EXPLORATION FOR PLATINUM GROUP METALS IN INDIA- A STATUS NOTE.

M. M. Mukherjee
Dy.Director General (Retired), Geological Survey of India.

I. INTRODUCTION
Exploration for PGE has been undertaken in many prospective areas of the country based on the
well-established genetic concepts of PGE mineralization in space and time. Because of various
constraints, the progress of exploration has remained sluggish. So far, only one new resource of
PGE has been identified in the state of Orissa. Some other targets have been identified mostly in
the Precambrian shield areas of India. In the Extra-Peninsular India, the collisional Himalayan
fold belt of Cenozoic age hosts synorogenic intrusions (Ophiolite type and Alaskan type) which
are potential for PGE mineralization and related placers. Dismembered tectonic slices of the
Ophiolite suite were emplaced into the Tertiary sedimentary rocks in Manipur and Nagaland.

II. PLATINUM GROUP METALS (PGM)

The platinum group metals comprise platinum, palladium, iridium, rhodium, osmium and
ruthenium. They occur together in nature and are produced from the same ore. Physically,
chemically and atomically similar, they are grouped together as elements in the periodic table.
Platinum Group Metals (PGM) are the costliest of all precious metals and India does not yet
produce these. Pt, Pd and Rh are the most important ones for economic significance and
produced mainly from South Africa, Russia, Canada, USA and Zimbabwe in that order of
abundance. Rh, Ir, Os and Ru are produced only as co- products of Pt-Pd and so far not mined
for their own sake, save for some minor production from placers in Russia.

Comparative statement of Prices in US $ per troy ounces of Platinum Group Metals and
gold in 1999, 2007 and 2009.

YEAR Rh Pt Pd Ir Ru Os Au

1999 920 377 372 415 39 425 255

2007 6130 1300 370 450 400 400 650

2009 2725 1466 370 425 115 400 1140

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III. WORLD PRODUCTION SCENARIO
The current annual mine production status is as follows (after USGS 2009)

COUNTRY( as Pt (in Kg.) Pd (in Kg.) Total(Pt+Pd)

of 2008)

South Africa 153,000 80,000 233,000

Russia 25,000 88,000 113,000

Canada 7,200 12,500 19700

USA 3,700 12,400 161,00

Zimbabwe 5,600 4,400 10000

Colombia 1,700 - 1,700

Other countries 3,500 8,300 11800

TOTAL 200,000 206,000 405,300

PGE`s are used in a wide range of applications including jewellery, catalytic converters,
computer hard disk drives, anti-cancer drugs, eyeglasses, paint and a host of other things.
In the future PGMs could play a crucial role in:

• fuel cell technology, which could revolutionize clean energy production for cars, homes
and businesses;
• In the development of most new technologies seeking to produce less polluting, longer
lasting products, ranging from computers to more humble household appliances.
• In medicine, to improve products and drugs for patients.

IV. PGE DEPOSITS: WORLD SCENARIO

PGE deposits are confined only in few geological setting. Broadly speaking, the primary deposits
of PGE are contained in few large layered basic-ultrabasic igneous complexes of the world
which are emplaced in Precambrian shield areas. The synvolcanic intrusions are the second most
important host for PGE mineralization. In this type PGE-bearing sulphide deposits (Ni-Cu) are
found within mafic / ultramafic intrusions and extrusions close to the contact with country rock
(limestone, shale and sandstone). Noril ‘sk-Telnak, Russia, Sudbury, Ontario and Kambalda,
Australia are prime examples. Alaskan-type complexes of concentric form with an ultramafic
dunitic core grading into an outer mafic sequence of peridotites and pyroxenites contain discrete
PGM in massive chromite from the core. Minor occurrences of PGE are reported in ophiolite
podiform chromitites. Platinum placers have been won from CIS, Latin America and Alaska.
Rare hydrothermal types of Pt-Pd mineralization have also been reported (Macdonald, 1987).
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Few large basic-ultrabasic layered complexes of the world emplaced in stable shield areas
constitute principal PGE repository and source for these metals. Such complexes host
stratigraphically controlled narrow seams rich in PGE, sulphides, chromite in mafic matrix which
dip at low angle (10-25o) towards the centre of the complex. Merensky reef and UG-2 reef with
average thickness of 1m. and 0.8m. respectively are the two most important ore bodies mined for
PGE in Bushveld Igneous Complex (BIC), South Africa.. Their enormous strike length and
persistent dip length (in kilometers) have contributed to vast metal endowment. The reefs are
interrupted by irregularities like potholes and in them the reefs are depressed into the footwall
stratigraphy up to 100m. below the normal stratigraphic position. Analogous geological
environment in Stillwater Complex (USA) host J-M reef (2m. thickness) with very high PGE
content and is the largest producer of these precious metals in North America. PGE
mineralization of Great Dyke, Zimbabwe, is also similar and very significant. By-product PGE is
won from Ni-Cu ores from Canada, Australia and CIS.
The primary deposits of PGE are all narrow in width and are mined by underground method.
Some of the deposits in South Africa are being exploited by ultra deep mining (up to 2km.
depth). The weighted average grade (total PGE+Au) of these deposits range between 4 and 6g/t.
By-product and co-product PGE from Ni-Cu deposits range in grade from 0.9g/t to 3g/t. A
primary open pit deposit with an average grade of 1.3g/t PGE has been developed in Canada in
recent times.
V. INDIAN SCENARIO
India’s large Peninsular shield comprises three very old (> 2500 m.y.) cratonic blocks
surrounded by Mid to Late Proterozoic mobile/fold belts and these in turn are overlain by
intracratonic sedimentary basins. These three oldest Achaean cratonic nuclei i.e. Southern India,
Eastern India and Central India occur to the south of ENE-WSW trending Son-Narmada
lineament. Plutonic to hypabyssal magmatic intrusions of Achaean as well as early Proterozoic
age are numerous into these cratonic blocks. Layered, differentiated mafic –ultamafic complexes
with chromite and titaniferous magnetite are also common in granite-greenstone terrain. This
geological setting is ideal in terms of space and time for hosting PGE mineralization. The
greenstone belts are also potential for hosting synvolcanic intrusion related PGE mineralization
The high to medium grade Proterozoic fold/mobile belts skirting the cratons also contain
ultramafic-mafic layered intrusions with chromite and PGE. In the Extra- Peninsular India, the
collisional Himalayan fold belt of Cenozoic age hosts synorogenic intrusions (Ophiolite and
Alaskan types) which are potential for IPGE subgroup mineralization and related recent placers.
Exploration for PGE has been undertaken in many prospective areas of the country based on the
well-established genetic concepts of PGE mineralization in space and time. Because of various
constraints, the progress of exploration has remained sluggish. So far, only one new resource of
PGE has been identified in the state of Orissa. Some other targets have been identified mostly in
the Precambrian shield areas of India. In the Extra-Peninsular India, the collisional Himalayan
fold belt of Cenozoic age hosts synorogenic intrusions (ophiolite type and Alaskan type) which
are potential for PGE mineralization and related placers. Dismembered tectonic slices of the
ophiolite suite were emplaced into the Tertiary sedimentary rocks in Manipur and Nagaland. The
ophiolite suite comprises ultramafics, volcanics and volcano-sedimentary sequence. Preliminary

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sampling of chromite showed the presence of Pt, Pd, Rh, Au, Ni and Cu along with sulphur
enrichment. Qualitative scanning indicated higher concentration of Rh. The current international
scenario has indicated the potentiality of ophiolite complexes too for hosting PGE
mineralization. The current database of all the identified target areas is not even. These need to
be evaluated in detail and their prospectivity or discrimination between fertile and barren targets
to be worked out.

VI. EXPLORATION STATUS IN INDIA

a. Exploration budget
Worldwide exploration budgets for major metals and minerals has been rising steadily since
2002 and reached a peak of $14.4 billion in 2008 (Overview, Metals Economic Group,2008).
India`s share is limited in that the major regional prospecting and grass-root level field
exploration is carried out by Geological Survey( Government) of India(GSI) which has a very
limited budget. GSI could master only an amount of $50 million to expend towards exploration
for all minerals including coal in 2008(Vide GSI portal). This constitutes only 0.34% of the
world expenditure.
b. Base line geological data
Geological mapping on 1:50,000/63,360 scale of the entire landmass of Peninsular and Extra-
Peninsular India measuring 3.28 million square kilometer has been completed save for some
inaccessible terrains of very minor size. Aerogeophysical survey in some of the potential tracts
has also been completed accounting for about 0.4% of the total area. Geological reports
(published) on many of the important metallogenic provinces and belts are available.
Unpublished reports are available on request. At present many of the geological maps and
reports are being uploaded in GSI portal for public viewing.
c. Recent exploration scenario
During the last field season annual programme of GSI , a total of 8 items of PGE investigation
out of a grand( all minerals) total of 103 ,were taken up in various parts of the country. As per
GSI`s assessment, a total of 8,000 Sq.Km. can be considered as potential for PGE search. This
calls for more extensive search process in the country. The overall exploration scenario is
depicted in the following pie chart.

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 MANGANESE
IRON COAL/LIGNITE

PGE‐8
STRATEGIC

DIAMOND BASE METAL

GOLD TOTAL= 103

Fig.1 MINERAL INVESTIGATION ITEMS BY GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,2007‐2008

d. Highlights
(i) Eastern India
Ultramafic and Ultramafic-mafic intrusive and extrusive, constituting the host geological
environment were mapped and delineated by Geological Survey of India (GSI) during first
generation geological mapping in different parts of Eastern India. These can be grouped into
three major geological provinces namely, (1) Singhbhum Craton (Northern part of Orissa), (2)
Bastar craton (western part of Orissa), (3) Eastern Ghats Granulite terrain(Southern part of
Orissa). A total 25 occurrences are listed; 80% are falling in Singhbhum Craton. The
chromiferous ultramafites occurring in a discontinuous manner along the southern, southeastern
and southwestern margin of the Singhbhum Craton over an arcuate length of ca 150 Km.was
framed as the regional target for PGE.
(a) Regional geochemical and geophysical survey
A low density stream sediment survey (1 sample /4 Sq.Km.) was carried out in the southeastern
part of the Singhbhum craton . This area is characterized by deep weathering, high rainfall (>
1600mm), the regolith comprising thick weathered mantle of soils, weathered rock, saprolite,
accumulated laterite, associated cover of colluviums and alluvium.. The terrain is characterized
by present day widespread lateritic weathering of earlier multicycle regolith. In such similar

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terrain a very large number of elements form wide (mushroom-type) geochemical haloes and
these are suitable for targeting a variety of mineral deposits.
Standard size fraction (-80 mesh) after compositing and sieving from each site was collected and
analysed for Pt, Pd, Au (fire-assay-cum-ICP-AES) and associated path –finder elements.
Significant anomaly zones were detected in some areas in between Sukinda and Baula, Noto,
Thakurmunda areas. Later on a follow-up high density (1 sample/1Sq.Km.) semi-detailed
regional survey was targeted in specific blocks. Very fine size fraction ( -150mesh) was selected
according to the results of previous pilot surveys in similar climatic conditions. These were
analysed for 34 elements by ICP-AAS technique after triacid digestion. In case of Pt, Pd and Au
, Pb-fire-assay with GFAAS finish returned better results. A combination of major and minor
element data could characterize the source rocks effectively. Cr and Ni highs were significant
from ultramafic source rocks, be it under normal soil cover, in-situ and reworked laterite. It is
noteworthy to mention that in Baula area stream sediments Pt anomalies are stronger than Pd
anomalies although the Baula mineralization is Pd dominant. This indicates a strong
fractionation of Pt, Pd in the supergene lateritic domain. Samples drawn from a palaeochannel
indicated higher values of Pt, Pd in the coarser fractions comprising pisolitic nodules, sand
particles (>100µm) than the finer (<100µm) fraction of clayey substance. Such higher grades
may be considered as reflecting the pristine stream anomaly range in unpolluted rivers pointing
to a PGE mineralized occurrence upstream. These orientation studies in small blocks measuring
25 to 70 Km2 in areal extent will form the basis for all future studies of modern geochemical
survey.
GSI carried out Multisensor Airborne Geophysical survey by Twin Otter airborne Survey System
(TOASS) in the above area and an area of 12,500 Sq.Kms. was covered by magnetic ,EM,Total
Count, K,U, Th . Such maps are available on 1:50,000 scale in 39 sheets. The Northern part of
Orissa state was also covered by High Resolution Airborne Geophysical Survey by World
Geoscience Corporation of Australia. The available data products are: (a) images and contour
maps of Total Magnetic Intensity, (b) Radiometric (K, Th, and U), (c) DEM and (d) interpreted
solid geology. GSI carried out ground geophysical mapping (Gravity and Magnetic) of this
terrain. The above survey activities were taken up at different times by different agencies/wings
independently. The task of integration is pending and need to be organized.
(b) General Exploration
The regional work of GSI led to the identification of the geological potentiality of the Baula-
Nuasahi Ultramafic complex (BNUC) with chromite ore for hosting PGE mineralization of
possible economic significance. BNUC is well known for chromite and titaniferous vanadiferous
magnetite deposits. Mining for chromite has been in progress since 1940. GSI`s work
components included PGRS study, regional geophysical study, traverse mapping, detailed
mapping, petrologic / petrochemical study, geochemical sampling, stream sediment sampling
and exploratory drilling in BNUC . Based on the work of GSI a PGE enriched definite zone
was identified in BNUC close to one of the chromite lodes for a strike length of 2200 meters.
Regionally Ultramafic and mafic bodies are distributed almost all along the eastern, southeastern,
southern and southwestern fringe of Singhbhum-Orissa Craton (3000 to 3400 ma.) and these are
spatially associated with the arcuate to curvilinear greenstone sequences (Iron Ore Group of
rocks). BNUC is one such small (1.5 sq.km.) elongate ultramafic intrusion, some 3 km long by
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0.5 km wide trending NW-SE in its northern part and N-S in its southern part. It is hosted by a
gabbro-anorthosite suite which shows a subtle eastward differentiation. The ultramafic complex
contains a lower orthopyroxenite (basal) unit with disseminated megacrystic chromite and with
adcumulus texture. A peridotite unit with 3 chromite seams forms the core of the ultramafic
complex. Massive to disseminated chromite occur as bands within serpentinised dunite, layered
harzburgite and pyroxenite. Olivine (Fo 0.9 to 0.94) in serpentinised dunite alternate with
banded Cr-rich layers. . At the upper stratigraphic contact of the ultramafic cumulate series and
the overlying gabbro-anorthosite occurs a breccia zone conformable to the steep (65o) east
dipping ultramafic sequence. The breccia zone contain highly assorted rounded to angular
fragments of serpentines dunite, chromite with interstitial tremolite-anthophyllite replacing
clinopyroxene , occluded chromite, in places rimmed by Ferrit-chromite with sharp contact and
websterite with a mylonitic texture. The matrix comprises subhedral to euhedral ferritchromite
disseminated in a phyllitic matrix, and gabbro-pyroxenite which are mostly altered and
represented by albite-amphibole enclosing ferritchromite lenses and containing Mg chlorite,
green tourmaline, phlogopite, apatite and chalcopyrite. Green-blue hastingsite occurs as a late
phase. Very close to the upper contact of the breccia zone the sequence is marked by a
pyroxenite-rich unit that contains the upper most chromite seam which gets disrupted into large
disconnected blocks (0.5 to 5 m) of variable orientation and these show continuity at same
stratigraphic level both along deep and strike. This along with the extensive pseudomorphic
alteration of the breccia zone suggest a process of infiltration metasomatism or replacement
phenomenon in the breccia zone at least towards the hangingwall contact Two types of PGE
mineralization have been observed. In the southern side of the BNUC, the breecia zone is
represented by relics of dunite and chromitite extracted mechanically from the ultramafic
sequence by an intrusive gabbro. This breccia zone comprises platinum group minerals (PGM)
like malanite (Cu (Pt, Ir)2 S4), braggite (Pt, Pd, Ni) S, laurite (Ru S2), isoferroplatinum (Pt3Fe)
and sperrylite(Pt As 2 ) (Type-1) . The PGM’s occur as inclusions in magmatic cumulus
silicates. This mineralization occurs in a sulphide-free magmatic environment with high Pt/Pd =
8 – 9. In the northern and central portion of the complex, PGE mineralization in breccia zone
forms the other type (Type 2). This can be further subdivided into a footwall impersistent Type
2A comprising geversite (Pt (Sb, Bi)2 ), sperrylite (Pt As2), braggite (Pt, Pd, Ni)S with
ferritchromite and without sulphide phase dominated by Pt (Pt/Pd = 2 – 3). The more ubiquitous
hangingwall mineralization in the breecia zone is Type-2B comprising sudburyite (Pd, Ni) Sb,
merenskyite (Pd, Pt) (Te, Bi)2, sperrylite (Pt As2) and many unknown Pd-antimonide-telluride
phases. Sulphides are most prominent in Type-2B. It is dominated by Pd (Pt/Pd = 0.5). The
breccia zone was provoked by the intrusion of the late gabbro body and the matrix comprises the
same basic rock. Both types of PGE mineralization are associated with the magmatic event
corresponding to an early phase and a late magmatic hydrothermal phase. A zircon age of 3121
+ 3 Ma for the gabbro intrusion places the BNUC PGE mineralization as one of the oldest events
ever recorded. This age is also supported by Sm – Nd data of the gabbro samples i.e. 3205 + 280
Ma. Such an age coincides with the stabilization of the Singhbhum – Orissa Archaean nucleus.
The geochemical peculiarities includes Cu/Ni ratio (0.5 and 1.5) attesting to magmatic origin of
base metal sulphides; Pd/Ir ratio showing extreme variation from 28 to 362 from the
ferritchromite-sulphide matrix of the breccia raising questions of contamination of the original
magmatic fluid by some crustal fluids.

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A summarized account of the overall estimated resource is furnished below:

Indicated Inferred Resource Speculative Total Resource Cut-Off

Resource resource grade
(Pt+Pd) in
g/t

Tonnage Grade Tonnage Grade Tonnage Grade Tonnage Grade

(Pt+Pd) (Pt+Pd) (Pt+Pd) (Pt+Pd)

3055959 2.6 1752144 2.5 1348441 2.5 6156544 2.55 1.5

4996674 2.03 3112958 1.9 2359317 1.92 10468949 1.97 1.0

7687908 1.55 6041058 1.39 4385730 1.4 18114696 1.46 0.5

(ii) Southern India

Broadly two groups of mafic –Ultramafic rocks have been identified in South Indian shield. The
older complex of the Sargur Group contains chromite pods, lenses and show anomalous IPGE
values. However PGE concentration has not been found to be economically significant( all < 500
ppb.) . The intrusive mafic-ultramafic complexes occurring in younger Dharwar Group show
potentiality for ore level PGE mineralization. The mafic-ultramafic complex of Hanumalapur,
comprising chlorite schist, meta-pyroxenite, talc-tremolite –chlorite schist, gabbro and
anorthosite with magnetite bands showed incidence of PGE in the form of platinum arsenide
and palladium bismuth telluride occurring as inclusions within amphibole and chlorite in the
talc-tremolite-chlorite schist, meta-pyroxenite and magnetite –chlorite schist host. PGE
mineralization has been traced over a strike length of 1km. The highest value recorded so far is
2.82 ppm ( Pt+Pd). The area is potential and is under active exploration by GSI.
In the southern granulite terrain, 10 major chromitite bands were delineated in Sittampundi
layered complex. Enrichment of PGE was recorded in places.
(iii) Central India
Continental Flood Basalt (CFB) type NI-PGE mineralization has been prognosticated in several
areas in Deccan basalt plateau. Based on preliminary evaluation of the available data some areas
have been suggested as promising for new discoveries: a. Satpura sill complex, b. Narmada
region and c. Saurastra region. Magma mixing and thermal erosion process has been indicated in
these areas for Ni-Cu-PGE enrichment.
(iv) Northern India

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Ultramafic-mafic enclaves in Bundelkhand Gneissic Complex (3300my) at Ikauna area has been
found to be enriched in precious metals. Highly anomalous PGE values ranging from 1.57 to
10.07ppm were encountered in some of the scout boreholes. Details are awaited.
VII. . SUGGESTED EXPLORATION STRATEGY AND METHODOLOGY
a. Remote sensing and geophysical survey

Remote sense imageries and high resolution aerial photographs are useful in delineation of major
intrusive bodies (layering, structural feature etc.) especially in areas of thin soil cover. The
relationship of lineaments and intrusions are best brought out by this technique. Gravity data
indicates the presence of large mafic intrusions below younger cover of sediments.
Aeromagnetic, magnetometric and I.P. Survey are useful in specific situations depending upon
the nature of the targets sought. For example, in layered intrusions with abundant
sarpentinised olivine, magnetometric surveys are useful in tracing the continuity of stratigraphic
units.
b. Regional Geophysics-Developments

Regional geophysical survey helps elucidate the geological framework, mainly by defining
major compositional boundaries or structural zones that may be favorable environs for
mineralization. Regardless of map scale, the interpretation of gravity and magnetic data can
define deep-seated crustal fractures and faults that may have guided emplacement of igneous
rocks and large ore deposits. A major deposit like Olympic Dam ,Australia is located at the
intersection of 2 major gravity lineaments. Many deposits lie within regions characterized by
low total magnetization indicating their favorable metamorphic environment. The advancement
in airborne geophysics has led to wealth of data for the resource industry. Such techniques are
cost-effective in surface and sub-surface mapping. Precise useful information for concealed
terrains and new information even in areas of supposed good outcrop are also obtained. . Low
level aeromagnetic has been specially found effective. Gravity and magnetic data are especially
suitable for prospecting of layered basic –ultrabasic complexes – host for PGE
mineralisation.The techniques of desktop mapping and GIS for synthesing maps of various
scales allows for the spatial comparison of different datasets or layers. The application of GIS in
overlay operations by geoscientists for defining geological models is much more accurate and
time saving for comparing results than the age-old analogue technique. An accurate vector solid
geological interpretation at an appropriate scale provides the basis for the implementation of
prospectivity modeling within a desktop GIS.
c. Mapping

Mapping is, perhaps the most fundamental and important tool for PGE search in mafic/
ultramafic intrusions. In large, stratified complexes, cumulate system of stratigraphy needs to be
established and subtle variation in mineral proportiosn and the boundaries between different
layers should be worked out by detailed mapping. The dimension (length, breath and thickness)
of the complexes has to be found out by mapping in conjunction with geophysical survey.

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d. Petrological Studies

In layered intrusions, zones of magma mixing and deuteric fluid activity appear to be very
important locales for primary PGE mineralization. Zones of mixing between liquids of different
U and A-type affinities within the mafic portions of the intrusive complex, rather than the lower
ultramafic zone, are indicated by complex variability on all scales in contrast to the relative
uniformity of layered rocks stratigraphically above and below the mineralized zone. The mixing
phenomenon has been documented in the documented of chemical and isotope signatures.
However, there are examples (eg. Great dyke) of layered intrusive where PGE mineralization are
located within the ultramafic host rocks several meters below the contact with overlying mafic
series. In all situation presence of sulphide (up to 2%) with PGE mineralization are common.
PGE sulphide deposits (Ni-Cu-PGE) of mafic/ ultramafic intrusions and extrusions show
evidence of magma contamination. In these deposits sulphur saturation has been achieved by
addition to the magma material i.e. wall rock contamination. Normally, the contaminants are
silica rich rocks; the phenomena of contamination is indicated by some feature in the ores and
their host rock such as (i) presence of partially digested inclusions in the host rocks. (ii) high
percentage of normative quartz, co-existing with pyroxene and plagioclase i.e. incompatible
assemblage (iii) anomalous isotopic ratios e.g. 87 sr/86sr and (iv) the relative lack of crystal
units and modal layering suggestive of viscous nature of magma.

e. Lithogeochemistry

In any intrusion, efforts are given to understand the nature of parent magma composition.
Ancient volcanic rocks with Komatiitic chemistry are favorable for PGE mineralization. In
layered intrusions, Olivine-boninitic magma composition (U-type) i.e. rich in SiO2(52-56%),
MgO(12-16%),Cr(800-2000ppm), incompatible elements and exceptionally rich in PGE+Au (up
to 100 ppb), is indicative of PGE concentration and economic grade mineralization. In the same
layered complex, along with the U-type magma, A –type magma with a normal tholetiitic basalt
chemistry (SiO2 48 to 50%, MgO-8 to 10%, low Cr and incompatible elements) are also present.
In all cases, the primary PGE content of the magma is an important factor for mineralization / ore
formation.
In layered intrusive, silicate phase chemistry helps in establishment of quantitative confirmation
of primary magmatic processes. Pyroxenes provide a sensitive index of both fractionation and
contamination. Determination of pyroxene composition of co-existing phases and plotting them
in Diop-Hdy-En-Fs quadrilateral help in carrying out stratigraphic correlations between different
sections within the same complex or comparing different complexes. Ni-content in olivine and
its variation throws light on the possible presence of sulphide mineralization. Determination of
sulphur and recalculation of PGM values in 100 percent sulphide allow establishment of
chondrite normalized levels in samples.

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f. Pedogeochemical Survey

Ni, Cu, Co can be used as pathfinder elements to delineate zone of sulphide-associated

mineralization in routine soil surveys. Pt is relatively immobile during the weathering of soils;
Pd is more mobile in natural low temperature surficial environment. High precision analysis can
detect Pt, Pd in soil samples in the fine fraction. Generally, PGE and associated elements like Ni
and Cu are used together for delineation of anomalies.
g. Stream Sediment Survey

In view of the high density of Os, Ir and Pt together with their resistance to weathering,
concentration of these elements take place in placers. Where PGE are mainly associated with
sulphides, stream sediment sampling may not detect PGE. However, the stream sediment
concentration techniques i.e. panning, separation of fractions by magnetic method may detect
PGE.

h. Sampling

In case of precious metals like gold and PGE, special cares in sampling methodology are called
for in order to obtain a reliable analytical accuracy. The principal problems are (i) very low
background concentration of PGE and (ii) particulate and non-uniform distribution in both host
and mineralized rocks. Sampling methodologies need to be worked out for broad types of
geological situations separately based on some sampling theories. Sample size is a function of
particle diameters, mode of occurrence of PGE mineral and alloys and background concentration
in the particulars sampling media. Perhaps, the most basic sampling theory states that the sample
weight is directly proportional to the diameter of the largest particle. Sample weight is also a
function of background concentration of elements (PGE). Empirical relationship between sample
weight, background concentration and particle size of PGE can be worked out form various
theoretical and practical studies. For more than 40 micron with a background content around 100
ppb. PGE, the minimum sample quantity requirement for analysis is 1 kg. Depending on the size
of the particle of PGE mineral, representativity of sub-samples increases with smaller particle
size with same absolute concentration of PGE in parent sample. The size of the sample increases
with decreasing absolute PGE content given a constant PGE particle size.
i. Analysis

The analysis of PGE is extremely problematic and success of any exploration programme is
heavily dependent on accurate and reliable analytical service. PGE minerals and alloys occur in
several minerals and in highly variable matrix which often may turn out to be refractory. These
create problem in liberation and extraction during analysis. Most of the modern instrumental
methods such as AAS, ICP-MS and Neutron Activation calls for preconcentration of samples by
standard fire-assay and modified fire-assay technique.

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j. Evaluation

Layered stratiform ore bodies are likely to possess PGE assay levels with low co-efficient of
variation. These types of deposit are amenable for conventional techniques of exploration. PGE
mineralization associated with country rock contamination often shows erratic distribution of
PGE grades. Extensive surface sampling and modest amount of drilling are recommended at an
early stage. Mineralogical studies and mode of occurrence of PGE are very important at early
stages of investigation. Reliable and authentic laboratory services are imperative for PGE search
and evaluation.

VIII. CONSTRAINTS IN PGE EXPLORATION

Platinum Group of Elements is the rarest of metals in the earth’s crust. Their crustal abundance
are very low (less than sub-ppb level to maximum 10 ppb) and the PGE deposits are too few in
number compared to other metalliferous or more specifically other precious metal deposits of the
world. Exploration techniques in the field aimed at detecting subtle indications of PGE
mineralization and assessing the economic potential of a geological environment have, however,
yet to be developed and field tested. Success will depend on the formulation of practical sets of
guidelines for implementing a programme of PGE exploration. A concept oriented approach
supplemented by appropriate field techniques is necessary to identify PGE targets. In view of the
fine size of the PGM in the host rock, occurrence over narrow thickness and lack of clear-cut
contact for easy discernibility, field identification of zones of enrichment is rendered difficult.
Analytical facilities for PGE are quite inadequate in the country and are a major bottleneck in the
progress of any investigation. Fire assay-cum GFAAS facility for preliminary scanning for PGE
and analysis of associated trace elements has to be created. Facilities for ICP-MS analysis need
to be outsourced from other laboratories in the country for complete analysis of all the six PGE
(Pt, Pd, Rh, Ru, Ir, and Os). High resolution microscopes for heavy mineral identification and
Advanced Research Polarizing Microscopes for rock / ore study are also lacking for the
geologists. These studies need to be followed by SEM-EDX study and Electron Probe
Microscopic Analysis (EPMA) and the last two laboratory facilities are available in the country
in national Institutes. It may be summarized that systematic field study with appropriate
petrological and instrumental analytical back-up will be necessary in any PGE project for
achieving the desired objectives.

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 PGE Prospecting - Activities

Magnetic
Aero-Geophysics Radiometric
EM
Remote Sensing
Imagery

Stratigraphy
Structure
Geology
Petrology
Geochemistry

IP
Ground Geophysics
Magnetic

Stream Sediment
Geochemical Survey Soil Survey
Lithogeochemistry

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 IX. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

¾ Geological potential for hosting PGE mineralisation is of overriding importance for

carrying out routine exploration by national agencies and other private players.
¾ India does possess the resource base for modern exploration; but proper structuring is
called for coordinating the work progressing in isolation in many areas. Programming,
planning, execution, data synthesis and evaluation are necessary to decide on further
investment for development.
¾ Scope for development of Platinum Group metal deposits in both brownfield and
greenfield areas exists. High value and precious byproducts have to be given proper
weightage for evaluation.
¾ Interaction amongst various exploration agencies with differing objectives would
promote growth of development of newer non-ferrous metal mines in a borderless world.

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