Chapter8

TheVikings

GEOGRAPHYFOCUS
THREENORTHERNEUROPEANPENINSULAS

ScandinaviaandFennoScandia TheScandinavianPeninsulaislargenorthernEuropeanpeninsulathatcontainsthemoderndaynations ofNorway,SwedenandpartofFinland.OnlynorthernFinlandliesontheScandinavianPeninsula;therestlies onalargerpeninsulacalledFennoScandia,ofwhichtheScandinavianPeninsulaispart. ThesebodiesofwaterallbutsurroundtheScandinavianPeninsula: TothesoutheastlietheGulfofBothniaandtheBalticSea; TothesouthwestliestheNorthSea; TothenorthwestliestheNorwegianSea;and TothenorthliestheBarentsSea. Jutland JustsouthoftheScandinavianPeninsula,keyedintoanichebetweensouthernNorwayandsouthern Sweden,liesamuchsmallerpeninsulacalledtheJutlandPeninsula.ThemoderndaynationofDenmark occupiesmostoftheJutlandPeninsula;Germanyoccupiesthepeninsulassouthernend. ThesebodiesofwaterallbutsurroundtheJutlandPeninsula: TothewestliestheNorthSea; TothenorthwestliestheSkagerrakStrait; TothenortheastliestheKattegatBay;and TotheeastliestheBalticSea. ThelargeislandseastoftheJutlandPeninsulaalsobelongtoDenmark.Thelargestoftheseislands,the oneclosesttoSweden,isnamedZealand.DenmarkscapitalcityofCopenhagenliesonZealandseasternedge.
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OtherinterestingfactsaboutScandinaviaandJutland: AsteepsidedmountainrangecalledtheScandinavianMountainsformsanatural borderbetweennorthernNorwayandSweden. Tothenorthwest,armsoftheScandinavianMountainsstretchfaroutintothe NorwegianSea,enclosinglong,steepsidedinletsknownasfjords. AboutonefourthoftheScandinavianPeninsulalieswithintheArcticCircle.The ArcticCircleisthefarnortherncircleoftheglobewithinwhich,foratleastone summerdayeachyear,thesunneversetsand,foratleastonewinterdayeach year,thesunneverrises(seeChapter14).

GeirangerFjord

MEDIEVALHISTORYFOCUS

THEVIKINGS DEFINITIONS:Norse,NordicandNorsemen ThewordNorsemenmeansnorthmen,andreferstothepeopleoffarnorthernEuropemainly ScandinaviaandtheJutlandPeninsula.ThesepeoplearealsocalledNorseorNordic.Mostancient Norsemenhadtwothingsincommon:(1)TheyspokeanancientlanguagecalledOldNorse,and(2)They believedinanancientNorsemythologycenteredaroundwarriorgodslikeOdinandThor. CRITICALCONCEPTS:VikingsandtheVikingAge Vikings:TheVikingswereseafaringraidersandconquerorswhocamefromtheScandinavianandJutland Peninsulas,mainlyfromtheterritoriesthatnowbelongtoNorway,SwedenandDenmark.ThewordViking probablycamefromanOldNorsewordthatmeantseajourney. TheVikingAge:TheVikingAgewastheerawhentheVikingsraidedandconqueredterritoriesallovercoastal Europeandbeyond.TheVikingAgebeganaround793,whenearlyVikingraidersplunderedadefenseless monasteryatLindisfarneintheBritishIsles(seebelow);anditendedaround1066,whentheVikingswhohad settledinNormandy,FrancecrossedtheEnglishChannelandconqueredEngland(TheNormanConquest,see Chapter9). TheVikingsinScandinavia NicholasRoerich,GuestsfromOverseas TheVikingswerenotthefirstgroupof invaderswholeftthefarnorthinsearchof newhomesfarthersouth:Germanictribeslike theGothsandtheBurgundiansalsocame fromScandinavia.TheVikings,theGoths,the Burgundiansandseveralothergroupsoftribes allsprangfromthesameancestors,and sharedthesameNorsemythology.However, whenthoseothertribesmigratedintocentral Europe,theVikingsancestorsremained behindinScandinavia. EarlyVikingRaids Duringthelate700s,theVikings begancrossingtheNorthSeatolaunchtheir firstraidsagainstundefendedtargetsinthe
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BritishIsles.Differentpeoplehaveoffereddifferentpossiblereasonsfortheseraids: SomesaythattheVikingswereawarlikepeoplewhocravedbattle andconquest.TheirNorsemythologytaughtthemthatthebest waytoearnhonorwasthroughvictoryinbattle. SomesaythattheVikingswerealarmedwhenCharlemagne defeatedandChristianizedtheirneighborstothesouth,the Saxons(seeChapter7).TheVikingsfoughttomakesurethat CharlemagnecouldntdefeatandChristianizethemaswell. SomesaythattheVikingpopulationhadbecomesolargethat frigidScandinavia,withitsshortgrowingseason,couldnolonger feedthemall. SomesaythatScandinaviasclimatehadgrowncolderthanbefore, makingitdifficultfortheVikingstoraiseenoughfoodtofeed themselves. WhentheVikingsfirstbeganraidingcoastaltargetsaround WesternEurope,theydidntintendtostay:Theirplanwastocapture asmanytreasuresastheycould,thencarrytheircapturedtreasures backhometoScandinavia,wheretheywouldeitherusethemorsell them.Theirmethoddependeduponsurprise: TheDanesinvadeEngland 1. First,theVikingssailedand/orrowedswiftlytowardtheirtargets,theirgrimlydecoratedsailsappearingon thehorizonlikeomensofaterribledoom. 2. Afterlandingtheirships,theyquicklyoverwhelmedtheirtargetsfewsurpriseddefenders,killingor maiminganywhodaredtostandintheirway. 3. Next,theystoleeverythingthattheycouldpossiblyuseorsell,especiallyvaluables,slaves,youngwomen andfood. 4. Finally,theydisappearedbackovertheseabeforeanyonecouldorganizeadefenseagainstthem. TheVikingssoonlearnedthatChristianmonasterieswereexcellenttargetsfortheirraids,fortwo reasons:(1)Becausetheywerefullofvaluabledonatedtreasures,and(2)Becausemostmonkswere defenseless. FASCINATINGFACTS:TheVikingRaidonLindisfarne Lindisfarneisatidalislandthatis,anislandthatisconnectedtothemainlandonlyatlowtidethat liesoffGreatBritainsnortheastcoast,notfarfromEdinburgh, Scotland(seemap).AfterColumbabroughtChristianitytoScotland (seeChapter3),missionariesfromIonabuiltanewmonasteryatopa high,rockyhillonLindisfarne.LikeIona,LindisfarnebecameaHoly Island,aplacewheredevotedmissionariesstudiedtoprepare themselvesformissionwork. IftheVikingsknewofLindisfarnesreputationasaHolyIsland, theyignoredit.In793,VikingraiderslandedonLindisfarne,then proceededto(1)Attackthemonasterysmonks,(2)Slaughterthe monasteryslivestock,(3)Stealthemonasterystreasures,and(4) Destroythemonasterysbuildings.TheVikingskilledmanymonks,andsoldothersintoslavery.WhenChristians alloverEuropeheardabouttheVikingraidonLindisfarne,theywerestunnedthatthesavage,uncultured Vikingshaddaredtoattacksuchaholyplace.
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 Twoyearslater,theVikingsattackedIonaaswell. ItmayhavebeenaVikingraidthatconvincedIonas monkstosendtheBookofKellsbacktoIrelandfor safekeeping(seeChapter3). LindisfarneCastleonHolyisland FromRaiderstoConquerors Intime,theVikingraidersgrewconfidentenoughtoraidtargets fartherinland,especiallyintheBritishIsles.SincetheBritonshadno unitedgovernmentatthetime,therewasnosinglekingwhowasstrong enoughtofightofftheVikingsexceptforAlfredtheGreatofWessex (seeChapter9).Wealthykingssometimesboughttemporaryprotection fromVikingraids,bribingtheVikingstostayoutoftheirkingdomsfora year;butafterthatyearhadpassed,theVikingswouldreturntodemand largerbribes. Intime,theVikingsbegantosendlargerraidingparties,followed byinvasionarmies.Eventually,theVikingsbegantosettledowninthe newterritoriesthattheirarmieshadconqueredforthem.Thetable belowlistssometerritorieswheretheVikingssettledduringtheViking Age: Territory: SettledByVikingsFrom: Ireland Scotland Iceland KievanRus(Russia) Greenland Normandy,France TheDanelaw(northernEngland) England FASCINATINGFACTS:VikingWeaponry Norway Norway Norway Sweden Iceland Denmark Denmark Normandy

VikingLeader(s): Thorgest,Olaf,Ivar HaraldFairhair,EricBloodaxe InglfrArnarson RuriktheViking ErikThorvaldsson(ErictheRed) RollotheViking TheGreatHeathenArmy WilliamtheConqueror

Vikingwarriorsusedavarietyofweaponsandarmor,including: BowsandArrows Seaxes(Machetelikeknives) Spears Swords

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Battleaxes Pikes

ThequalityofaVikingwarriorsgearoftendependeduponhiswealth.SincemostVikingwarriorswere alsofarmersandhunters,nearlyallofthemhadatleastabow,anaxandaspear.WealthierVikingsadded swordstotheirpersonalarsenals;andthewealthiestpurchasedengraved,namedswords. Fordefense,Vikingwarriorsusedmetalorleatherhelmets,chainmailandroundshieldscalledkite shields.ContrarytothepopularcartoonimageofVikings,noarchaeologisthaseverdiscoveredaVikinghelmet thatwasdecoratedwithhorns.MosthistoriansnowbelievethatartistsinventedtheideaofhornedViking helmetstomaketheirpicturesoftheVikingsseemmoreromantic. FASCINATINGFACTS:Berserkers

BerserkerPlaque

AberserkerwasaVikingwarriorwhofoughtunderthe influenceofamad,violenttrancecalledtheberserkergang.Whenthe berserkergangcameoverthem,berserkersfoughtlikewildmen, killingeverythingintheirpaths.Whenberserkersjoinedabattle,they becamemorelikewildanimalsthanmen:Theyhadthestrengthof bears,thespeedofwolvesandtheviciousnessofcorneredbeasts. AccordingtoVikinglegend,someberserkersmagicallytransformed intobearsorwolvesduringbattle. InEnglish,apersonwhogoesviolentlycrazyissaidtohave goneberserk. VikingLonghouses MostVikingslivedinlarge,highlypracticaldwellingscalledlonghouses.Thelonghousecombinedthe functionsofhome,barnandworkshopunderasingleroof:(1)Thefamilyendofthelonghouseheldakitchen andlivingspace;(2)Thebarnendheldfarmanimalsandtheirfeed;and(3)Astorehousesectionheldtoolsand weapons. FASCINATINGFACTSaboutLonghouses: PhotocourtesyofMaleneThyssen:ReconstructionofaVikinghousefromtheringcastleFyrkatnearHobro,Denmark Longhousesoftenhousedallofafamilys generationsatonce,fromgrandparentsto parentstochildrenandgrandchildren.Ifthe familywaswealthyenoughtohaveservants, thentheservantslivedinthelonghouseas well. Asinglelonghousemighthouseasmanyas15 20people.Familymemberswhowanted moreprivacysometimescurtainedoffprivate sectionsofthelonghouse. Mostlonghouseswerestrongbuildingswith foundationsofstone,wallsofwoodorstone androofsofsod.Longhouseroofshadholes inthecentertoallowsmokefromthefireplacetoescape. Becausemostlonghouseshadnowindows,theonlylightinsidecamefromthedoors,thechimneyholeand thefire. TheVikingsoftenlinedtheirlonghouseswallswithwoodenbenchescoveredwithanimalskins.These paddedbenchesservedasseatsbydayandasbedsbynight,andtheyalsostiffenedthelonghousewalls. TheVikingscraftedlargewoodencheststoholdthefamilysweapons,treasuresandotherpossessions. WealthyVikingfamiliescouldaffordbeautifullycarvedwoodenchests.
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VikingFamilyLife

Faroestamps515,516and517:EverydaylifeintheVikingAge

Thedividinglinebetweenmaleandfemaledutiesstoodatthelonghousedoor. Vikingmenwereresponsibleforeverythingoutsidethehome:farming,hunting,fishing,fighting, maintainingthehomeandsoon.TheyalsospentalotoftimeawayfromhomeonlongVikingexpeditions andraids.

Vikingwomenwereresponsibleforeverythinginsidethehome:makingclothes,preparingfood,keeping house,caringforchildrenandtendingfarmanimals. VikingChildren: CommunityInspections:AnyinfantborntoaVikingfamilyhadtopassacommunityinspectiontoprove thatheorshewouldstrengthen,notweaken,thecommunity.Ifthecommunityjudgedachildtobe deformed,disabledorsick,thenthecommunitywouldnotwastefoodonthatchild;itwaslefttodie.If, however,thecommunityjudgedthechildtobehealthyandstrong,thenthefamilyfedthechild,gave himanameandsprinkledhimwithwater.Withtheserituals,thenewbornVikingearnedashareofhis familysinheritanceandbecameafullmemberoftheVikingfamily. Patronymics:MostVikingshadtwonames,agivennameandapatronymic.Thegivennamewasthe nametheVikingsparentschoseforhim,andthepatronymicwastheVikingsfathersname.For example,EricThorvaldssonmeansEricsonofThorvald,andLeifEricssonmeansLeifsonofEric.In certainVikingsettlednations,includingRussiaandUkraine,patronymicsarestillcommontoday. OtherinterestingfactsaboutVikingchildren: Vikingparentsexpectedtheirchildrentobeginworkingandcontributingtothefamilywhentheywere aboutfiveyearsold. Vikingboyslearnedallsortsofskills,includingfarming,fighting,shipbuilding,navigatingandthemakingof Vikingweapons. VikinggirlslearnedmainlyhomemakingandfarmingskillsalthoughtheVikingsmayhavetrainedsomeof theirgirlstobecomewarriorshieldmaidensliketheValkyrieshieldmaidensofNorsemythology(seebelow).
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 Vikingfamiliesoftencreatedallianceswithother familiesbyarrangingmarriagesbetweentheir children. Vikingparentsexpectedtheirgirlstomarry betweentheagesof1214,andtheirboysto marrybetweentheagesof1516. Atage16, VikingboysbecamefullgrownVikingmenand tookonadultresponsibilities.

PeterNicolaiArbo,Shieldmaiden

VikingShips TheVikingsowedsomeoftheir successasraidersandconquerorstotheskill oftheirshipbuilders.Vikingshipswerethe fastest,lightest,mostreliableandmost versatileshipsoftheVikingAge.Theywere alsothemostfearsomeshipsoftheirage: Thesightofsquaresailed,highprowed, dragondecoratedVikinglongshipsappearing onthehorizonwasenoughtostriketerror intoheartsalloverEurope. MostVikingshipswereeither longshipsorknarrs.
Exampleoffiddleheadprow Exampleofdragonprow

Longships Longshipswerelong,light,fastvesselsdesignedforVikingraidsandothermilitarymissions.The smallestlongshipswereabout60feetlong,andcarriedcrewsof2530;whilethelargestwereabout120feet long,andcarriedcrewsof100ormore.Althoughtheirdesignsvaried,mostlongshipshadthesethingsin common:

Longshipsweresymmetricfromfronttoback,withhighprows(fronts)andequallyhighsterns(backs). Theirsymmetrymeantthattheycouldreversedirectionquickly,withoutmakingwideturns.Whena longshipranintoice,rocksorotherhazards,itsoarsmensimplyturnedaroundintheirseatsandrowed intheoppositedirection. Bothprowandsternwereoftendecoratedwithfinecarvings. SomeVikingprowswerecarvedintofiddleheadslikeviolin headstocks;whileotherswerecarvedtoresembledragons fromNorsemythology.Becauseofthesedragonprows,the Vikingsenemiesoftencalledlongshipsdragonships. Longshipswerenearlyflatbottomed,whichgavethemtwo advantages:(1)Theycouldsailintheshallowwatersof coastlinesandrivers;and(2)Theycouldlandalmostanywhere, withouttheneedfordocksandharbors.Theseadvantages madelongshipsidealforquickraidsagainstcoastaltargets.

ReplicaofaLongship

Longshipscouldbedrivenbysails,oarsorboth.Insteadofsittingonrowingbenches,Vikingoarsmensat
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onspeciallydesignedseacheststhatservedasbothrowingseatsandstoragelockers.
ReplicaofaKnarr

Knarrs Knarrswerecargoshipsdesignedtocarrytradegoodsand supplies.Knarrswerewider,deeperandshorterthanlongshipswhich meantthattheycouldcarrymorecargothanlongships,butwerealso slowerandlessmaneuverablethanlongships.Withfewercrewmenand feweroarstopropelthem,knarrsweremoredependentupontheirsails thanlongshipswere. FASCINATINGFACTS:ClinkerBuiltHulls

PhotocourtesyofKaramell:ClinkerbuiltHulls

Therearetwowaystoplankawoodenshipshull:bybuttingtheplanks edgesagainstoneanother,orbyoverlappingtheplanksedges.Hullswithbutted planksarecalledcarvelbuilt,andhullswithoverlappedplanksarecalled clinkerbuilt.Carvelbuilthullsrelyonsturdyframesforstrength,while clinkerbuilthullstakemoreoftheirstrengthfromtheirplanking. TheVikingspreferredclinkerbuilthulls.Theyfashionedtheirplanksby rivingthatis,bycarefullysplittinglonglogsintothinslices.Thenthey overlappedtheirplanksallalongtheiredges,fasteningthemtogetherwith dozensofcopperorironrivets.Tosealtheirclinkerbuilthullsagainstleaks,Viking shipbuildersusedcaulkingthattheymadeoutoftarsoakedmoss. FuneralShips Vikingfuneral WealthyVikings sometimesusedlongshipsas funeralshipsfortheirdead. Becauselongshipsweresuch importantsymbolsofViking power,theymadefitting memorialsforhonored warriorsandnobles.The Vikingsmayhavehopedthat thesehonoreddeadcoulduse theirfuneralshipstosailon intotheafterlife. Topreparean honoredVikingforalongship funeral,theVikingsarranged hisorherbodyaboardthe ship,thensurroundeditwith gravegoods.Thesegravegoodsincludedallofthethingsthatthedeadmightneedintheafterlife,including weapons,armor,food,clothingandmore.Atsomefunerals,thegravegoodsevenincludedlivingslaveswho sacrificedtheirownlivesincasetheirmastersneededhelpintheafterlife. Afterthesepreparationswerecomplete,theVikingsfinishedthefuneralinoneofthreeways:They either(1)Sailedthefuneralshipoutintotheopensea,wherestormandseaeventuallysankit;(2)Burnedthe funeralship;or(3)Buriedthefuneralshipinsidealargeearthenmoundcalledatumulus.
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NORSEMYTHOLOGY TheVikingswerepolytheistswhobelievedinalonglistofNorsegods.Like theVikingsthemselves,theNorsegodswerewarriorswholivedtoearngloryin battle.LikeGreekandRomangods,Norsegodsblendedgodlikepowersand wisdomwithhumantreacheryandweakness:TheNorsegodsdeceivedone another,foughtwithoneanotherandevenkilledoneanother. TheEddas MostofwhatisstillknowntodayaboutNorsemythologycomesfroma pairofbookscalledtheEddas.BothEddas,thePoeticEddaandtheProseEdda, werewritteninIcelandduringthe1200s;buttheybothrecordlegendsthatarefar olderthanthat,talesandmythsthattheVikingshandeddownorallyforcenturies beforetheyhadawrittenlanguage. TheEddas YggdrasilandtheNineWorlds Thereareseveralracesofintelligentbeingsinthe Norseuniverse:Inadditiontothegods,therearegiants,elves, dwarves,men,demonsandmore.Eachracelivesinitsown world,andonlythegodsmaytravelfromworldtoworldwith ease. TherearenineworldsintheNorseuniverse,all arrangedaroundamightyTreeofLifenamedYggdrasil.The nineworldsaroundYggdrasilaredividedintothreelevels: Thehighestlevelcontainsthreeheavenlyworlds:(1) Asgard,worldofafamilyofgodscalledtheAesir(Odins family);(2)Vanaheim,worldofafamilyofgodscalledthe Vanir;and(3)Alfheim,worldoftheLightElves. Themiddlelevelcontainsfourearthlyworlds:(1)Midgard orMiddleEarth,worldoftheHumans;(2)Jotunheim, worldoftheGiants;(3)Swaralfheim,worldoftheDark Elves;and(4)Nidavellir,worldoftheDwarves. Thelowestlevelcontainstwohells:(1)Helheim,worldof allwhodieingloriousdeaths;and(2)Muspelheim,world ofFireGiantsandDemons. Yggdrasill,theVikingWorldTree OtherinterestingfactsabouttheNineWorlds: HeimdallrstandingatBifrost,blowingGjallarhorn Afiery,rainbowcoloredbridgecalledBifrstconnectsMidgard, worldofthehumans,toAsgard,worldofthegods.Afarseeing, farhearinggodnamedHeimdallguardstheAsgardendofBifrst bridge. AneaglelivesinYggdrasilstopmostbranches,andanevilserpent namedNidhogggnawsatYggdrasilslowestroots.Theeagleand theserpenthateeachothersomuchthattheyareforever insultingoneanother.Wheneveroneinsultstheother,a gossiplovingsquirrelnamedRatatoskrscurriesupordown Yggdrasiltomakesurethateveryonehasheardthelatestinsult.

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Odin Odin,godofwar,wisdomandmore,wasthemightiestandwisestof Asgardsgods.OdingainedmuchofhiswisdombydrinkingfromtheWellof Mimir,oneofthewellsthatwateredtheworldtreeYggdrasil.Unfortunately, Mimirswisdomcameataprice:Inordertodrinkfromthewell,Odinhadto gougeoutoneofhisowneyesandsacrificeittothewell.Fromthatmomenton, Odinwasaoneeyedgod. Fortunately,Odinhadothersourcesofnewsbesideshisoneeye: 1. Odinhadtworavens,onenamedHuginn(Thought)andanothernamed Muninn(Memory),whobroughthimnewsoftheworld. 2. WhenOdinsatinhissilverthroneHlidskjalf,hisoneeyecouldseeeverything thatwashappeninginalloftheNineWorlds. Odinalsohadseveralothermagicalpossessions,including: Odin Gungnir,adeadlyspearthat(1)nevermisseditstarget,(2) alwayskilledOdinsfoesand(3)alwaysreturnedtoOdinshand. Sleipnir,aneightleggedhorsethatcouldflyaseasilyasitcould gallop. Draupnir,abeautifulgoldenringthatproducedeightidentical copiesofitselfeveryninedays.
OdinsEightLeggedHorse

OdinwasthefatherofThor,Baldurandseveralothergods.

Thor Thor,godofthunder,wasthestrongestandmost battlereadyofAsgardsgods.Thunderandlightningissuedfromthe wheelsofThorsgoatdrawnchariotasheguideditacrossthesky. MightyThorhadthreemagicalpossessionsthatmadehimevenmore formidable: Mjolnir,awarhammerthat(1)nevermisseditstarget,(2)always killedThorsfoesand(3)alwaysreturnedtoThors hand.Forsuchaheavyhammer,Mjolnirwasabit shorthandled.Thiswasbecausewhenadwarf blacksmithwascreatingit,atroublemakernamed Lokiturnedhimselfintoaflyandbitthe blacksmithsbellowsturnerontheeyelid,causing himtostopturningthebellows. Jrngreipr,apairofironglovesthatThorusedtogripMjolnir. Megingjr,abattlebeltthatdoubledThorsalreadytremendous strength.
Thor,GodofThunder

Loki Lokiwasadeceitful,mischieflovinggiant/godwhogrewmoreevilwitheachpassingday.OneofLokis godlikepowerswasespeciallyhelpfulindeceivingothers:Hehadamagicalabilitytotransformhimselfintoall

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sortsofanimalshapes,frombitingflytosalmontohorse. Withhisfirstwife,theshapeshiftingLokihadthreechildren: 1. Fenrir,afiercewolfwhogrewsolargeandstrongthathewasathreatto everygodinAsgard.AgodnamedTyrmanagedtoimprisonFenrirby tyinghimwithamagical,dwarfmadeleash;butasTyrdidso,Fenrirbit offoneofhishands. 2. Jrmungandr,afearsome,poisonousserpentwhogrewsolongthathe couldstretchhimselfallofthewayaroundMidgardandbitehisowntail. ThorandJrmungandrbecamedeadlyenemies. 3. Hel,thegoddesswhoruledHelheim.HelheimwasaplaceforNorsemen whodiedingloriousdeathsdeathsofdisease,oldageortreachery.The deadhatedthegodsofAsgardforimprisoningtheminHelheim. Loki TAWDRYTALES:HowLokiKilledBaldur
ElmerBoydSmith, EachArrowOvershotHisHead

OdinandhiswifeFriggahadakind,wise,handsomesonnamedBaldur whowasbelovedbyeverygodinAsgardeverygod,thatis,excepttheevil tricksterLoki,whowasjealousofBaldur. Onenight,bothFriggaandBaldurhadanominousnightmareinwhich theysawLokisdaughter,Hel,leadingBaldurdownintoHelheim,worldofthe ingloriousdead.Desperatetosaveherbelovedsonfromdeath,Friggalaunched aboldplan:Shewouldforceeverylivingandnonlivingthingonearthevery god,giant,elf,dwarf,rock,metalandplanttoswearthatitwouldneverharm Baldur.WhenFriggahadfinishedcollectingheroathsfromeveryraceand materialonearth,shefeltquitecertainthatBaldurwassafefromdeath. Baldurssuddeninvulnerabilityevenledtoanamusinggameamongthegods: TheylovedtofirearrowsandspearsatBaldur,knowingthateveryweapon wouldmissbecauseeverymaterialonearthhadsworn nottoharmhim. ThejealousLokienjoyedfiringarrowsatBaldur too;butunliketheothergods,Lokididntwanthis arrowstomiss.Bydisguisinghimselfasawomanand plyingFriggawithquestions,Lokisoonfoundawayaroundheroaths.Confidentially, FriggatoldthedisguisedLokithattherewasonespeciesofwoodthathadnotsworna vowtoprotectBaldur:Mistletoe.Inherhaste,Friggahadjudgedthatspindlymistletoe wasnothreattoBaldur,soshehadntbotheredtocollectmistletoesoath. AssoonasLokilearnedthis,hemadeanarrowofmistletoe.Next,hegavethe arrowtoBaldursblindbrotherHodur,whohadbeenupsetbecausehisblindnesshad stoppedhimfromjoininginthegamethatalloftheothergodswereplaying.Finally, LokihelpedblindHoduraimhisbowatBaldursheart.Whenthemistletoearrowstruck Baldur,thebeautifulyounggodfelldead.
HodurShootingtheArrow

OdinandFriggamadeonemoredesperateattempttosavedeadBaldurslife:TheymadeHelpromise thatifeverylivingcreatureonearthwouldcryforBaldur,thenshewouldreleaseBaldurfromHelheim.In responsetoOdinandFriggaspleas,everycreatureonearthcriedforBaldureverycreature,thatis,excepta singlegiantesswholivedaloneinacave.SincethelonegiantessrefusedtocryforBaldur,hehadtoremainin Helheim.Somesaythatthislonegiantesswas,onceagain,Lokiindisguise. Afterthisandmany,manyothermisdeeds,thegodsfinallyimprisonedLokibybindinghimwithropes

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madefromoneofhisdeadsonsintestines.

EmilDoepler,Walkyrien

TheValkyries TheValkyrieswerehelmetwearing, spearwielding,flyinghorseridingshieldmaidenswhom OdinoftensenttowatchoverbattlesinMidgard.IfOdin haddecidedwhoshouldwinthebattle,thenthe Valkyriescausedtheloserstofall.ThentheValkyries carriedtheslainwarriorsuptoAsgard,wheretheyended upinoneoftwoplaces: 1. Flkvangr,afieldruledbythegoddessFreyja;or 2. Valhalla,avictoryhallruledbyOdin. Valhalla Valhallawasavictoryhallwherehalfofthe warriorswhodiedgloriousdeathsinbattlewentto liveinthepresenceofOdin.OdinsValhallawasa warriorsparadisewithraftersmadeofspears,a roofmadeofshieldsand540enormousdoors. Byday,thehonoredwarriorswholivedin Valhallaheldgreathuntsandbattlestotesttheir strengthandskills.Anywarriorwhodiedinoneof thesebattleswasrevivedbynightfall,whenthe feastingandcelebrationbegan.Allofthesefights andfeastsweredesignedtokeepthewarriors bodiesandspiritsinshapefortheirlastbattlethe dreadedRagnarok,inwhichtheprophetsforetold thatAsgardwouldfall. EmilDoepler,Walhall Ragnarok BattlebetweenThorandJrmungandr Norseprophets foretoldthataterrible battlecalledtheRagnarok wouldbringabouttheend oftheworld.Thesignofthe Ragnarokscomingwouldbe threelong,harshwinters withnosummersin between. Attheendofthe thirdsuchwinter,allofthe godsworstenemieswould breakoutoftheprisonsthat thegodshadfashionedfor them:Fenrirthewolf, Jrmungandrtheserpent,Loki,thegiants,thedeadinHelandotherswouldallriseuptoattackthegodsof Asgard.ThewarriorsofValhallawouldcometothegodsdefense,800ofthemabreastmarchingoutofeachof Valhallas540massivedoors.
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TheRagnarokwouldbeabattlewithoutwinners: FenrirwouldswallowOdin;butthenoneofOdinssonswouldtear Fenrirapartwithhisbarehands. ThorwouldslaythepoisonousJrmungandr;butafterward,Thor wouldmanagetotakeonlyninestepsawayfromtheserpentsdead bodybeforethepoisoninhiswoundswouldkillhim. LokiandHeimdallwouldslaughteroneanother.

AttheendoftheRagnarok,agreatfirewouldragethroughallof theNineWorlds,destroyingeveryoneandeverything.Asthefireburned itselfout,thesmolderingruinsofAsgard,Midgardandalloftherest wouldslowlysinkintothesea.Later,anewworldwouldbereborn,one inwhichtherewouldbeneithertrickerynorsorrow.

AscenefromRagnark

FASCINATINGFACTS:NamingtheDaysoftheWeek InEnglish,thedaysoftheweekareallnamedforeitherheavenlybodiesorgods,andfouroftheseven daysarenamedforNorsegods: Day: NamedFor: Day: NamedFor: Day: NamedFor: Sunday Wednesday Saturday FASCINATINGFACTS:Runestones
PhotocourtesyofBerig:Runestone

TheSun Norsegod Odin(Woden) Romangod Saturn

Monday Thursday

TheMoon Norsegod Thor

Tuesday Friday

NorsegodTyr Norsegoddess Frigga

Arunestoneisastandingstoneengravedwithrunesthatis,letters fromtheoldScandinavianalphabetandillustrations.TheNorsemenerected mostoftheirrunestonesasgravemarkers,buttheyalsousedthemtomark propertylinesandtomemorializespecialevents.

FASCINATINGFACTS:Hnefatafl Hnefataflwasaboardgamethatbecamepopularduringthe VikingAge,spreadingwherevertheVikingsspread.Thegamewasplayed onacheckeredboardbetweentwoteamsofunequalstrength:Inthe centeroftheboardwereakingand812defenders,whileontheoutside oftheboardwere1620attackers.AgameofHnefataflwaslikeaViking raid:Thekingofthesmallerarmytriedtoruntotheoutsideoftheboard forsafety,whilethelargerarmyofVikingraiderstriedtosurroundand capturetheking. HnefataflremainedpopularthroughoutNorthernEuropeuntila newgamearrivedtoreplaceit:Chess.
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VIKINGEXPLORERSINTHENORTHATLANTIC TheVikingsweremorethanmere raidersandconquerors;theywerealso explorersandadventurers,andmanyof themweregiftedseamenandnavigators.In searchofadventureandnewlands,Viking explorerssailedwest:firsttotheFaroe Islands(halfwaybetweenNorwayand Iceland);thentoIceland;thenonto Greenlandandeventheeasternmostparts ofNorthAmerica. FASCINATINGFACTS:VikingNavigation TherearetwomysteriesabouttheVikings journeysfromNorwaytofaroffislandsliketheFaroesand Iceland:HowdidVikingexplorersfindtheseislandsinthe firstplace,andhowdidVikingnavigatorsleadfleetsof shipsloadedwithcolonistsbacktotheseislandsagainand again?ThejourneyfromNorwaytotheFaroeIslands coversabout300milesoftrackless,featurelessocean;and thejourneyfromtheFaroestoIcelandcoversanother300 miles.SincetheVikingsdidnthavetechnologieslike magneticcompasses,sextants,starchartsandtimepieces, whattechnologiesdidtheyusetoguidetheirshipssafely acrossthosewidedistances? Differentpeoplehaveoffereddifferenttheories abouttheVikingsnavigationtechnology: Norsemanlanding Seamanship:Asexperiencedseamen,theVikingscametounderstandtheprevailingwindsandcurrentsintheir partoftheworldatdifferenttimesofyear.Theirnativefeelfortheseahelpedguidetheirships. Birds:TheVikingsmayhavelearnedabouttheFaroeIslandsandIcelandbywatchingmigratingbirds,whoknew abouttheislandslongbeforeanyhumanknew. SomeVikingsusedcagedbirdsfornavigation.OnajourneyfromtheFaroeIslandswesttoIceland,one Vikingreportedtakingalongthreecagedravens,thenreleasingthemoneatatime: 1. Thefirstraven,releasedonlyafewdaysintothejourney,couldstillsensetheFaroeIslands;soitflewback east. 2. Thesecondraven,releasedafewdayslater,couldsensenolandinanydirection;soitsettleddownonthe safetyoftheshipsmast. 3. Thethirdraven,releasedlateryet,sensedIceland;soitflewwest,andtheVikingsuseditsflighttosettheir course. SunDiscs:TheVikingsmayhavecreatedsundiscsthatallowedthemtomeasurethesunsangleofelevation.By keepingtrackofthesunsangle,Vikingnavigatorscouldtelliftheyweretravelingtoofarnorthorsouth. SunStones:TheproblemwithusingthesunfornavigationisthattheskiesovertheNorthAtlanticareoften cloudy.However,somebelievethattheVikingsusedacrystalsunstoneperhapscalcite,perhaps

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cordieritethatpolarizedthesunsrays,allowingVikingnavigatorstoknowexactlyhowhighthesunwaseven whencloudsblockeditfromview. Iceland AVikingnamedInglfrArnarsonestablished thefirstpermanentsettlementonIcelandaround 874.Asasiteforhissettlement,Arnarsonchosea naturalbaynearIcelandssouthwestcorner. Centurieslater,thatbaybecamethesiteof Icelandscapitalcity,Reykjavik. TheVikingstookanimmediatelikingto Iceland,forthreereasons:(1)Becauseitwasrich withfish,sealsandwalrus;(2)Becauseithadplenty ofgoodfarmland;and(3)Becausenoonehad claimedanyofthatfarmlandalthoughthe VikingsarrivalmayhavepushedafewIrishmonks offtheisland.Icelandbecamesopopularthat within5060yearsofArnarsonsarrival,Viking settlershadclaimedallofIcelandsfarmland. Raadsig,Ingolf Greenland Around982AD,agroupofVikingsettlersledbyErictheRedbecamethefirsttocolonizeavast, unknownislandthatlayevenfartherwestthanIceland. VICTORIOUSVIKINGS:EricThorvaldsson(ErictheRed,950?1003?) Around960,ajudgebanishedawealthyVikingnamedThorvald AsvaldssonfromNorwayforthecrimeofmurderormanslaughter.Forcedto leaveNorway,ThorvaldtookhisfamilyandmovedwesttoIceland. Manslaughtermusthaveruninthefamily;becausearound981,ajudge banishedThorvaldssonEricfromIcelandfortheverysamecrimesthathis fatherhadcommitted.EricThorvaldssonssentenceofexilewastolastfor threeyears. Asatalentedseamanandexplorer,Erichadtheskillstoputhisthree yearsinexiletogooduse.SailingwestfromIceland,Ericsoonmadelandfallon thehugeislandthathewouldlaternameGreenland.Ericwasprobablynotthe firstVikingtodiscoverGreenland,buthewascertainlythefirsttoexplorethe islandsothoroughly.Ericspentthethreeyearsfromabout982985sailingup anddownGreenlandscoastline,searchingoutthebestplacestoestablish permanentcolonies. Assoonashistermofexileexpired,EricreturnedtoIcelandandbegan recruitingsettlerstobuildcoloniesonhisnewisland.Tomakehisventuremoreattractivetosettlers,Ericchose tonamehisislandGreenlanddespitethefactthatGreenlandwasfarlessgreen,andfarmoreicecovered, thanIcelandwas.By985,however,allofIcelandsbestlandwastaken,andEricfoundplentyofVikingsettlers whowereeagertotrytheirluckinhisnew,supposedlygreenparadise. Around986,ErictheRedledabout20shipsloadedwithpeopleandsuppliesonacolonizingexpedition fromIcelandtoGreenland.Theexpeditionhadtroublefromthebeginning:Only14ofthe20shipssurvivedthe journey,andthosethatsurvivedfoundtheislandtobefarlesswelcomingthanErichadpromised.Greenlands forbiddingclimatemeantthattheVikingcoloniesonGreenlandwouldneverthrivethewaytheonesonIceland thrived.Nevertheless,VikingsettlerscontinuedtoflowintoGreenland,buildingcolonyaftercolonythere.

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 Someofthesenewsettlersbroughtdiseasewiththem.Around1003,ErictheRedandmanyother GreenlandVikingsdiedofanepidemicdiseasecarriedinbysettlersfromtheeast. OtherinterestingfactsaboutErictheRed: Ericsnickname,theRed,probablymeantthathehadredhair. LeifEricsson(LeiftheLucky,970?1020?) LikehisfatherErictheRed,Leif EricssonwasaskilledVikingseamanand explorer.Leifsfirstlongjourneytookhim,not west,buteast:Around999,Leifsailedfrom GreenlandtohisfamilyshomelandinNorway, possiblyonamissiontowinmoresupportfor hisfatherscoloniesonGreenland. Bythistime,Christianmissionarieshad begunconvertingtheVikingstoChristianity. WhenLeifarrivedinNorway,Norwaywasa ChristiannationwithaChristiankingnamed OlafI.Foroneoftworeasonseitherbecause hebelievedtheGospel,orbecausehewanted helpfromtheChristianKingOlafLeifdecided tobecomeaChristianaswell. ChristianKrohg,LeifEricsson OnLeifsreturnjourneytoGreenland,OlafsentalongaChristianpriesttocarrytheGospeltothe Greenlanders.EricsmotherreceivedtheGospelgladly,buthispaganfatherEricneverdid.ErictheRednever acceptedChristianity,andneversetfootinsidethenewChristianchurchthatOlafspriestbuiltinGreenland. NorthAmerica Sometimearoundtheturnofthemillenniumin1000AD,Leifledhismostfamousvoyagetheoneon whichhediscoveredNorthAmerica.TherearetwodifferenttalesaboutLeifsvoyageofdiscovery: 1. OnetalesaysthatwhileLeifwasonhiswaybackhomefromNorway,amajorstormblewhimoffcourse. Afterthestormblewover,Leiffoundhimselfsailingalongthecoastoftheneverbeforeseencontinentof NorthAmerica. 2. AnothertalesaysthatLeiflearnedaboutNorthAmericafromanotherVikingnamedBjarniHerjlfsson,who hadseenthecontinentyearsbeforewhenhehimselfwasblownoffcourse.BypurchasingBjarnisboatand followingtheroutethatBjarnilaidoutforhim,LeifEricssonbecamethefirstEuropeanevertolandon NorthAmerica. Vinland AfterexploringthecoastofNorthAmericaforatime,Leifdecidedtobuildasmallcolonywherehe couldspendthewinter.HenamedhiscolonyVinland,orWineland,inhonoroftheabundantwildgrapeshe foundthere.Aftercollectinggreatquantitiesofgrapesandlogs,bothofwhichwerescarceinGreenland,Leif headedhomethefollowingspring. SomewherealongthewayhomefromVinlandtoGreenland,Leiffoundandrescuedashipwrecked, castawayVikingexplorer.ItwasthisfortunatedeedthatearnedLeifhisnickname,LeiftheLucky. ThorvaldEricsson TheVikingsnextexpeditiontoVinland,ledbyLeifsbrotherThorvaldEricsson,wasnotassuccessfulas

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thefirst.AfterspendingonewinterinVinland,Thorvaldandhismenfoundthemselvesinafightwithnine nativeswhomtheVikingscalledSkraelings. INTERESTINGINQUIRIES:WhoWeretheSkraelings? Vinlandsnatives,whomtheVikingscalledSkraelings,probablybelongedtooneofthethree huntergatherercultureswholivedinnortheastNorthAmericaduringtheVikingAge:theThule,Dorsetand PointRevengecultures.AllthreecultureswereancestorsoftheInuit,aNativeAmericanracethatstilllivesin thatpartofNorthAmerica. ThorvaldEricssonsskirmisheswiththeInuitsancestorswerethefirstofmanyclashesbetweenNative AmericansandEuropeancolonists. TheVikingsmanagedtokilleightSkraelings,buttheninthescapedtosummonreinforcements.When thesecondbandofSkraelingsattacked,theykilledThorvaldwithanarrow. FASCINATINGFAILURES:WhytheVikingColoniesinVinlandandGreenlandFailed
PhotocourtesyofUweKils:VikingShip AftertheSkraelingskilled ThorvaldEricsson,theVikings abandonedtheircolonyatVinland. AlthoughotherVikingswouldreturnto gathergrapesandlogs,noVikingwould everestablishasuccessfulcolonyin NorthAmerica. Thebiggestreasonbehind Vinlandsfailurewasthefailureofits neighbor,Greenland.Because Greenlandsclimatehadneverbeenas hospitableasIcelands,theVikingcoloniesatGreenlandhadtoimportmuchofwhattheyneededtolive.The strugglingcoloniesatGreenlandsimplycouldnotaffordtosendvaluablesuppliestoVinland,especiallywhen theyknewthattheymightlosethosesuppliestothehostileSkraelings.Intime,thecoloniesatGreenlandfailed altogether,andtheVikingsretreatedtoIceland. ThefailureofVinlandisthemainreasonwhyChristopherColumbus,andnotLeifEricsson,waslong honoredasthefirstEuropeantodiscoverAmericaeventhoughColumbusdiscoveriescamenearly500years later.BecauseColumbuscoloniesonHispaniolasurvived,hisdeedswereremembered;butbecauseEricssons colonyatVinlanddied,hisdeedsweremostlyforgotten.

CHURCHHISTORYFOCUS
CHRISTIANCONTROVERSIES:TheEastWestSchism(1054) ChurchHistoryinBrief
Rublevicon,AngelsatMamre

TheEasternChurchandtheWesternchurcharguedovermorethanjust icons.TheyalsoarguedoverwhatkindofbreadtheyshoulduseintheLords Supper,whetherornotpriestsshouldmarryandhowtheyshouldwordtheNicene Creed.Theirbiggestargumentofallwasoverthepopesauthority:TheWestern churchfeltthatthepopeshouldhaveauthorityoverallChristians,whereverthey lived;buttheEasternchurchsawnoreasonwhythepopeshouldbemorepowerful

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thatthepatriarchofConstantinople. Eventually,theseargumentssplitthechurch.TheWesternchurchbecametheRomanCatholicChurch, andtheEasternChurchbecametheEasternOrthodoxChurch.Thesedividedchurcheshavenevercomeback together. WhentheRomanEmpiredividedintoEastandWest,thechurchesoftheWest(centeredaroundRome) andthechurchesoftheEast(centeredaroundConstantinople)alsobegantodivide.Thelongertheseparation betweenEastandWestcontinued,thegreaterthedifferencesbetweenEastandWestbecame.AftertheFallof theWesternRomanEmpirein476AD,Christiansbegantohavemoreandmoretroubleoverlookingthose differences: Language:WhentheWesternRomanEmpirefell,thepeopleoftheEastbegantofallbackupontheirnative Greek.UnderEmperorHeraclius(reigned610641),GreekbecametheByzantineEmpiresofficiallanguage. Meanwhile,LatinremainedthelanguageoftheWest,especiallyintheWesternchurch. Politics:LongaftertheFallofRomeintheWest,theByzantineEmpireremainedstrongintheeast.IntheWest, strongpopeslikeLeoandGregorytookchargeofweakgovernmentsinItalyandbeyond.Afterthepopestook chargeofthePapalStates,someofthembegantoactmorelikeearthlykingsthanspiritualleaders(seeChapter 7).ThingsweredifferentintheEast,wherethestillstrongByzantineemperorshadnoneedofpopestorun theirempire. BeliefsandPractices:EastandWestalsodisagreedoverChristianbeliefsandpractices: Theydisagreedoverwhetherornottheyshoulduseleavenedbreadthatis,breadpreparedwithyeast intheLordsSupper. Theydisagreedoverwhetherornottheyshouldallowtheirprieststomarry. Theydisagreedovericons(religiousimages)andrelics(objectsthathadbelongedtodeadchurchheroes). Theydisagreedovertheproperwaytoholdachurchservicewhattosay,whattoreadandwhattosing. AnothergreatdifferenceofbeliefsaroseoveraphrasethatWesternChristiansaddedtotheNicene Creedaphrasecalledthefilioque. REFRESHINGREMINDERfromChapter2:TheChristianbishopswhogatheredforthe325ADCouncilofNicaea wroteanimportantstatementofChristianbeliefscalledtheNiceneCreed.TheNiceneCreedaffirmedthatthere isonlyoneGod,butthatGodmakesHimselfknowninthethreepersonsoftheHolyTrinityGodtheFather, GodtheSonandGodtheHolySpirit.56yearslater,in381,theCouncilofConstantinopleaffirmedand expandedtheNiceneCreed. DEFINITION:FilioqueisaLatinwordthatmeansandfromtheSon. FASCINATINGPHRASES:TheFilioque PhotocourtesyofTobyHudson:StainedglassatStJohntheBaptist'sAnglicanChurch

SoonaftertheCouncilofConstantinopleexpandedtheNiceneCreed, someWesternChristiansbeganaddingthewordfilioquetothelineofthe creedthatdescribedtheHolySpirit.Theadditionofthissinglewordchanged whattheNiceneCreedsaidaboutJesusChristandtheHolySpiritinasmall, butimportant,way. Withoutthefilioque,theCouncilofConstantinoplesversionofthe NiceneCreedread:

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 IbelieveintheHolySpirit,theLord,theGiverofLife,whoproceedsfromtheFather,whowiththe FatherandtheSontogetherisworshippedandtogetherglorified. Withthefilioqueadded,thecreedread: IbelieveintheHolySpirit,theLord,theGiverofLife,whoproceedsfromtheFatherandfromthe Son,whowiththeFatherandtheSontogetherisworshippedandtogetherglorified. Forcenturies,theadditionofthefilioquewasstrictlyunofficial:Somechurchesaddedit,andsome didnt.Nochurchcouncilsuggestedorapprovedtheaddition;itwassimplyavoluntaryadditiontothecreed thatmostWesternChristiansliked. TheWesternChristianswhoaddedthefilioquelikedthephrasebecauseitreinforcedanimportant Christiandoctrine:thedivinityofJesusChrist.AccordingtotherestoftheNiceneCreed,ChristtheSonisofthe sameessenceasGodtheFather,coequalwithGod.WhynotthensaythattheHolySpirit,whoisalsocoequal withGod,issuesfrombothFatherandSon?ThefilioquewasastrongstatementoffaithintheideathatFather, SonandHolySpiritarethreepartsofthesameGod.Anyonewhodidntlikethefilioque,WesternChristians argued,wasprobablyanArianwhodidntbelievethatJesusChristwasGod(seeChapter2). EasternChristiansdisagreed.Partoftheirdisagreementwasovermanners:EasternChristiansfeltthatit wasinexcusablefortheWesttoaddaphrasetosuchanimportantcreedwithoutaskingpermissionfroma churchwidecouncil.Furthermore,EasternChristiansdislikedwhatthefilioquesaidabouttheHolySpirit:To them,thephrasedemeanedtheHolySpiritbymakingtheSpiritseemlikealesserGodthantheFatherandthe Son. In1014,PopeBenedictIIIbeganusingtheWesternversionoftheNiceneCreed,includingthefilioque,in churchservicesheldatRome.Fromthattimeon,theWesternchurchbegantoinsistthatitsversionofthe creedwastheonlycorrectone,andthatanyonewhorefusedtoaddthefilioquetotheNiceneCreedwas dangerouslyclosetoheresy. PapalAuthority ThePopesinsistenceonaddingthefilioquetotheNiceneCreedaggravatedyetanotherdisagreement betweenthechurchesofEastandWest,themostimportantoneofall:ThedisagreementoverthePopes authority. ToWesternChristians,thePopewastheheirofSt.Peter.AsthekeeperofthekeystotheKingdomof Heaven(Matthew16:19),thePopewasthefinal,infallibleauthorityovertheentireChristianworld. EasternChristianshadneveracceptedtheideathattheBishopofRomestoodaboveallotherbishops.They werefuriousthatthePopehadtriedtodecideanimportantissuelikethefilioquewithoutholdinga churchwidecounciltodiscusstheissueandvoteonit. Pope,PatriarchandCardinal Duringthe1050s,thebattleoverthePopesauthority becameapersonalbattlebetweentwomen:(1)PopeLeoIX, whoreignedaspopefrom10491054;and(2)PatriarchMichael ICerularius,whoreignedasPatriarchofConstantinoplefrom 10431059.ThePatriarchtriedtoclaimauthorityoverthePope, andthePopetriedtoclaimauthorityoverthePatriarch.Neither manwaswillingtocompromise. In1054,PopeLeosenthisfavoritesecretary,Cardinal Humbert,toConstantinopleasaPapalambassadoran ambassadorwhosemissionwasnottocompromisewith PatriarchMichael,buttodemandthatthePatriarchsubmitto

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Romesauthority.SincethePatriarchwasunwillingtosubmit,andtheCardinalwasunwillingtocompromise, theirnegotiationsdidnotlastlong.ThePatriarchignoredtheCardinal,andtheCardinalstormedoutoftheir meetinginarage. Excommunication Finally,inJuly1054,CardinalHumbert tookafatefulstep:MarchingintotheHagia SophiaCathedralduringprayertime,theCardinal laidapapalbullthatis,asealedletterfromthe popeuponthealtarinfrontofthePatriarch. ThebullinformedPatriarchMichaelthatthe Popehadexcommunicatedhim,andthathewas nolongeramemberingoodstandingoftheholy CatholicChurch.ThefactthatPopeLeohaddied backinAprildidnotmatter:Untilandunless MichaelsubmittedtoRomesauthority,the churchwouldnotallowhimtoreceiveHoly Communion. Naturally,theEasternChurchdidnot denyitspatriarchHolyCommunion.Instead,it wroteabullofitsownexcommunicatingCardinal Humbert. Split Afterthejointexcommunicationsof 1054,theEasternChurchandtheWesternchurchwenttheirseparateways.Anumberofambassadorstriedto mendthetwochurchesbrokenrelationshipoverthecenturies,butalloftheireffortsfailed.Whathadbegunas abattleoverRomesauthoritydevelopedintoapermanentsplitbetweenEastandWest. TheEastWestsplitthatbeganwiththeexcommunicationofPatriarchMichaelbecameknownasthe GreatSchismortheEastWestSchism.ChurchesthatfollowedConstantinoplebecameknownasEastern Orthodoxchurches;whilechurchesthatfollowedRomebecameknownasRomanCatholicchurches.Inthe future,allChristianchurchesthattracedtheirrootsbacktoConstantinopleincludingGreekOrthodox churches,RussianOrthodoxchurches,SyrianOrthodoxchurchesandmanyotherswouldbecalledEastern Orthodox.

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