1

Sample taken from AFRICOM: An Effective Solution for U.S.-Africa Security Challenges?

Africa’s Security Challenges and U.S. Security Interests

Security Challenges in Africa. Spanning an impressive 11.7 million miles, of which 75 percent is

uninhabited,1 Africa is a massive and complex continent. Rich in diverse resources such as coltan,

diamonds, gold and oil, the continent is also defined by its demographic diversity. Over 3000 ethnic

groups speak more than 1000 languages2. Despite the vast amount of intellectual and physical resources,

Africa is often characterized by humanitarian crises, limited economic growth, and chronic insecurity.

Despite Africa’s diversity, many of the countries on the continent share similar broad challenges.

Understanding the source of security challenges and underdevelopment on the continent of Africa is a

“Chicken-Egg” question, which has driven much debate. Does underdevelopment increase the likelihood

of insecurity and instability? Or, does insecurity and instability allow for underdevelopment?

It is not the purpose of this paper to argue either side of the debate. What is blatantly clear,

however, is the nexus between insecurity and underdevelopment. Increasing stability and economic

growth can be and should be two mutually reinforcing occurrences3. Africa's security challenges carry

with them heavy socio-economic implications that extend beyond the traditional view of security. In

1994, the UNDP released the annual Human Development Report, wherein the term “human security”

was introduced encompassing “economic, food, health, environmental, personal, community and political

security.”4 All are forms of security, which present security challenges on the African continent, and

affect the stability of all regions. Africa’s many security challenges range from national to transnational

challenges. These security issues affect the continent as a whole and are not always region-specific, thus

1
Harlow, “Hap”. 2008. “AFRICOM: Scenesetter - Prospects and Challenges.” AFRICOM presentation by
Lieutenant Colonel Harlow, representing the Strategy, Plans and Programming division of AFRICOM. Retrieved
on February 15, 2009 from http://www.africom.mil/getArticle.asp?art=1793.
2
Ibid.
3
“Security and Development in Southern Africa.” 2008. Centre for Conflict Resolution: Policy Advisory Group
Seminar Report, June 8-10. 8.
4
Ibid., 9
 2
making them increasingly difficult to control and diminish. The majority of these threats can be described

as “nonmilitary threats that cross borders and either threaten the political and social integrity of a nation

or the health of that nation’s inhabitants.”5

Understanding the context of the complexity of Africa’s security dilemmas is essential for

increased comprehension of the continent’s security challenges. This section provides a brief analysis of

some of the major security challenges faced by many African countries. It defines the continent’s security

landscape when conflict, governance, economic underperformance, and environmental degradation

collide on multiple societal levels. Many of the causes and drivers of the security challenges can also

serve as forces of economic growth and stabilization if effectively harnessed and managed by

governments, societies, and corporations.

Often, African countries are unable to address these challenges either due to political

will/governance and/or capacity issues. Some governments wrongly position their priorities and strategies

according to the economic and stability needs of a society. Other governments, however, do not possess

capabilities that match appropriate and much needed polices. Be it technical means of implementing

labour mechanisms, or generating sufficient monetary capacity to institute a social protection floor, many

governments lack the capacity to successfully implement strategies

Good Governance/Accountability

Poor and weak governance is an essential starting point in analyzing some of the African

continent’s main security challenges, and their socio-economic impacts. Most drivers and causes of

the following security challenges are either exacerbated and/or unaddressed due to the

environment created by poor and/or weak governance. As expressed in the chart below, weak

5
Berlin, Don and Paul J. Smith. 2000. “Transnational Security Threats in Asia: Conference Report.” Asia-Pacific
Center. Retrieved on February 15, 2009 from http://www.apcss.org/Publications/Transnational%20Report
%20version%2020%20Dec%202000.html.
 3
governance often generates a host of consequences that do very little to stabilize and securitize

many African countries and regions.

Effects of Weak Governance

Harlow, “Hap”. 2008.

Societies marred by perpetual governmental weakness typically exhibit skewed power

relationships. Power and wealth rests within the hands of an elite few, while the majority is

deprived access to political power and/or economic opportunity. A political environment saturated

with the “our turn to eat” mentality generates a system where the few have control of most of the

wealth at any given time. Weak and poor governments are unable to effectively manage resources

in such a way that population-wide access and societal development is promoted.

Poor and weak governance oftentimes creates an environment in which the majority is kept

outside of the political process, wherein the majority and key issues are marginalized and ignored.

Thus, adversaries and the general populace who no longer view the government as an adequate and

legitimate source of power express discontentment with such unequal wealth and resource

distribution. This discontentment and disillusionment with the government often plants the seeds

for emerging or redeveloping conflict, and/or social unrest.

 4

Conflicts

The incidence and consequences of conflict remain one of Africa’s greatest impediments to

sustainable development and peace. From their time of independence, 22 African countries have

experienced civil war, with one-third of the continent having experienced active conflict just a

decade ago. From 1998 to 2007, two-thirds of the countries in which the United Nations conducted

peacekeeping operations were in Africa.6 It is estimated that armed conflict in African states costs

between $15-$18 billion a year. Since 1990, an estimated $300 billion 7 has been spent on armed

conflicts alone in Africa by African states, with some estimates nearing $700 billion. This vast sum

shrinks the economy of African states experiencing conflict by 15 percent, and has adverse affects

on socio-economic development.

Not only does the cost of conflict place a heavy burden on a country’s available resources, it

also limits the amount of external investment flowing into the country experiencing or affected by

conflict. Thus, economic progress in various sectors within a conflict affected stated is highly

unlikely either through internal economic policies or the harnessing of external investment.

Environmental Degradation8

Executive Director of the UNEP, Achim Steiner, noted that there existed a strong

“inescapable linkage between environmental degradation and worsening economic and social

conditions.” Steiner went on to state "conflicts ultimately become inevitable if systems become so

pressurized and social, economic, and institutional systems are not able to adapt.” When the

demand of scarce resources exceeds the available supply and government policies do little to

6
The State of Democracy in Africa By Larry Diamond
7
Hillier, Debbie. 2007. Africa’s Missing Billions: International Arms Flows and the Cost of Conflict. Oxfam.
<http://www.oxfam.org.uk/download/?
download=http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/policy/conflict_disasters/downloads/bp107_africa_missing_billions.
pdf>. 5.
8
See Figure 3 for Map of current and potential effects of environmental degradation/climate change
 5
proactively mitigate the consequences, conflict typically ensues. Furthermore, the economic

viability of many who depend on these resources is diminished, and in many countries there exist

very few governmental safety nets.

Since 1950, it is estimated that 500 million hectares of land in sub-Saharan Africa, of which

65 percent is agricultural, have been negatively impacted by the degradation of soil. 9 In a region

already plagued by water scarcity, this has produced mass food insecurity. According to the U.N.

Environment Programme (UNEP), more than 9.9 million acres of forest is depleted every year in

Africa alone. This is tantamount to double the world's average, and is equal to roughly the size of

Switzerland. In addition to diminishing forests, the exiguous number of glaciers on the continent is

disappearing at an accelerated and alarming rate. Currently, deforestation is a crisis for 35 African

countries. Even more devastating, is that due to chemical and physical damage, as well as erosion,

approximately 65 percent of Africa's farmlands have been diminished.

Another much fought over resource is water. In Darfur, for example, rainfall decline over the

past 30 years led to drought conditions and land degradation. This phenomenon pushed many

pastoralists and farming communities southward where conflict erupted between the new migrants

and settled communities. Currently, 300 million Africans are confronted with water scarcity, and

regions struck with water shortages will experience close to a 33 percent increase by 2050 10. For 64

percent of Africans, their livelihood hinges upon the availability of water that is unstable and in

short supply. In some of the driest regions in Africa, 40 percent of the irrigated croplands are not

sustainable.11 The maps below provide an example of developing water scarcity, and highlight the

drying up of Lake Faguibine in Mali from 1974 to 2006.

9
African Security Review, vol.17/No1: The United States Africa Command: Enhancing American security or
fostering African development?
10
AFRICA: Atlas of Our Changing Environment, UNEP Report
11
Water Stress in sub-Saharan Africa, Council on Foreign Relations Report
 6
12
Drying Up of Lake Faguibine: Mali
1974-1978 2006

The socio-economic impacts of environmental degradation often highlight the inability of

governments to successfully implement policies that aid in managing such environmental

transitions. Furthermore, some governments have inadequately enforced and/or regulatory

policies regarding the regulation of environmental related issues, that lead towards inability of

governments to successfully implement policies regulating environmental related issues, leads

towards the minimization of resources available to a population. A strong example of this is the case

of IUU fishing.

Case Study: IUU Fishing

The African continent has one of the highest levels globally of IUU fishing. Fisheries are a
major exporting commodity for many African countries, and account for $2.7 billion a
year in revenue. Due to illegal fishing and ineffective regulation, however,
approximately $1 Billion in revenue is lost each year; which diminishes food supply for
over 200 million and recedes the income of more than ten million. Also of concern are
the effects of illegal dumping off the coastlines of Africa, and the impact on ecosystems
and the health of surrounding communities. In describing the extent of the problem,
British Trade and Development Minister, Gareth Thomas stated those fishermen who
were once able to provide for their family “are not able to give to their family.”

12
http://www.unep.org/dewa/Africa/AfricaAtlas/graphics/index.asp
 7
Food Security/Crisis

2006 was considered one of the worst years for food security around the world. Particularly

in Africa, close to 300 million experienced a food crisis of disastrous proportions, which constituted

1/3 of the total number of people going hungry worldwide. 13 A total of 27 countries were in need of

external food aid.14 The United Nations considers the following to be three sources of food security

issues in Africa: “poor harvest due to erratic rainfall, growing impact of the AIDS epidemic,

weakening ability of governments to respond.”15 Like so many security challenges on the continent,

there is more than one source of the problem. Challenges combined with other challenges create

more challenges, which require further assistance.

Proliferation of SA/LW

The proliferation of SA/LW is a major security challenge in Africa that is difficult to control

and prevent.16 Generating an exact number of the amount of SA/LW in circulation around the world

is near impossible. However, it is estimated that out of roughly 500 million SA/LW in circulation,

100 million are located in Africa.17 SA/LW constitute for the majority of weapons utilized in

ongoing conflicts in countries such as Sudan, the DRC, and Somalia. 18 The larger part of victims

killed by violent acts in Africa are killed by SA/LW. “The availability of [SA/LW] is now so

widespread throughout Africa that the price for an AK-47 is less than $20 in Somalia.” 19

Public Health Crises

13
Plaut, Martin. 2006. “Africa’s Hunger-A Systemic Crisis.” BBC News Online. January 31.
<http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4662232.stm>.
14
Ibid.
15
“Millions Face Food Crisis in Africa.” 2005. CARE. Retrieved on April 3, 2009 from
http://www.care.org/newsroom/articles/2005/10/20051006_africahunger.asp?source=170740270000&WT.srch=1.
16
Aning, Kwesi. 2007. “Africa: Confronting Complex Threats.” International Peace Academy.
<http://www.ipaacademy.org/publications/policy-papers>. 1.
17
“Small Arms and Light Weapons.” 2001. African Union: Peace and Security Council. Retrieved on February 15,
2009 from <http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/AUC/Departments/PSC/Small_Arms.htm>.
18
Zihindula , Mulegwa. 2000. “Small Arms and Light Weapons Proliferating in Africa.” Global Ministries: The
United Methodist Church. Retrieved on February 15, 2009 from http://gbgm-umc.org/global_news/full_article.cfm?
articleid=4542.
19
Ibid.
 8
Major public health challenges such as HIV/AIDS and Malaria affect various social systems

and the infrastructural capabilities of social, political and economic mechanisms. 20 HIV prevalence

in Africa poses various threats to the security and development of seriously afflicted regions and

countries. Of the 33 million living with HIV around the world, 67% are located in SSA. 21 75% of all

AIDS related deaths occurred in SSA, while only 28% of the affected population has access to the

medicines needed. The sheer number of those infected with HIV/AIDS place a heavy strain on

public healthcare and resources as well as lowering the potential number of healthcare workers

and peacekeepers that could be working.22 GDP is strained as well. In nations with an HIV

prevalence rate of 20% or more, a 2.6% loss in GDP is experienced, and it is estimated that in the

next two years GDP loss might rise to 17%.23

The highest prevalence of Malaria infections and deaths occur in Africa. Approximately 90%

of all Malaria deaths occur in Africa; specifically Malaria is the leading cause of mortality for

children under the age of five.24 Accounting for 40% of total public health expenditure in Africa,

close to $12 billion in productivity is lost due to the impact of Malaria on the workforce and social

structure.

Islamic Extremism

Political and radical Islam has been an increasing national and regional security challenge in

Africa. While serving “as a medium for political activism and/or mobilization”, the activities

conducted by various groups to voice grievances are of concern. 25 Political Islam is not inherently
20
“Southern Africa: Building an Effective Security and Governance Architecture for the 21 st Century.” 2007.
Centre for Conflict Resolution: Policy Advisory Group Seminar Report, May 29-30. 10.
21
Status of the Global HIV Epidemic: 2008 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic. 2008. World Health
Organization. 30-62. Retrieved on March 1, 2009 from
<http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2008/2008_Global>. 30.
22
Harlow
23
Ibid.
24
“Malaria Statistics.” 2009. Nets For Life. Retrieved on February 15, 2009 from
<http://www.netsforlifeafrica.org/malaria/malaria-statistics>.
25
Aning 5
 9
negative and can produce positive results. For example, the Senegalese organization, Sufi

Brotherhood, provided support for the “democratic and secular government.” 26 Contrarily,

Wahhabism has become more popular, specifically in the Horn of Africa. Political Islam is also

altering the landscape of various localities. In Nigeria, for example, shari’a law has been adopted in

one-third of the states. Further complicating the ability to generate a clear distinction between

moderate and extreme organizations is the complex mixture of political Islam, radical Islam and

anti-Americanism that has developed in Africa.27 Increasingly, organizations adverse to the interests

of many in Africa are gaining a foothold in local areas. In 2007, Algeria and Morocco experienced

terrorist attacks.28 Eastern and Southern Africa have also joined the counterterrorism periphery. Along the

coast of East and Southern Africa (Tanzania, Zambia and Comoros) there appears to be a network of

terrorist cells. Though not much action has been seen from the cells, there exists a fear that the unchecked

cells could potentially harbor international terrorists.29

Transnational Crime (TNC)

Transnational Crime (TNC) in Africa is a growing threat to security and stability. The

activities engaged in by various illicit organizations and groups not only destabilize affected

regions, but also aid in the financing of ongoing and future operations. These groups mainly engage

in the trafficking of drugs, other human beings, and SA/LW. According to estimates from the

International Labor Organization (ILO) around 1.2 million humans are victims of human trafficking,

32% of who are African.30 Other activities perpetrated by these groups consist of illegal smuggling

of refugees and aliens, “illegal trade in human organs, credit card fraud…cyber crime, motor vehicle

26
Ibid.
27
Ibid.
28
Lyman, Princeton N. 2008. “The War on Terrorism in Africa.” In Africa in World Politics.
<http://www.cfr.org/content/thinktank/Lyman_chapter_Terrorism.pdf >.14
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid., 2
 10
31
theft, and money laundering.” Tanzanian President, Jakaya Kikwete, commented in an Op-Ed that

the “structures and institutions” in African governments are “grossly inadequate”, therefore

presenting continental wide challenges in confronting TNC.32 Many countries in Africa also serve as

transit points for drug trafficking, as well as points of origin for drug production. Heroin, for

example, is smuggled “from South Asia across Africa to Europe and North America.” 33

Unemployment and Underemployment

By 2015, it is expected that the number of working poor living in extreme poverty in Africa

will increase by 20 percent.34 The risks associated with unemployment and underemployment are

especially exacerbated in fragile states, as the effects of unemployment and underemployment

diminishing existing confidence in the government, and can lead towards increases in violent crime,

and communal conflict. The table below compares Africa’s unemployment and underemployment

statistics to the rest of the world. It highlights the depth of underemployment as a major issue,

especially as the number of working poor is expected to rise.

31
Kikwete, Jakaya. 2007. “Comment: Transnational Organised Crime a Major Threat To Our Security.” Business
Daily. July 16. <http://www.bdafrica.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1930&Itemid=5821.>
32
Ibid.
33
Shinn, David H. 2009. “China’s Engagement in Africa.” In Africa Policy in the George W. Bush Years:
Recommendations for the Obama Administration. Center for Strategic and International Studies.
<http://www.csis.org/component/option.com_csis_pub/task,view/is,5217/type,1/.> 11.
34
Juan Somavia, Director-General of the International Labour Organization (ILO), said at the opening of the 11th
regional meeting in Addis Ababa
 11

Though employed, those who fall into the category of underemployment are still as

vulnerable to the same risks as the unemployed. According to the ILO's report, "The Decent Work

Agenda in Africa: 2007-2015”, Africa possess the largest working poor in total employment of any

region. “Every day 10,000 African women and men join those workers who are already living with

their families on less than US$1 a day.”35 The majority of these individuals are part of the informal

economy, which offers very little pay, very little productivity, and almost non-existent protection

Youth Unemployment/Underemployment

A major driver of conflict within employment issues is the unemployment and

underemployment of a large percentage of youth on the African continent. Considered both

“makers and breakers” of their societies, "young people constantly shake and shape society, while

being shaped and shaken by society."36 The youth comprise the majority of the African population,

and represent the future workforce of the continent. However, youth are often marginalized during

agenda setting and policy implementation, thus ignoring their vulnerability to socio-economic
35
Juan Somavia, Director-General of the International Labour Organization (ILO), said at the opening of the 11th
regional meeting in Addis Ababa, the Ethiopian capital.
36
Boeck, Filip and Alcinda Honwana. Children and Youth In Africa: Agency, Identity and Place.
 12
shocks. A significant number of youth are disenfranchised, with little to no access to viable

employment and education. Thus, skills for productive labor are either undeveloped or unused.

Youth comprise 60 percent of the unemployed in Africa. Some African countries have even reached

a level of 80 percent of youth comprising the total unemployed.

However, youth unemployment generally leads to negative consequences consisting of

conflict and lawless behavior. In Somalia, for example, the first groups of pirates to successfully

attack an American ship were between the ages of 17 -19.

Youth Population by Economic Activity Status in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1997 and 2007

Source: International Labour Office, Global Employment Trends for Youth 2008.

As of early 2009, Africa had an estimated population of 1 billion (14.8% of the world

population) and an annual population growth rate of 2.2%. 37 Africa is predicted to have the “highest

long term population growth”.38 Societies experiencing “youth bulge” share high birth rates and a

high proportion of the population between 15 and 29 years of age. In SSA, 15-29 year olds make up

an average of 40% of the population.39 Most SSA countries are predicted to experience a growth in

their labor force of 100% to 157% between 2005 and 2030. 40 Population growth can lay a
37
World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision Population Database. 2009.
<http://esa.un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp>
38
Ibid.
39
Gavin, Michelle D. 2007. “Africa’s Restless Youth.” Current History. May: 220-226.
40
Ibid.
 13
framework for future successful economic development. Large youth populations can “act as

engines for economic growth, but only in the contexts in which they have access to education and

labor markets are able to absorb them.”41

According to demographers, however, many countries with high birthrates tend to be more

prone to conflict.42 From 1970 to 1990, an estimated 80% of all the world’s civil conflicts took place

in states where the total population of those less than 30 years of age was 60%. 43 “Large

populations of young people can act as engines for economic growth, but only in contexts in which

they have access to education and labor markets are able to absorb them.” 44 Hence, if current trends

continue in the development of educational infrastructure and capacity and job creation, there is a

fear that the mechanisms needed to support the expanding labor force will not be present.

In addition unemployed youth, there exists also a demographic of underemployed youth,

who are unable to work enough hours in a week and/or receive to little pay for their work. Thus,

many youth find themselves involved in informal economic opportunities, which provide little to no

skills training and promote little productivity.

U.S. Security Interests. As previously stated, Africa has never been the center of U.S. foreign policy or

defense policy.45 Yet, Africa is now a continent of more importance to U.S. foreign and defense policy

goals. Why? Global trade, oil and terrorism are three main areas of concern to the United States where

Africa concerned. Global trade between the U.S. and Africa is increasing. The U.S. has an interest in

ensuring that trade routes are secure, and partners are sufficiently stable in order to maintain or increase

41
World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision Population Database. 2009.
<http://esa.un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp>
42
Beehner, Lionel. 2007. “The Battle of the ‘Youth Bulge’.”CFR: Daily Analysis. April 27. Retrieved on March 2,
2009 from http://www.cfr.org/publication/13094/battle_of_the_youth_bulge.html?breadcrumb=%2Fissue
%2Fpublication_list3%Fid%3D129.
43
Ibid.
44
Ibid.
45
Chau 2
 14
trading potential. As the U.S. begins to import more oil from African countries, it is in the interest of the

U.S. that access to the markets remain stable as well as open and not too affected by competition.

Global Trade and Oil

Through AGOA, trade between the U.S. and Africa has increased. The global output of oil is

approximately 85 million barrels a day.46 In 2007, the IEA released a study forecasting a daily global

demand of 116 million barrels by 2030.47 Every year, U.S. demand for gasoline grows by at least one

percent.48 Though the U.S. imports many natural resources from Africa, the majority of the natural

resources imported are energy resources.49 Nigeria is the fifth largest supplier of oil to the United States.50

According to the CIA, by 2015 the source of 25% of all oil imports to the U.S. will be Africa.51 Africa

already supplies the U.S. with 18% of its oil imports.52 There exists, as well, the increase in oil, which

would come from potential deep water drilling in the Gulf of Guinea.53 In 2006, before Congress, Former

President George W. Bush pledged a reduction of oil imports from the Middle East by 75%.54 Ultimately,

in the absence of alternative energy, dependency on Middle Eastern oil will shift to other areas around the

world (notably Africa). If Africa will continue to become a major exporter of oil to the U.S., stability in

oil exporting countries is in the interest of the U.S. Chronic insecurity and instability in the Delta region

poses a threat to uninterrupted flow of oil in Nigeria. It is estimated that output of oil from Nigeria has

been reduced by as much as 25% due to instability.55 In April of 2007, the contested national elections in

46
Roberts, Paul. 2008. “World Oil.” National Geographic Magazine. June.
<http://ngm.nationalgeorgraphic.com/print/2008/06/world-oil/roberts-text>.
47
Ibid.
48
Gismatullin, Eduard. 2007. “Oil Trades Near $64 in New York on Rising Demand for Gasoline.” Bloomberg.
<http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601072&sid=a2UbRX_oHs4Q&refer=energy>.
49
Ploch 63
50
Lin 3
51
McFate 12
52
Lin 3
53
Ploch 63
54
Roberts
55
Ploch 63
 15
56
Nigeria caused the price of oil around the world to rise above $60 a barrel. One month later, attacks on

Nigerian oil pipelines, push the price to over $70 a barrel.57

It is in the interest of the U.S. to ensure that sea and trade routes are off the coasts of Africa are

stable and secure. . The National Strategy for Maritime Security, released by the Bush administration in

2005, highlighted “freedom of the seas and the facilitation and defense of commerce as top national

priorities.”58 Piracy mainly occurs in the Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Guinea and the Indian Ocean. According

to the IMB, in 2008 an estimated 90 pirate attacks occurred in East Africa alone.59 “Kenya's foreign

minister, Moses Wetangula, estimates the pirates have been paid more than $150 million in the past.”60

Effectively controlling and battling crimes that occur in the waters of the coast of Africa is an arduous

task for all governments involved. The first American ship to be hijacked by Somali pirates occurred in

April of 2009.61 Indicative of developmental issues in the region, the ages of the four pirates ranged from

17-19.62

Terrorism

“Ungoverned” lands and weak states in Africa are of concern to the U.S., since such areas are

potential “breeding grounds” for terrorist organizations. The Horn of Africa is considered to be the

“Bridge to the Middle East” and is an area where the U.S. has placed much of its military and

counterterrorism resources. “Since 2002, the United States has stationed between 1,200 to 18,000 troops

in Djibouti under the Combined Joint Task Force–Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA).”63 The Horn of Africa

has been the area of the most U.S. counterterrorism activity on the continent of Africa. In 2006, through
56
Lin 3
57
Ibid.
58
Ploch 13
59
McKenzie, David. 2008. “No Way to Stop Us, Pirate Leader Says.” CNN. Retrieved on March 17, 2009 from
http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/12/01/pirate.interview/index.html
60
Ibid.
61
Barrett, Devlin. 2009. “Gates: Pirates ‘Untrained Teens With Heavy Weapons’.” Associated Press. April 14.
<http://www.gopusa.com/news/2009/april/0414_pirates_teens.shtml>.
62
Ibid.
63
Lyman 3
 16
intelligence and equipment aid, the U.S. backed Ethiopia’s invasion of Somalia in order to topple a radical

Islamic government that had taken control over Mogadishu. In 2008, the U.S. bombed areas in the

southern part of Somalia, based on intelligence that one of the bombers of the U.S. embassy in 1998 had

surfaced.64

Also in the Horn of Africa is Sudan. Sudan is noted as being the first African country to have

become entrenched in terrorism on an international level. In the 1980’s, terrorist activity perpetrated by

Palestinian terrorists occurred. An American ambassador was killed and the Saudi Arabian embassy was

bombed.65 At the request of Hassan al-Turabi, leader of the National Islamic Front, Osama bin Laden was

invited to visit Sudan in 1991 where he remained until approximately 2006. It is from Sudan that he was

able to create financial and supportive terrorist networks and operations. Currently, it is the ongoing civil

war in Darfur that is also of concern. “More rhetorical than material”, the situation in Darfur still poses as

a threat for the potential uprising of terrorist organizations. Concern is not just limited to the Horn of

Africa, but to North Africa as well. “According to U.S. Defense Intelligence, Morocco and Algeria is the

source of a significant number of foreign fighters in Iraq.66 Especially in light of the 2007 terrorist attacks,

which occurred in both countries.

64
Ibid.
65
Ibid.
66
Lin 3