
stack, the largest scales of fluid motion are as big as the diameter of the stack itself. The size of
the smallest scales is set by the Reynolds number. As the Reynolds number increases, smaller
and smaller scales of the flow are visible. In a smoke stack, the smoke may appear to have many
very small velocity perturbations or eddies, in addition to large bulky eddies. In this sense, the
Reynolds number is an indicator of the range of scales in the flow. The higher the Reynolds
number, the greater the range of scales. The largest eddies will always be the same size; the
smallest eddies are determined by the Reynolds number.

What is the explanation for this

phenomenon? A large Reynolds number indicates that viscous forces are not important at large
scales of the flow. With a strong predominance of inertial forces over viscous forces, the largest
scales of fluid motion are undamped—there is not enough viscosity to dissipate their motions.
The kinetic energy must "cascade" from these large scales to progressively smaller scales until a
level is reached for which the scale is small enough for viscosity to become important (that is,
viscous forces become of the order of inertial ones). It is at these small scales where the
dissipation of energy by viscous action finally takes place. The Reynolds number indicates at
what scale this viscous dissipation occurs. Therefore, since the largest eddies are dictated by the
flow geometry and the smallest scales are dictated by the viscosity, the Reynolds number can be
understood as the ratio of the largest scales of the turbulent motion to the smallest scales.

[edit]Example of the
importance of the Reynolds number
If an airplane wing needs testing, one can
make a scaled down model of the wing and test it in a wind tunnel using the same Reynolds
number that the actual airplane is subjected to. If for example the scale model has linear
dimensions one quarter of full size, the flow velocity of the model would have to be multiplied by a
factor of 4 to obtain similar flow behavior.

Alternatively, tests could be conducted in a

water tank instead of in air (provided the compressibility effects of air are not significant). As the
kinematic viscosity of water is around 13 times less than that of air at 15 °C, in this case the scale
model would need to be about one thirteenth the size in all dimensions to maintain the same
Reynolds number, assuming the full-scale flow velocity was used.

The results of the laboratory model will be

similar to those of the actual plane wing results. Thus there is no need to bring a full scale plane
into the lab and actually test it. This is an example of "dynamic similarity".

Reynolds number is important in the

calculation of a body's drag characteristics. A notable example is that of the flow around a
cylinder[1]. Above roughly 3×106 Re the drag coefficient drops considerably. This is important
when calculating the optimal cruise speeds for low drag (and therefore long range) profiles for
airplanes.

[edit]Reynolds number in
physiology
Poiseuille's law on blood circulation in the
body is dependent on laminar flow. In turbulent flow the flow rate is proportional to the square root
of the pressure gradient, as opposed to its direct proportionality to pressure gradient in laminar
flow.

Using the definition of the Reynolds

number we can see that a large diameter with rapid flow, where the density of the blood is high,
tends towards turbulence. Rapid changes in vessel diameter may lead to turbulent flow, for
instance when a narrower vessel widens to a larger one. Furthermore, an atheroma may be the
cause of turbulent flow, and as such detecting turbulence with a stethoscope may be a sign of
such a condition.

[edit]Reynolds number in
viscous fluids

Creeping flow past a sphere:streamlines, drag

force Fd and force by gravity Fg.

Where the viscosity is naturally high, such

as polymer solutions and polymer melts, flow is normally laminar. The Reynolds number is very
small and Stokes' Law can be used to measure the viscosity of the fluid. Spheres are allowed to
fall through the fluid and they reach the terminal velocity quickly, from which the viscosity can be
determined.

The laminar flow of polymer solutions is

exploited by animals such as fish and dolphins, who exude viscous solutions from their skin to aid
flow over their bodies while swimming. It has been used in yacht racing by owners who want to
gain a speed advantage by pumping a polymer solution such as low molecular
weight polyoxyethylene in water, over the wetted surface of the hull. It is however, a problem for
mixing of polymers, because turbulence is needed to distribute fine filler (for example) through the
material. Inventions such as the "cavity transfer mixer" have been developed to produce multiple
folds into a moving melt so as to improve mixing efficiency. The device can be fitted
ontoextruders to aid mixing.

[edit]Where does it come from?

 The Reynolds number can be obtained
when one uses the nondimensional form of the incompressibleNavier-Stokes equations:

Each term in the above equation has the

units of a volume force or, equivalently, an acceleration times a density. Each term is thus
dependent on the exact measurements of a flow. When one renders the equation
nondimensional, that is that we multiply it by a factor with inverse units of the base
equation, we obtain a form which does not depend directly on the physical sizes. One
possible way to obtain a nondimensional equation is to multiply the whole equation by
the following factor:

where the symbols are the same as those used in the definition of the Reynolds number. If we
now set:

we can rewrite the Navier-Stokes equation without dimensions:

where the term :

Finally, dropping the primes for ease of reading:

This is why mathematically all flows with the same Reynolds number are comparable.

[edit]See also

 Darcy–Weisbach equation
 Hagen–Poiseuille law
 Navier–Stokes equations
 Reynolds transport theorem
  Stokes Law

[edit]References and notes

1. ^ Stokes, George (1851). "On the Effect of the Internal Friction of Fluids on the Motion of
Pendulums". Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society 9: 8–106.
2. ^ Reynolds, Osborne (1883). "An experimental investigation of the circumstances which
determine whether the motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and of the law of
resistance in parallel channels". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 174:
935–982.doi:10.1098/rstl.1883.0029. JSTOR.
3. ^ Rott, N., “Note on the history of the Reynolds number,” Annual Review of Fluid
Mechanics, Vol. 22, 1990, pp. 1–11.
4. ^ www.grc.nasa.gov
5. ^ Reynolds Number (engineeringtoolbox.com)
6. ^ J.P. Holman, Heat Transfer, McGraw Hill.
7. ^ R. W. Fox, A. T. McDonald, Phillip J. Pritchard Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed
(John Wiley and Sons) ISBN 0 471 20231 2page 348
8. ^ V. L. Streeter (1962)Fluid Mechanics, 3rd edn (McGraw-Hill)
9. ^ a b M. Rhodes (1989) Introduction to Particle Technology Wiley ISBN 0-471-98482-5 at
Google Books
10. ^ Dusenbery, David B. (2009). Living at Micro Scale, p.49. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6.
11. ^ R. K. Sinnott Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering, Volume 6: Chemical
Engineering Design, 4th ed (Butterworth-Heinemann) ISBN 0 7506 6538 6 page 473
12. ^ Full development of the flow occurs as the flow enters the pipe, the boundary layer
thickens and then stabilises after several diameters distance into the pipe.
13. ^ J.P Holman Heat transfer, McGraw-Hill, 2002, p.207
14. ^ Patel, V. C., W. Rodi, and G. Scheuerer. "Turbulence Models for Near-Wall and Low
Reynolds Number Flows- A Review." AIAA Journal 23.9 (1985): 1308-19.
15. ^ Dusenbery, David B. (2009). Living at Micro Scale, p.136. Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6.
16. ^ Wiggins, C. H., and R. E. Goldstein. "Flexive and Propulsive Dynamics of Elastica at
Low Reynolds Number." Physical Review Letters 80.17 (1998): 3879-82.

[edit]Further reading
  Zagarola, M.V. and Smits, A.J., “Experiments in High Reynolds Number Turbulent Pipe
Flow.” AIAApaper #96-0654, 34th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno, Nevada,
January 15–18, 1996.
 Jermy M., “Fluid Mechanics A Course Reader,” Mechanical Engineering Dept., University
of Canterbury, 2005, pp. d5.10.
 Hughes, Roger "Civil Engineering Hydraulics," Civil and Environmental Dept., University
of Melbourne 1997, pp. 107–152
 Fouz, Infaz "Fluid Mechanics," Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of Oxford, 2001,
pp96
 E.M. Purcell. "Life at Low Reynolds Number", American Journal of Physics vol 45, p. 3-11
(1977)[2]
 Truskey, G.A., Yuan, F, Katz, D.F. (2004). Transport Phenomena in Biological
Systems Prentice Hall, pp. 7. ISBN 0-13-042204-5. ISBN 978-0-13-042204-0.

Fluid dynamics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Continuum mechanics

[show]Laws
[show]Solid mechanics
[show]Fluid mechanics
[show]Scientists
v•d•e
Typical aerodynamic teardrop shape, showing the pressure distribution as the thickness of the black line and
showing the velocity in the boundary layer as the violet triangles. The green vortex generators prompt the transition
to turbulent flow and prevent back-flow also called flow separation from the high pressure region in the back. The
surface in front is as smooth as possible or even employsshark like skin, as any turbulence here will reduce the
energy of the airflow. The Kammback also prevents back flow from the high pressure region in the back across
the spoilers to the convergent part. Putting stuff inside out results in tubes; they also face the problem of flow
separation in their divergent parts, so called diffusers. Cutting the shape into halves results in an aerofoil with the
low pressure region on top leading to lift (force).

In physics, fluid dynamics is a sub-discipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid flow—
the natural science of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion. It has several subdisciplines itself,
including aerodynamics (the study of air and other gases in motion) and hydrodynamics (the study of
liquids in motion). Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including
calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow rate of petroleum through
pipelines, predicting weatherpatterns, understanding nebulae in interstellar space and reportedly
modeling fission weapon detonation. Some of its principles are even used in traffic engineering, where
traffic is treated as a continuous fluid.

Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure that underlies these practical disciplines, that embraces
empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to solve practical
problems. The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves calculating various properties of
the fluid, such as velocity, pressure, density, and temperature, as functions of space and time.

Historically, hydrodynamics meant something different than it does today. Before the twentieth century,
hydrodynamics was synonymous with fluid dynamics. This is still reflected in names of some fluid
dynamics topics, like magnetohydrodynamics andhydrodynamic stability—both also applicable in, as
well as being applied to, gases.[1]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Equations of fluid dynamics

o 1.1 Compressible vs incompressible flow

o 1.2 Viscous vs inviscid flow

o 1.3 Steady vs unsteady flow

o 1.4 Laminar vs turbulent flow

o 1.5 Newtonian vs non-Newtonian fluids

o 1.6 Subsonic vs transonic, supersonic and hypersonic flows

 o 1.7 Non-relativistic vs relativistic flows

o 1.8 Magnetohydrodynamics

o 1.9 Other approximations

• 2 Terminology in fluid dynamics

o 2.1 Terminology in incompressible fluid dynamics

o 2.2 Terminology in compressible fluid dynamics

• 3 See also

o 3.1 Fields of study

o 3.2 Mathematical equations and concepts

o 3.3 Types of fluid flow

o 3.4 Fluid properties

o 3.5 Fluid phenomena

o 3.6 Applications

o 3.7 Miscellaneous

• 4 References

• 5 Notes

• 6 External links

[edit]Equations of fluid dynamics

The foundational axioms of fluid dynamics are the conservation laws, specifically, conservation of
mass, conservation of linear momentum(also known as Newton's Second Law of Motion),
and conservation of energy (also known as First Law of Thermodynamics). These are based
on classical mechanics and are modified in quantum mechanics and general relativity. They are
expressed using the Reynolds Transport Theorem.

In addition to the above, fluids are assumed to obey the continuum assumption. Fluids are composed
of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects. However, the continuum assumption
considers fluids to be continuous, rather than discrete. Consequently, properties such as density,
pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken to be well-defined at infinitesimally small points, and are
assumed to vary continuously from one point to another. The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete
molecules is ignored.

For fluids which are sufficiently dense to be a continuum, do not contain ionized species, and have
velocities small in relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for Newtonian fluids are
the Navier-Stokes equations, which is a non-linear set of differential equations that describes the flow
of a fluid whose stress depends linearly on velocity gradients and pressure. The unsimplified equations
do not have a general closed-form solution, so they are primarily of use in Computational Fluid
Dynamics. The equations can be simplified in a number of ways, all of which make them easier to
solve. Some of them allow appropriate fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form.

In addition to the mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations, a thermodynamical equation
of state giving the pressure as a function of other thermodynamic variables for the fluid is required to
completely specify the problem. An example of this would be the perfect gas equation of state:

where p is pressure, ρ is density, Ru is the gas constant, M is the molar

mass and T is temperature.

[edit]Compressible vs incompressible flow

All fluids are compressible to some extent, that is changes in pressure or temperature will result
in changes in density. However, in many situations the changes in pressure and temperature are
sufficiently small that the changes in density are negligible. In this case the flow can be modeled
as an incompressible flow. Otherwise the more general compressible flow equations must be
used.

Mathematically, incompressibility is expressed by saying that the density ρ of a fluid parcel does
not change as it moves in the flow field, i.e.,

where D / Dt is the substantial derivative, which is the sum of local and convective
derivatives. This additional constraint simplifies the governing equations, especially in the
case when the fluid has a uniform density.

For flow of gases, to determine whether to use compressible or incompressible fluid

dynamics, the Mach number of the flow is to be evaluated. As a rough guide, compressible
effects can be ignored at Mach numbers below approximately 0.3. For liquids, whether the
incompressible assumption is valid depends on the fluid properties (specifically the critical
pressure and temperature of the fluid) and the flow conditions (how close to the critical
pressure the actual flow pressure becomes). Acoustic problems always require allowing
compressibility, since sound waves are compression waves involving changes in pressure
and density of the medium through which they propagate.

[edit]Viscous vs inviscid flow

Viscous problems are those in which fluid friction has significant effects on the fluid motion.

The Reynolds number, which is a ratio between inertial and viscous forces, can be used to
evaluate whether viscous or inviscid equations are appropriate to the problem.

Stokes flow is flow at very low Reynolds numbers, Re << 1, such that inertial forces can be
neglected compared to viscous forces.

On the contrary, high Reynolds numbers indicate that the inertial forces are more
significant than the viscous (friction) forces. Therefore, we may assume the flow to be
an inviscid flow, an approximation in which we neglect viscosity completely, compared to
inertial terms.

This idea can work fairly well when the Reynolds number is high. However, certain
problems such as those involving solid boundaries, may require that the viscosity be
included. Viscosity often cannot be neglected near solid boundaries because the no-slip
condition can generate a thin region of large strain rate (known as Boundary layer) which
enhances the effect of even a small amount of viscosity, and thus generating vorticity.
Therefore, to calculate net forces on bodies (such as wings) we should use viscous flow
equations. As illustrated byd'Alembert's paradox, a body in an inviscid fluid will experience
no drag force. The standard equations of inviscid flow are the Euler equations. Another
often used model, especially in computational fluid dynamics, is to use the Euler equations
away from the body and the boundary layer equations, which incorporates viscosity, in a
region close to the body.

The Euler equations can be integrated along a streamline to get Bernoulli's equation. When
the flow is everywhere irrotational and inviscid, Bernoulli's equation can be used throughout
the flow field. Such flows are called potential flows.

[edit]Steady vs unsteady flow

 Hydrodynamics simulation of the Rayleigh–Taylor instability [2]

When all the time derivatives of a flow field vanish, the flow is considered to be a steady flow. Steady-
state flow refers to the condition where the fluid properties at a point in the system do not change over
time. Otherwise, flow is called unsteady. Whether a particular flow is steady or unsteady, can depend
on the chosen frame of reference. For instance, laminar flow over a sphere is steady in the frame of
reference that is stationary with respect to the sphere. In a frame of reference that is stationary with
respect to a background flow, the flow is unsteady.

Turbulent flows are unsteady by definition. A turbulent flow can, however, be statistically stationary.
According to Pope:[3]

The random field U(x,t) is statistically stationary if all statistics are invariant under a shift in time.

This roughly means that all statistical properties are constant in time. Often, the mean field is the
object of interest, and this is constant too in a statistically stationary flow.

Steady flows are often more tractable than otherwise similar unsteady flows. The governing
equations of a steady problem have one dimension less (time) than the governing
equations of the same problem without taking advantage of the steadiness of the flow field.

[edit]Laminar vs turbulent flow

Turbulence is flow characterized by recirculation, eddies, and apparent randomness. Flow in which
turbulence is not exhibited is called laminar. It should be noted, however, that the presence of eddies
or recirculation alone does not necessarily indicate turbulent flow—these phenomena may be present
in laminar flow as well. Mathematically, turbulent flow is often represented via a Reynolds
decomposition, in which the flow is broken down into the sum of an average component and a
perturbation component.

It is believed that turbulent flows can be described well through the use of the Navier–
Stokes equations. Direct numerical simulation (DNS), based on the Navier–Stokes equations, makes it
possible to simulate turbulent flows at moderate Reynolds numbers. Restrictions depend on the power
of the computer used and the efficiency of the solution algorithm. The results of DNS agree with the
experimental data.

Most flows of interest have Reynolds numbers much too high for DNS to be a viable
option[4], given the state of computational power for the next few decades. Any flight vehicle large
enough to carry a human (L > 3 m), moving faster than 72 km/h (20 m/s) is well beyond the limit of
DNS simulation (Re = 4 million). Transport aircraft wings (such as on an Airbus A300 or Boeing 747)
have Reynolds numbers of 40 million (based on the wing chord). In order to solve these real-life flow
problems, turbulence models will be a necessity for the foreseeable future.Reynolds-averaged Navier–
Stokes equations (RANS) combined with turbulence modeling provides a model of the effects of the
turbulent flow. Such a modeling mainly provides the additional momentum transfer by the Reynolds
stresses, although the turbulence also enhances theheat and mass transfer. Another promising
methodology is large eddy simulation (LES), especially in the guise of detached eddy simulation(DES)
—which is a combination of RANS turbulence modeling and large eddy simulation.

[edit]Newtonian vs non-Newtonian fluids

Sir Isaac Newton showed how stress and the rate of strain are very close to linearly related for many
familiar fluids, such as water and air. These Newtonian fluids are modeled by a coefficient
called viscosity, which depends on the specific fluid.

However, some of the other materials, such as emulsions and slurries and some visco-elastic
materials (e.g. blood, some polymers), have more complicated non-Newtonian stress-strain
behaviours. These materials include sticky liquids such as latex, honey, and lubricants which are
studied in the sub-discipline of rheology.

[edit]Subsonic vs transonic, supersonic and hypersonic flows

While many terrestrial flows (e.g. flow of water through a pipe) occur at low mach numbers, many flows
of practical interest (e.g. in aerodynamics) occur at high fractions of the Mach Number M=1 or in
excess of it (supersonic flows). New phenomena occur at these Mach number regimes (e.g. shock
waves for supersonic flow, transonic instability in a regime of flows with M nearly equal to 1, non-
equilibrium chemical behavior due to ionization in hypersonic flows) and it is necessary to treat each of
these flow regimes separately.
 [edit]Non-relativistic vs relativistic flows
Classical fluid dynamics is derived based on Newtonian mechanics, which is adequate for
most applications. However, at speeds comparable to the speed of light Newtonian mechanics is
inaccurate and a relativistic framework has to be used instead.

[edit]Magnetohydrodynamics

Main article: Magnetohydrodynamics

Magnetohydrodynamics is the multi-disciplinary study of the flow of electrically conducting fluids

in electromagnetic fields. Examples of such fluids include plasmas, liquid metals, and salt water. The
fluid flow equations are solved simultaneously with Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism.

[edit]Other approximations
There are a large number of other possible approximations to fluid dynamic problems.
Some of the more commonly used are listed below.

 The Boussinesq approximation neglects variations in density except to

calculate buoyancy forces. It is often used in free convectionproblems where density
changes are small.

 Lubrication theory and Hele-Shaw flow exploits the large aspect ratio of the
domain to show that certain terms in the equations are small and so can be neglected.

 Slender-body theory is a methodology used in Stokes flow problems to estimate the

force on, or flow field around, a long slender object in a viscous fluid.

 The shallow-water equations can be used to describe a layer of relatively inviscid

fluid with a free surface, in which surface gradients are small.

 The Boussinesq equations are applicable to surface waves on thicker layers of fluid
and with steeper surface slopes.

 Darcy's law is used for flow in porous media, and works with variables averaged
over several pore-widths.

 In rotating systems, the quasi-geostrophic approximation assumes an almost

perfect balance between pressure gradients and theCoriolis force. It is useful in the
study of atmospheric dynamics.

[edit]Terminology in fluid dynamics

The concept of pressure is central to the study of both fluid statics and fluid dynamics. A pressure can
be identified for every point in a body of fluid, regardless of whether the fluid is in motion or not.
Pressure can be measured using an aneroid, Bourdon tube, mercury column, or various other
methods.

Some of the terminology that is necessary in the study of fluid dynamics is not found in other similar
areas of study. In particular, some of the terminology used in fluid dynamics is not used in fluid statics.

[edit]Terminology in incompressible fluid dynamics

The concepts of total pressure and dynamic pressure arise from Bernoulli's equation and
are significant in the study of all fluid flows. (These two pressures are not pressures in the usual sense
—they cannot be measured using an aneroid, Bourdon tube or mercury column.) To avoid potential
ambiguity when referring to pressure in fluid dynamics, many authors use the term static pressure to
distinguish it from total pressure and dynamic pressure. Static pressure is identical to pressure and
can be identified for every point in a fluid flow field.

In Aerodynamics, L.J. Clancy writes[5]: To distinguish it from the total and dynamic pressures, the
actual pressure of the fluid, which is associated not with its motion but with its state, is often referred to
as the static pressure, but where the term pressure alone is used it refers to this static pressure.

A point in a fluid flow where the flow has come to rest (i.e. speed is equal to zero adjacent to some
solid body immersed in the fluid flow) is of special significance. It is of such importance that it is given a
special name—a stagnation point. The static pressure at the stagnation point is of special significance
and is given its own name—stagnation pressure. In incompressible flows, the stagnation pressure at a
stagnation point is equal to the total pressure throughout the flow field.

[edit]Terminology in compressible fluid dynamics

In a compressible fluid, such as air, the temperature and density are essential when
determining the state of the fluid. In addition to the concept of total pressure (also known as stagnation
pressure), the concepts of total (or stagnation) temperature and total (or stagnation) density are also
essential in any study of compressible fluid flows. To avoid potential ambiguity when referring to
temperature and density, many authors use the terms static temperature and static density. Static
temperature is identical to temperature; and static density is identical to density; and both can be
identified for every point in a fluid flow field.

The temperature and density at a stagnation point are called stagnation temperature and
stagnation density.

A similar approach is also taken with the thermodynamic properties of compressible fluids.
Many authors use the terms total (or stagnation)enthalpy and total (or stagnation) entropy. The terms
static enthalpy and static entropy appear to be less common, but where they are used they mean
nothing more than enthalpy and entropy respectively, and the prefix "static" is being used to avoid
ambiguity with their 'total' or 'stagnation' counterparts.