Lecture #6

Engine Cycles

Vehicular Internal Combustion Engines

MECH 454 and MECH 6761

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Concordia University

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 Engine Cycles
• Real engine mechanical cycles generate P-V diagrams, i.e.
“indicator” diagrams from which we can extract performance
information (indicated operating parameters).

• To make the analysis of the engine cycle more manageable, these

real cycles are approximated by air-standard thermodynamic cycle
- gas mixture in the cylinder is treated as air for the entire cycle
- real open cycle is changed into a closed cycle by assuming the
gases being exhausted are fed back into the intake system
- combustion process is replaced with a heat addition term Q
- actual stroke are approximated with ideal processes.

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 Actual SI Engine cycle
FUEL
A
I
R

Fuel/Air
Mixture

Ignition

Intake Compression
Stroke Stroke

Ignition

Combustion
Products

Power Exhaust
Stroke Stroke

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 Objectives

Perform analyses of IC engine cycles by studying:

• Basic ideal thermodynamic cycle

• Otto cycle (SI engine)
• Diesel and Dual or limited pressure cycle (CI engine)

• working relationships (Isentropic relationship, first law

analysis)
• how to extract different engine operating parameters

• Ideal four-stroke cycle

• Finite heat release rate
• Gas exchange process (i.e. exhaust and intake processes)

• Two-stroke engine cycle

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 Ideal Thermodynamic Cycles

• Ideal air-standard analysis is used to perform elementary analyses of

IC engine cycles.

• Simplifications to the real cycle include:

- Fixed amount of air (ideal gas) for working fluid
- Combustion process not considered
- Intake and exhaust processes not considered
- Engine friction and heat losses not considered
- Constant properties (specific heats independent of temperature)

Otto cycle (SI engine)

Diesel and limited pressure (Dual) cycle (CI engine)

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 Qin
Otto cycle (SI engine)
Air
TC

Compression Const volume

Process heat addition
Process
Qout

Pressure-Volume

BC

Expansion
Qin
Const volume
Process heat rejection
Process

Process 1Æ 2 Isentropic compression

Qout
Process 2 Æ 3 Constant volume heat addition
Process 3 Æ 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 Æ 1 Constant volume heat rejection Temperature-Entropy
 Otto cycle (constant volume heat addition)
Process 1Æ 2 Isentropic compression Compression ratio:
Process 2 Æ 3 Constant volume heat addition V1 V4
Process 3 Æ 4 Isentropic expansion r= =
Process 4 Æ 1 Constant volume heat rejection
V2 V3

Qin

Qout

Pressure-Volume Temperature-Entropy

processes 6-1 and 5-6 cancel each other thermodynamically and are not
needed in analyzing the cycle
 First Law Analysis of Otto Cycle
1Æ2 Isentropic Compression

γ −1 AIR
T2 ⎛ V1 ⎞ γ −1
P2 T2 V1
= ⋅
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =r
T1 ⎝ V2 ⎠ P1 T1 V2

Q Win
(u 2 − u1 ) = −
m m where r is the compression ratio
pV
Win = m(u1 − u 2 ) = mcv (T1 − T2 ), m = 1 1 Work required for compression
RT1

2Æ3 Constant Volume Heat Addition

Qin W
(u3 − u 2 ) = − AIR Qin
m m
TC
Qin = m(u3 − u 2 ) = mcv (T3 − T2 )

P3 T3
= Heat added will appear as an increase in internal energy
P2 T2
3 Æ 4 Isentropic Expansion (work out)
Q Wout
(u4 − u3 ) = − AIR
m m

Wout = m(u3 − u 4 ) = mcv (T3 − T4 )

γ −1
T4 ⎛ V3 ⎞ 1
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = γ −1
P4 T4 V3
= ⋅
T3 ⎝ V4 ⎠ r P3 T3 V4

4 Æ 1 Constant Volume Heat Removal (Heat loss in exhausted gas)

Qout W
(u1 − u 4 ) = −
m m AIR Qout

Qout = m(u1 − u4 ) = mcv (T1 − T4 ) BC

P4 P1
=
T4 T1
 First Law Analysis Parameters
Net cycle work:

Wcycle = ∑ Wi = W1− 2 + W3− 4 = m(u3 − u4 ) + m(u1 − u2 )

cycle

Cycle indicated thermal efficiency:

Wcycle(u3 − u4 ) − (u2 − u1 ) = (u3 − u2 ) − (u4 − u1 ) = 1 − u4 − u1

ηth = =
Qin (u3 − u2 ) u3 − u 2 u3 − u 2
cv (T4 − T1 ) T 1
= 1− = 1 − 1 = 1 − γ −1
cv (T3 − T2 ) T2 r

Indicated mean effective pressure is:

Wcycle imep Qin ⎛ r ⎞

imep = → = ⎜ ⎟ηth
V1 − V2 P1 P1V1 ⎝ r − 1 ⎠
 Otto cycle
• The compression ratio r is the
sole variable in the ideal cycle Increasing η
related to increasing thermal
efficiency and that the imep is
also proportional to the heat
input for the cycle.

1
ηth = 1−
const cV r γ −1

imep Qin ⎛ r ⎞⎛ 1⎞
= ⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 − ⎟
P1 P1V1 ⎝ r − 1 ⎠⎝ r γ ⎠

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 Factors Affecting Work per Cycle
The net cycle work of an engine can be increased by either:

i) Increasing the r (1’Æ2)

ii) Increase Qin (2Æ3”)

Wcycle Qin ⎛ r ⎞
3’’ imep = = ⎜ ⎟ηth
P V1 − V2 V1 ⎝ r − 1 ⎠
3 (ii)
4’’
Qin 4
Wcycle
4’
2
(i)

1
1’

V2 V1
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 Limitations

Typical SI
engines
9 < r < 11

Cylinder temperatures vary

between 300K and 2000K so
1.2 <γ < 1.4
• Spark ignition engine compression ratio γ = 1.3 most representative
• limited by T3 (autoignition/engine knock) both ~rγ
• limited by P3 (mechanical strength)
• emission control

• For r = 8 the efficiency is 56% which is twice the actual indicated value
(thermal losses, friction, gas exchange)
 Examples
A four-cylinder 2.5L SI engine operates at WOT on a four-stroke air-
standard Otto cycle at 3000RPM. The engine has a compression
ratio of 8.6, a mechanical efficiency of 86% and a stroke-to-bore
ratio L/B = 1.025. Fuel is iso-octane with AF = 15, a heating value of
44,300kJ/kg, and combustion efficiency ηc.=100%. At the start of the
compression stroke, conditions in the cylinder combustion chamber
are 100kPa and 60°C. As a first approximation, it is assumed that
there is a 4% exhaust residual left over from the previous cycle. Do
a complete thermodynamic cycle analysis of this engine.

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 Thermodynamic Cycles for CI engines
• In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached TDC
and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke. This kept the
pressure at peak levels well past TDC

• In modern engines the fuel is injected before TC (about 15o)

Fuel injection starts
Fuel injection starts

Early CI engine Modern CI engine

• The combustion process in the early CI engines is best approximated by

a constant pressure heat addition process Æ Diesel Cycle

• The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best approximated

by a combination of constant volume and constant pressure Æ Dual Cycle
 Qin Diesel Cycle (CI engine)
Air

Compression Const pressure

Process heat addition Process
Qout

BC

Expansion Const volume Qin

Process heat rejection Process

Process 1Æ 2 Isentropic compression

Process 2 Æ 3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3 Æ 4 Isentropic expansion Qout
Process 4 Æ 1 Constant volume heat rejection
 Process 1Æ 2 Isentropic compression Cut-off ratio:
Process 2 Æ 3 Constant pressure heat addition v3
Process 3 Æ 4 Isentropic expansion
β=
v2
Process 4 Æ 1 Constant volume heat rejection

3 Qin

Qout

• Equations for processes 1Æ2, 4Æ1 are the same as those presented
for the Otto cycle
• Intake and exhaust processes are also neglected in Diesel cycle
 First Law Analysis of Diesel Cycle
1Æ2 Isentropic Compression
Q W AIR
(u2 − u1 ) = − in
m m
Win P2 T2 v1
= (u1 − u 2 ) = cv (T1 − T2 ) = ⋅
m P1 T1 v2
γ −1
T2 ⎛ v1 ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = r γ −1
T1 ⎝ v2 ⎠

2Æ3 Constant Pressure Heat Addition AIR

Qin
Qin P2 (V3 − V2 )
(u3 − u 2 ) = −
m m
Qin
= (u3 + P3v3 ) − (u 2 + P2 v2 )
m
= p2 (V3 − V2 )
Wout
Qin
= (h3 − h2 ) = c p (T3 − T2 ) m
m
RT RT T v
P= 2 = 3 → 3 = 3 =β
v2 v3 T2 v2
 First Law Analysis of Diesel Cycle
3 Æ 4 Isentropic Expansion
Q Wout
(u 4 − u3 ) = −
m m
AIR
Wout
= (u3 − u 4 ) = cv (T3 − T4 )
m
v4 v4 v2 v1 v2 r
note ν4 = ν 1 so = ⋅ = ⋅ =
v3 v2 v3 v2 v3 β
γ −1
P4 v4 P3v3 P T β T4 ⎛ v3 ⎞ ⎛β ⎞
γ −1
= → 4 = 4⋅ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎜ ⎟
T4 T3 P3 T3 r T3 ⎝ v4 ⎠ ⎝r⎠

4 Æ 1 Constant Volume Heat Removal

Qout W
(u1 − u 4 ) = − AIR Qout
m m
Qout P4 P1
= (u1 − u4 ) = cv (T1 − T4 ) = BC
m T4 T1
 Thermal Efficiency for Diesel Cycle
Wnet Qout m u −u
η Diesel = = 1− = 1− 4 1
cycle Qin Qin m h3 − h2

For air-standard the above reduces to:

( γ
1 ⎡ 1 β −1 ⎤
η Diesel = 1 − γ −1 ⎢ ⋅
)
⎥ Typical CI Engines
r ⎢⎣ γ (β − 1) ⎥⎦ 12 < r < 20

1
recall, ηOtto = 1 − γ −1
r Can you derive this?

Note the term in the square bracket is always larger than one so for the
same compression ratio, r, the Diesel cycle has a lower thermal efficiency
than the Otto cycle

Note: CI needs higher r compared to SI to ignite fuel

The cut-off ratio is not a natural choice for the independent variable
a more suitable parameter is the heat input, the two are related by:

η Diesel
(
= 1 − γ −1 ⎢ ⋅
γ
1 ⎡ 1 β −1 ⎤ ) β = 1+
γ − 1 ⎛ Qin ⎞ 1
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ γ −1
⎥ as QinÆ 0, βÆ1
r ⎢⎣ γ (β − 1) ⎥⎦ γ ⎝ P1V1 ⎠ r

When (β= ν3/ν2)Æ1 the Diesel

cycle efficiency approaches
the efficiency of the Otto cycle
Higher efficiency is obtained by
adding less heat per cycle, Qin,
Æ run engine at higher speed
to get the same power.
 Examples
A large straight six CI truck engine operates on an air-standard Diesel
cycle using heavy fuel (QHV = 41,400kJ/kg) with a combustion efficiency
of 98%. The engine has a compression ratio of 16.5. Temperature and
pressure in the cylinders at the start of the compression stroke are 55°C
and 102kPa and maximum cycle temperature is 2410°C. Calculate:
a) temperature, pressure and specific volume at each state of the cycle
b) Air-fuel ratio of the cylinder gas mixture
c) Indicated thermal efficiency of the engine

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 Modern CI Engine Cycle and the
Thermodynamic Dual Cycle
The Dual Cycle is more representative of the actual cycle behaviour
(particularly the Diesel cycle or any other that requires significant time for
heat addition) as in real systems energy addition occurs over a finite time
and therefore can not be at constant volume

Qin Qin Qout

Air
TC

BC

Compression Const volume Const pressure Expansion Const volume

Process heat addition heat addition Process heat rejection
Process Process Process
 Dual Cycle
Process 1 Æ 2 Isentropic compression
Process 2 Æ 2.5 Constant volume heat addition
Process 2.5 Æ 3 Constant pressure heat addition
Process 3 Æ 4 Isentropic expansion
Process 4 Æ 1 Constant volume heat rejection

2.5 3 Qin
3

2 Qin
2.5

4
4 2

1
1 Qout

Qin
= (u 2.5 − u2 ) + ( h3 − h2.5 ) = cv (T2.5 − T2 ) + c p (T3 − T2.5 )
m
 Dual Cycle
1Æ2 Isentropic Compression
γ −1 P2 T2 v1
Win T2 ⎛ v1 ⎞ γ −1 = ⋅
= (u1 − u 2 ) = cv (T1 − T2 ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =r P1 T1 v2
m T1 ⎝ v2 ⎠
2Æ3 Heat addition
2-2.5: constant volume
2.5-3: constant pressure
Qin = m(u 2.5 − u 2 ) + m( h3 − h2.5 ) = mcv (T2.5 − T2 ) + mc p (T3 − T2.5 )
Wout T2.5 p3
= p3 (V3 − V2.5 ) =
m T2 p2
3 Æ 4 Isentropic Expansion
γ −1 γ −1
P4 T4 v3 T4 ⎛ v3 ⎞ ⎛β ⎞
Wout
= (u3 − u 4 ) = cv (T3 − T4 ) = ⋅ = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎜ ⎟
m P3 T3 v4 T3 ⎝ v4 ⎠ ⎝r⎠
4 Æ 1 Constant Volume Heat Removal
P4 P1
Qout
= (u1 − u 4 ) = cv (T1 − T4 ) =
m T4 T1
 Thermal Efficiency for Dual Cycle

Qout m u4 − u1
η Dual = 1 − = 1−
cycle Qin m (u2.5 − u2 ) + (h3 − h2.5 )

1 ⎡ αβ γ − 1 ⎤
η Dual = 1 − γ −1 ⎢ ⎥
cycle r ⎢⎣ (α − 1) + αγ (β − 1) ⎥⎦

v3 P3
where β = and α =
v2.5 P2

Note, the Otto cycle (β=1) and the Diesel cycle (α=1) are special cases:

ηOtto = 1 −
1
η Diesel = 1 − γ −1 ⎢ ⋅
(
γ
1 ⎡ 1 β −1 ⎤ )
⎥
r γ −1 const cV r ⎣⎢ γ (β − 1) ⎦⎥
 Examples
A small truck has a four-cylinder, four-liter CI engine that operates
on the air-standard Dual cycle using light diesel fuel at an air-fuel
ratio of 18. The compression ratio of this engine is 16 and the
cylinder bore diameter is 10.0cm. At the start of the compression
stroke, conditions in the cylinders are 60°C and 100kPa with a 2%
exhaust residual. It can be assumed that half of the heat input from
combustion is added at constant volume and half at constant
pressure. Calculate:
a) Temperature and pressure at each state of the cycle
b) Indicated thermal efficiency

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The use of the Dual cycle requires information about either:
i) the fractions of constant volume and constant pressure heat addition
(common assumption is to equally split the heat addition), or
ii) maximum pressure P3.

Transformation of β and α into more natural variables yields

γ − 1 ⎡⎛ Qin ⎞ 1 α − 1⎤ 1 P3
β = 1− ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ γ −1 − ⎥ α=
αγ ⎣⎝ P1V1 ⎠ r γ −1 ⎦ r γ P1

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same compression ratio:
ηOtto > η Dual > η Diesel

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same peak pressure P3
(actual design limitation in engines):
η Diesel > η Dual > ηotto
 For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 For the same inlet conditions P1, V1
and the same compression ratio: and the same peak pressure P3:

Pmax

Pressure, P
“x” →“2.5”
Pressure, P

Qout
ηth = 1 − Po
Qin
1
∫
Po
Tds Specific Volume
Specific Volume = 1− 4
3
∫ Tds
2 Tmax
tto
O al
Du
sel el

Temperature, T
Die Dies
Temperature, T

al
Du
to
Ot

Entropy Entropy
For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same compression ratio:
ηOtto > η Dual > η Diesel

For the same inlet conditions P1, V1 and the same peak pressure P3
(actual design limitation in engines):
η Diesel > η Dual > ηotto

Comparing these ideas, it would suggest that the most efficient

engine would have combustion as close as possible to constant
volume but would be compression ignition and operate at the
higher compression ratios which that requires.

An area where more research and development is needed.