Preliminary Chemistry

The Chemical Earth

0.1 The living and non-living compounds of Earth contain mixtures

• Construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical

reactions as they are encountered

General types of chemical reactions

Single replacement – A + BC B + AC

E.g. 2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl +

Double replacement – AB + CD AD + CB

E.g. NaOH + HCl NaCl +

Synthesis (or combination) – A + B AB

E.g. 2Ca + 2CaO

Decomposition – AB A+B

E.g. CaC CaO +

Specific reactions

Active Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen Gas

E.g. Ca + 2HCl Ca +

Active Metal + Water Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen

E.g. 2Na + 2 o 2NaOH +

Active Metal + Salt New Salt + Metal

E.g. Ca + Zn Ca + Zn

Acid + Base Salt + Water

E.g. + 2NaOH +

Salt + Salt 2 New Salts

E.g. NaCl + + AgCl

Acid + Carbonate Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water

E.g. 2HCl + +

Heat on Carbonate Metal Oxide + Carbon Dioxide

E.g. CaO +

Combustion (reacting with oxygen)

- Element + Oxygen Oxide

2Ca + 2CaO

- Hydrogen + Oxygen Carbon Dioxide + Water

C + +2

• Identify the difference between elements, compounds and

mixtures in terms of the particle theory

Elements

- Pure substance

- Only contains one type of atom

- It can not broken down by physical and chemical means

Compounds

- Two or more elements chemically bonded together in a fixed

proportion

- Can only be separated chemically

- Different chemical and physical properties to elements

Mixtures

- Two or more substances physically combines

- Can be separated physically

- Can be homogeneous or heterogeneous

• Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and

atmosphere contain examples of mixtures of elements and
compounds
Biosphere

The biosphere is the part of earth where there are living organisms. The
biosphere contains a big variety of living things with many chemical
characteristics in common. All living things on earth are composed of
compounds based on the element carbon.

Elements in the biosphere include oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, aluminium,

silicon, calcium , sulfur and phosphorus.

Compounds include water and carbon dioxide.

Lithosphere

The lithosphere is composed mostly of rocks and soil which are mixtures
of minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring solid elements or compounds
with a definite or range of composition.

Elements in the lithosphere include oxygen, silicon, potassium, calcium,

carbon, aluminium and iron.

Atmosphere

Elements in the atmosphere include nitrogen, oxygen, argon, hydrogen

and carbon. Compounds include water, carbon dioxide and methane.

Hydrosphere

The hydrosphere includes the earth’s oceans, seas, lakes, rivers and
underground water. Its major constituent is water.

Elements in the hydrosphere include chlorine, sodium, magnesium,

potassium, calcium, sulfur and bromine.

• Identify and describe procedures that can be used to separate

naturally occurring mixtures of

o Solids of different sizes

 Sieving

Sieving the process of separating solid particles of various sizes. This

procedure is used to sort foodstuffs and is commonly used in the mining
industry to separate mineral particles to different sizes.

 Sedimentation

Sedimentation occurs when solid particles are allowed to settle in a liquid

or air. This occurs if the water or air is not moving. It can easily be used
when water is mixed with soil or mud. Sedimentation is an essential
process in the purification of water supplies and in waste water treatment.

o Solids and liquids

 Evaporation

This method of separation relies upon the substances in the mixtures

having different vitalities. One of the substances evaporates far more
readily leaving the other behind.

 Crystallization

Components in a mixture have different solubilities in water and

crystallize separately from solution.

o Dissolved solids in liquids

 Filtration

In the filtration process, undissolved solid particles are separately from a

liquid by passing the mixture through a screen such as filter paper which
is fine enough to collect the particles of the solid.

 Decanting

Separation of a liquid from a solid by pouring off the liquid.

o Liquids if miscible

 Simple distillation

Distillation involves boiling a liquid and cooling the gas produced to

condense it back to the liquid state. Distillation is effective where the
components in a mixture have very different boiling points.

 Fractional distillation

Fractional distillation is the separation of a mixture of several different

liquids with similar boiling points. The process involves numerous
vaporization – condensation steps which the components are gradually
separated.

o Liquids if immiscible

 Separation funnel
A separating funnel is a simple piece of laboratory equipment which
allows liquids to be separated efficiently. The denser liquid is run off
through a tap leaving the less dense liquid in the funnel.

o Gases

 Fractional distillation

To separate two gases, example, oxygen and nitrogen, the air must first
be treated to remove carbon dioxide, water and particles, then liquefied
and final separated by fractional distillation.

• Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating

examples of earth materials, identifying the difference in
properties which enable these separations

Separation method Property used in separation

Sieving Particle size
Evaporation Liquid with lower boiling point than
solid
Distillation Big difference in boiling points
Fractional distillation Liquids with small difference in
boiling points
Filtration Solid and liquid/ solution
Separating funnel Immiscible liquids
Froth flotation Density of components

• Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful

data for chemists and other scientists

Gravimetric analysis is an analytical technique used to measure

proportions by their masses. The proportions of components in a mixture
can be written as a weight percentage.

This technique allows chemists to test products for composition and

purity. This can be used in the

- Food industry – where the amount of food ingredients are listed on

the package

- Medications – where the pharmacists get the accurate amount of

each medicine in each mixture of medicine they make
 - Soil – to see if the soil is suitable for growing crops

• Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are

introduced in the laboratory

Ionic compounds

Case 1 – BINARY COMPOUNDS

To name binary compounds

- Write the name of the metal first – E.g. Calcium

- Write the beginning of the name of the non – metal – E.g. Sulf

- Add ‘ide’ suffix to the ending – E.g. Calcium sulfide

In case of elements with variable valencies, the roman numerals are used
to indicate the valency of the element.

E.g. FeO – Iron (II) oxide

Metals with more than one valency

Fe (Iron) +2 or +3 Sn (Tin) +2 or +4

Cu (Copper) +1 or +2 Pb (Lead) +2 or +4

Case 2 – IONS ARE NOT MONATOMIC

Must remember the name of the polyatomic ions

Common polyatomic ions and their valencies

+1 -1 -2 -3

Ammonium Hydroxide Carbonate Phosphate

Nitrate Sulfate

Nitrite Sulfite

Acetate Chromate

Hydrogen Carbonate Dichromate

Chlorate

Chlorite

Binary covalent compounds

To name covalent binary compounds

- The name of the element closer to the bottom or left – hand side of
the periodic table is written first – E.g. Nitrogen

- The second part of the name is obtained by adding the suffix ‘-ide’
to the stem of the name of the second element – E.g. Nitrogen
oxide

- Where a molecule contains more than atom of one type, then

number of atoms is indicated by the prefixes ‘mono-’, ‘di-’, ‘tri-’,
‘tetra-’, ‘penta-’ and ‘hexa-’ which stand for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
respectively. The prefix ‘mono-’ is not used for the first names
element.

• Identify the IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are

encountered

3 main families of carbon compounds

Series Name Ending General Formula Bonding in C

Series
ALKANE -ANE Single Bond C C
ALKENE -ENE Double Bond C
ALKYNE -YNE C
Triple Bond C C

0.2 Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some

elements are found uncombined

• Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and

the likelihood of its existing as an uncombined element

- The more reactive an element, then more chance it will be found as

a combined element on Earth

- The most unreactive elements are the noble gases which exist as
single atom molecules

- Most naturally occurring metals are found in the Earth’s crust. Gold,
platinum, mercury and silver are called native metals and are
unreactive enough to occur naturally as uncombined elements.

• Classify elements as metals, non-metals and semi-metals

according to their physical properties

Metals Semi – metals Non – metals

Shiny/ lustrous Low sheen Dull
High electrical Semi-conductor Electrical insulators
conductivity
High heat conductivity High heat conductivity Thermal insulators
Strong Variable strength Low strength
Malleable and ductile Moderate malleable/ Brittle
ductile
Good conductor at 25 Poor conductors at 25 Do not conduct
Conductivity decreases Conductivity increases
with temperature with temperature
increase

• Account for the used of metals and non-metals in terms of their

physical properties

Metals

Metals Properties Uses

Copper Good thermal and Electrical cables ad
electrical conductor, wiring, radiators,
malleable and ductile, refrigeration systems,
low reactivity water pipes, bronze
and brass
Iron Ductile, malleable, Usually converted to
magnetic, good steel which is used in
thermal and electrical buildings and bridges,
conductor, fairly automobiles,
reactive machinery and
appliances
Aluminium Low density, ductile Saucepans, frying
when pure, good pans, drink cans,
thermal and electrical cooking foil, food
conductor, malleable packaging, window
and ductile, reflects frames, appliance trim,
heat and light decorative furniture,
electrical cables,
aircraft and boat
construction
Titanium Strong, high melting Spacecraft and aircraft,
point, low reactivity pipes and linings
Chromium Shiny silver Plating other metals, as
appearance, resists an additive in steel
corrosion alloys
Cobalt Magnetic Permanent magnets
Nickel Magnetic Invar used in scientific
instruments, coins,
nichrome used in
electrical heating
 elements
Zinc Fairly reactive with Galvanizing iron, outer
protective oxide layer casing and negative
electrode of dry cells,
fitting and fixtures
Gold Shiny gold appearance, Electrical connections,
good thermal and jewellery, monetary
electrical conductor, standard and dentistry
unreactive

Non – metals

Non - metals Properties Uses

Carbon (graphite) Electrical conductivity Lead pencils, lubricant,
electrodes in batteries
Carbon (diamond) High melting point, Jewellery and drill tips
hardness, transparent
Sulfur Abundance and Vulcanizing rubber,
reactivity fungicides, insecticide
and hydrogen sulfite
bleaches
Phosphorus Reactivity Smoke bombs and
match heads
Helium Very low density and Airships
lack of reactivity
Neon Ability to glow red Neon light
Chlorine Reactivity in Water treatment and
decolourising other algaecides
chemicals, bactericide,
algaecide

0.3 Elements in Earth material are present mostly as compound

because of interactions at the atomic level

• Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously

moving and interacting

Solid Liquid Gas

Particle position Closely packed, Less closely Widely spaced,
vibrates in a packed, vibration move freely, only
 fixed position and translation translation
Shape Definite Take shape of Take shape of
container container
Volume Definite Definite Take on the
volume of
container
Compressibility Negligible Negligible Easily
compressed

From the table above, it shows that matter is made up of particles that
are continuously moving whatever form it is in whether it is solid, liquid or
gas.

• Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atom

In an atom, electrons exist in energy shells. The further away the shell is
from the nucleus, the more energy it has. Each energy shells can only
hold a limited number of electrons. The first electron shell has only hold
two electrons.

The formula for the number for the maximum number of electrons per
shell is:

Where n is the number of the shell

• Describe atoms in terms of as number and atomic number

The atomic number, Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus of an

atom. This has a fixed value for atoms or any one element.

E.g. Carbon has an atomic number of six. Each carbon atom contains six
protons in the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the number of electrons and
protons are equal. Therefore, if an atom has no charge, the atomic
number determines the number of electrons and the number of protons in
the nucleus.

The mass number, A, is the sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom.
Where X is the element symbol

Z is the atomic number

A is the mass number

• Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing

electrons

All elements (except for noble gases) usually undergo chemical reactions
in order to gain a stable electron configuration of a nearby gas.

There are two ways in which atoms can obtain noble gas configuration:

- Direct transfer of electrons from one atom to another to form ions,

positively or negatively charged particles. This is known as ionic
bonding.

- Sharing electrons between pairs of electrons is called covalent

bonding

• Apply the periodic table to predict the ions formed by atoms of

metals and non-metals

Group I (alkali metals) all tend to lose one electron and form single
charged positive ions: …

Group II (alkali earth metals) tend to lose two electrons and form doubly
charges positive ions: …

Group VI (non – metals) tend to gain two electrons and form doubly
charged negative ions:

Group VII (halogens) elements all tend to gain one electron and therefore
they form single charged negative ions: …

• Apply Lewis electron dot structure to:

o The formations of ions

o The electron sharing in simple molecules

Electron dot diagrams or Lewis dot diagrams are used to show the
formation of ionic or covalent compounds. They are a simple way of
showing the arrangement of valence electrons in atoms and when bonds
are formed between atoms.
E.g. Na Cl

E.g. Cl Mg Cl Mg

E.g. O Mg O Mg

E.g. H Cl

E.g. O H E.g. H N H

H H

• Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the

attraction of ions of opposite charge

Ionic compounds consist of cations (positively charged ions) and anions

(negatively charged ions). The ions form a lattice held together by strong
electrical attraction between the cations and anions. The greater the
charge of the positive or the negative ions, the stronger the attraction.

• Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of

each other

Many elements exist in nature as simple molecules. A molecule is a group

or two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

Molecules are particles that can move independently of each other. Some
molecules are made up of single atoms such are the noble gases.

The atoms that join to form molecules are non – metals. Non – metals
usually bond with non – metals by sharing electrons.

E.g. O O

Molecules can move independently of each other due to the fact that the
atoms are chemically bonded obtaining a stable electron configuration
through the sharing of electrons.

• Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble

gases) and The noble gases exist as single atoms called
monatomic molecules. For all common gas elements (except for
the noble gases), they contain more than one atom such as:
Diatomic molecules

Triatomic molecules

Tetratomic molecules

• Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing

of electron

Non – metal atoms bond with each other by sharing electrons. The
formation of covalent bonding is the result of the sharing of an electron
pair. The two atoms that bond together donate an electron to share.

There are three types of covalent bonds:

- Bonds in which two electrons are shared are called single covalent
bonds and is represented by a line drawn between the atoms. E.g.
H-H

- A covalent bond in which there are two shared pairs of electrons is

called a double covalent bond and is represented by two parallel
lines joining the atoms. E.g. O=O

- A covalent bond in which three electrons are shared is called a triple

covalent bond. E.g. H-C C-H

0.4 Energy is required to extract elements from their naturally occurring

sources

• Identify the difference between physical and chemical changes in

terms of rearrangement of particles

Physical Change

Physical changes occur without a change in the composition of the

particular substance. Physical changes are changes in physical properties
such as volume or density, or changes in states such as from solid to
liquid. Physical changes generally involve relatively small amounts of
energy being absorbed or released.

E.g. When water is heated, it absorbs energy. Its temperature increases as

the molecules move with greater speed. Eventually the water molecules
have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the intermolecular forces
between water molecules in the liquid and escape into a gaseous state.
The breaking of these intermolecular for when water boils from liquid to
gas requires energy, heat.
Chemical change

Chemical changes are those in which new substances with different

compositions and properties are formed. Chemical changes usually
involve large quantities of energy being absorbed or released, generally in
the form of heat, light or electricity.

E.g. To decompose water, electricity is need to break them into hydrogen

and oxygen. It involves the breaking of strong covalent bonds between
the hydrogen atoms and oxygen atoms. Much larger amounts of energy
are involved.

• Summarise the difference between the boiling and electrolysis of

water as an example of difference between physical and
chemical change

Boiling of water Electrolysis of water

Energy is used to overcome the
intermolecular forces
No new substance is formed
Requires less amount of energy
Energy is used to break the
covalent bond between hydrogen
and oxygen
Oxygen and hydrogen gas are
formed
Requires a lot of energy

• Identify light, heat and electricity as common forms of energy

that may be released or absorbed during the decomposition of
synthesis of substances and identify examples of these changes
occurring in everyday life

Heat, light and electricity are common forms of energy that can be
released or absorbed during various decomposition or synthesis reactions.

Heat energy

When heat is absorbed in a chemical change the reaction is said to be

endothermic.

When heat is evolved in a chemical change the reaction is said to be

exothermic.

E.g.

- Decomposition of calcium carbonate

The carbon dioxide is evolved in this process which can be found using
lime water.

Light energy

Light energy can be released or absorbed in some chemical changes

- Combustion of magnesium – when magnesium burns in oxygen a

bright, white light and some heat energy is released. A white
powder is produced for the end result. This is usually used in
fireworks display.

Electrical energy

Electrical energy is used to decompose chemical compounds or mixtures

in various industries. Electrolysis is used to decompose aluminium oxide
to form aluminium metal. It is also used to decompose salt water to
produce chlorine, hydrogen and sodium hydroxide. Decomposing a
substance through electrolysis involves electricity

• Explain the amount of energy needed to separate atoms in a

compound is an indication of the strength of the attraction, or
between them

The strength of a chemical bond formed between two elements can be

determined by the energy used to decompose the binary compound of the
element. The strong the chemical bonding in a compound, the more
energy is needed to break the compounds into atoms.

0.5 The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their

bonding and structure

• Identify differences between physical and chemical properties of

elements, compound and mixtures

Mixture Pure substance

Can be separated into two or more
substances using physical or
chemical separation techniques
May be homogeneous or
heterogeneous
Displays the properties of the pure
substances in it
Has a variable composition where
the amount of pure substance is
Can not be separated into two or
more substances
Is homogeneous
Has properties such as appearance ,
colour, density, melting and boiling
points
Has a fixed composition, no matter
where it came from
varied

• Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as

ionic or covalent molecular or covalent network

Ionic bonds

Due to strong ionic bonds, it has a high melting point and boiling point.

The ions are held in a fixed position, so it does not conduct electricity in
solid state.

It conducts electricity in aqueous or molten state due to free moving ions.

It is brittle

Ionic compounds consist of oppositely charged ions held together by

electrostatic attractions to form a crystal lattice. The electrostatic
attraction between the oppositely charged ions is called ionic bonding.
The strong ionic bonds make the ionic substances hard and have high
melting points. In solid state, there are no mobile charge carriers, so the
crystal does not conduct heat or electricity. When a crystal lattice is
heated above the melting point, then ionic bonds partially break and the
ions become mobile.

Covalent molecular

Low melting point and boiling point

Does not conduct electricity

Covalent molecular substances have low melting and boiling points due to
weak intermolecular force of attraction. They do not conduct electricity in
all states due to lack of free moving charged particles. In covalent
molecular compounds the formula represents the number of atoms of
each element in one molecule of the compound. In each molecule, atoms
are bonded covalently, but the forces between the molecules involve
weak intermolecular attractions.

Covalent network

It has a very high melting point due to strong covalent network

Does not conduct electricity in solid state

Insoluble, hard and brittle

Covalent network compounds do not occur as simple molecules. They are

covalently bonded together in a tetrahedral fashion with each atom
sharing electrons with the surrounding four electrons. They do not
contain any ions and none of them can move freely. They are insulators.

• Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Metallic bonds

The properties of metals include:

- Relatively high densities (although lithium, sodium and potassium

are less dense than water)

- Good conductors of heat and electricity

- Malleable and ductile

- Have a shiny surface when freshly cut or cleaned

- Relatively high melting points (although mercury and gallium have

quite low melting points)

The structure of metals is that the valence electrons in metal atoms move
about freely within a three dimensional arrangement or lattice of
positively charge metal ions. The metal consists of positive ions
surrounded by a sea of mobile electrons. The outer electrons are
delocalized as they are not associated with a particular ion and can move
through the lattice of metal ions. The negatively charged electrons are
attracted to the positive charged metal ions in the lattice and electrostatic
attraction holds them together. This is called metallic bonding.

Metals are good conductors of electricity because of the mobility of the

delocalized electrons within the lattice.

The high melting and boiling points of most meals are due to the strong
electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the
delocalised electrons.

Ionic bonds

The physical properties of ionic compounds include:

- Hard and brittle

- Non – conductors of electricity in the solid state, but good when

molten or in aqueous solution
 - High melting and boiling points

Ionic lattices are held together by electrostatic attractive forces between

oppositely charged ions. This is called ionic bonding.

The high melting and boiling points of ionic substances are due to the
strength of the electrostatic attractive forced between the oppositely
charged ions.

Ionic solid do not conduct electricity because although they contain

electrically charged particles the ions occupy fixed positions and are not
free to move. Molten ionic compounds do not conduct electricity because
in the molten state the ions are able to move though the melt.

In aqueous solutions of ionic compounds, the ions are separated from

each other and are free to move. Mobile ions are responsible for the
conduction of electric current in aqueous solution and in molten state.

Covalent bonds

The properties of covalent network substances include:

- Very high melting and boiling points

- Non – conductors of electricity in the solid and liquid states

- Extremely hard and brittle

- Chemically inert

- Insoluble in water and most other solvents

The properties are found in the three dimensional network of strong

covalent bonds which hold the lattice together.

The high melting points and boiling points and the extreme hardness of
covalent network substances suggests that atoms in these solids are
joined by very strong covalent bonds. These strong covalent bonds
produce rigid three dimensional network structures.

The non – conductivity of the covalent molecular substances is due to the

lack of mobile charged species in the solid and liquid states. There are no
delocalised electrons nor charged ions capable of conducting an electric
current.

• Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical

formula
The empirical formula of a compound specifies the simplest whole number
ration of the numbers of atoms of each element in the compound. A
molecular formula specifies the actual number of atoms of each element
in a molecule,

For example, the compound hydrogen peroxide has the molecular formula
of each hydrogen peroxide molecule contains two hydrogen atoms
and two oxygen atoms bonded together. The empirical formula of
hydrogen peroxide is HO and represents the simplest who number ration
of the numbers of atoms of each element.

For ionic compounds, the formulae specify the ratios in with the atoms are
present.

• Explain the relationship between properties of conductivity and

hardness and the structure of ionic, covalent molecular and
covalent network structures

Property Metallic Ionic crystal Covalent Covalent

crystal network molecular
crystal crystal
Chemical Metallic Ionic Covalent Covalent
bond
Melting point High High Very high Low
Electrical Solid: high Liquid: high Does not Does not
conductivity Liquid: high conduct conduct
electricity electricity
Other Malleable Hard Very hard Brittle
properties Ductile Brittle Brittle
Lustrous