QUANTUM PHYSICS PRASANNA BP

QUANTUM PHYSICS

Black Body Radiation

A hot body emits thermal radiations which depend on composition and the
temperature of the body. The ability of the body to radiate is closely related to its ability to
absorb radiation. A Body which is capable of absorbing almost all the radiations incident on
it is called a black body. A perfectly black-body can absorb the entire radiations incident on
it. Platinum black and Lamp black can absorb almost all the radiations incident on them.

Emissive power of a black body:

It is defined as the total energy radiated per second from the unit surface area of a
black body maintained at certain temperature.

Absorptive power of a black body:

It is defined as the ratio of the total energy absorbed by the black body to the
amount of radiant energy incident on it in a given time interval. The absorptive power of a
perfectly black body is 1.

Spectral Distribution of energy in thermal radiation

(Black Body radiation spectrum)
A good absorber of radiation is also a good emitter. Hence when a black body is
heated it emits radiations. In practice a black body can be realized with the emission of
Ultraviolet, Visible and infrared wavelengths on heating a body. German physicists Lummer
and Pringsheim studied the energy density as a function of wavelength for different
temperatures of a black body using a spectrograph and a plot is made. This is called Black
Body radiation spectrum.

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The Salient features of black body radiation spectrum are as below

1) The energy density increases with wavelength then takes a maximum value Em for
a particular wavelength λm and then decrease to a value zero for longer wavelengths. Hence
the Energy distribution in the spectrum is not uniform
2) As the Temperature increases the Wavelength (λm) corresponding to the
maximum emission energy (Em) shifts towards shorter wavelength side. Thus the λm is
inversely proportional to temperature (T) and is called Wein’s Displacement Law.
Mathematically . Here b is Wein’s Constant of value 2.898x10-3 mK.

3) The total energy emitted by the black body at a given temperature is given by the
area under the curve and is proportional to the fourth power of temperature. This is called
Stefan’s law of radiation. Mathematically E = σ T4 here ‘σ’ is the Stefan’s constant of value
5.67 x 10-8 Wm2K-4.

Explanation of Black Body Radiation Spectrum

Classical Theories
Wein’s Distribution Law:
In the year 1893 Wein using thermodynamics showed that the energy emitted per
unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ+dλ

Here C1 and C2 are empirical constants. A suitable selection for these constants helps
to explain the experimental curve in the shorter wavelength region. The drawback of this
law is it fails to explain the curve in the longer wavelength region. Also according to this
equation the energy density at high temperatures tends to zero which contradicts
experimental observations.

Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
British Physicists Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans made an attempt to explain the
Black Body radiation spectrum Based on the concepts formation of standing electromagnetic
waves and the law of equipartition of energy. According to this law the energy density of
radiation is given by

Here ‘k’ is Boltzmann constant with value 1.38 x 10-23 JK-1. This law successfully
explains the energy distribution of the black body radiation in the longer wavelength region.
According to this law black body is expected to radiate large amount of energy in the
shorter wavelength region thus leading to no energy available for emission in the longer
wavelength region. Experimental observations show that the most of the emissions of the
black body radiation occur in the visible and infrared regions. This discrepancy is called
Ultraviolet Catastrophe.

Quantum theory of radiation

Planck’s law of radiation:
German physicist Max Plank successfully explained the energy distribution in the
black body radiation based on the following assumptions

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1) The surface of the black body contains oscillators

2) These oscillators absorb or emit energy in terms of integral multiples of discrete packets
called quanta or photons. The energy ‘E’ of photons is proportional to the frequency ‘ν’ of
the radiation. Mathematically E=nhν here ‘h’ is a constant called Planck’s constant and its
value is 6.625 x 10-34 Js, and ‘n’ can take integer values
3) At thermal equilibrium the rate of absorption and emission of radiation are equal.

According to Planck’s law of radiation the expression for energy density of radiation
is given by

Where ‘c’ is the velocity of light, ‘k’ is Boltzmann constant and ‘h’ is Planck’s
constant. This law explains the distribution of energy in the black body radiation spectrum
completely for all wavelengths and at all temperatures. Also this law can be reduced to
Wein’s distribution law in the shorter wavelength region and to Rayleigh-Jeans law in the
longer wavelength region.

Deduction of Wein’s law, Rayleigh-Jean’s law from Planck’s law

(i) For shorter wavelengths, is very large

If ν is very large, i.e., is very large

⇒ , ≈ ≈ ……….(1)
Using Planck’s equation,

, by substituting equation (1)

Where, and

(ii) For longer wavelengths, is small,

If ν is very small, i.e., is very small

Now expand as power series

We have, ……….....

(Since is very small, higher power terms could be neglected)

⇒
Again using Planck’s equation,
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is reduced to

This is known as Rayleigh-Jean’s law

Photo-Electric effect

“The emission of electrons from the surface of certain materials when radiation of
suitable frequency is incident on it is called the phenomenon of Photo-Electric effect.” The
electrons emitted are called photo electrons and the material is said to be photo sensitive.
This was discovered in the 1887 by Henrich Hertz.

The experimental observations of photoelectric effect are

1) Photo electrons are emitted instantaneously as soon as the radiation is incident
2) Photo electric emission occurs only if the frequency of the incident radiation is greater
than a certain value called Threshold frequency.
3) The kinetic energy acquired by photo electrons is directly proportional to the frequency of
the incident radiation and is independent of the intensity.
4) The number of photoelectrons emitted depends on the intensity of the incident radiation
and is independent of the frequency.
Photoelectric effect signifies the particle nature of radiation.

Einstein’s explanation of the photo electric effect

When metal is illuminated with radiation of suitable frequency, the photons of the
radiation interact with electrons in the metal. When a photon interacts with an electron, the
electron absorbs it and the photon vanishes. The energy acquired by the electron from the
photon is made use in two stages. A part of the energy is used by the electron to free itself
from the metal since it is bound within metal. Thus some minimum amount of energy is
required for the electron just to escape from the metal is called Work Function (φ). The
rest of the energy is carried by the electron as Kinetic Energy (KE). Since the energy of
the photon is ‘hν’ the photoelectric effect satisfies the following equation

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This is called Photoelectric Equation. Here ‘ν’ is the frequency of the incident
radiation

Here ‘ ’ is the threshold frequency and ‘v’ is the velocity of electron and ‘m’ the
mass. Thus from the photoelectric equation, if the frequency of the radiation ν < no
photoelectrons are emitted.

Compton Effect
“The phenomenon of scattering of X-rays from suitable material and hence increase
in its wavelength is called Compton Effect.”

When X-rays are incident on certain materials they are scattered and the scattered
X-rays contain two components. One component has the same wavelength as the incident
X-ray and the other with wavelength greater than the incident X-rays. This is due to the
scattering of X-ray photons from the electrons present in the material. Due to the transfer
of energy from X-ray photon to electron the wavelength of X-ray increases and the electron
recoils. This can be treated as collision between two particles. Thus Compton Effect signifies
particle nature of radiation. The change in wavelength which is also called Compton Shift is
given by

Here ‘λ’ is the wavelength of incident X-rays and ‘λ’ ‘is the wavelength of scattered X-ray ‘θ’

is the scattering angle and ‘m0’ is the rest mass of electron. The quantity is called

Compton Wavelength.

Experimental verification
A beam of monochromatic X-rays are allowed to fall on a graphite crystal as shown
in the figure. The intensity of the scattered X-rays is measure as a function of wavelength of
X-rays, at different scattering angles. At each angle, two peaks appear corresponding to
scattered X-ray photons with two different wavelengths. The wavelength of one peak does
not change as the angle is varied. This is called primary or unmodified component. We
denote it by λ. The wavelength of the other peak varies strongly with the angle and hence it
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is called modified component. Ii is denoted by λ’. This effect is called Compton effect.
The change in wavelength ∆λ is called Compton shift.

Stability of atom
According to Rutherford model the atom is made up of a central charge, now called
nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons. If the electrons surrounded the nucleus are at
rest, the equilibrium conditions of the system can not be reached by electrostatic forces
between positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons outside the nucleus.
For example, consider the case of helium atom whose nucleus carries a charge +2e with
two electrons out side the nucleus each having the charge –e. Suppose the two electrons
are symmetrically placed at a distance r from the nucleus as shown in fig.

e × 2e
Force of attraction between nucleus and each electron =
4πε 0 r 2
e×e
Force of repulsion between two electrons =
4πε 0 (2r )
2

This shows that the attractive force is eight times greater than the repulsive force.
As the two forces do not balance each other, the electrons will fall in to the nucleus thereby
destroying the stability of atom.
To over come this difficulty of stability of atom, Rutherford proposed that electrons
might be assumed to revolve round the nucleus with such a speed that the outward
centrifugal force balances the net electrostatic attraction towards nucleus. Thus for an
electron having a charge –e and mass m revolving in an orbit of radius r with velocity v
around nucleus with charge +Z, we have,
e × Ze mv 2
=
4πε 0 r 2 r
From above expression, it can be concluded that an electron can rotate in an infinite
number of orbits.

Dept. of Physics, Jain University 6

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Bohr’s atomic theory

Bohr developed his theory of atomic structure by retaining the two essential features
of Rutherford’s planetary model
1. The atom consists of a central positively charged hard core called nucleus, and
2. The electrons revolving round their nucleus in circular orbit- the outer centrifugal
force is balanced by the net electrostatic attraction towards the nucleus.
However, using the Planck’s quantum theory, Bohr made the following assumptions
3. The electron can move along one of the discrete sets of allowed paths called orbits.
Only those orbits are possible for which the orbital angular momentum of the
h
electron is equal to an integral multiple of.
2π
As the momentum of revolving electron is mv and its moment about the nucleus is
mvr , hence
h
mvr = n
2π
Where n = 1,2,3, for first, second and third orbits respectively and h is Planck’s
constant. Such orbits are known as stationary orbits.
4. no energy is radiated by the electron as long as it remains in its definite or stationary
orbit.
5. the radiation energy takes place only when an electron jumps from one permitted
orbit higher energy to another permitted orbit of lower energy. The difference
energies is radiated and must be a quantum of energy hν ,i.e.,
E2 − E1 = hν
Note:
Radius of permitted orbit is given by the equation
n 2 h 2ε 0
rn =
π m e2
By substituting the values of constant for n = 1 , we have the radius of first orbit
−10
r1 = 0.529 × 10 m . This calculation shows that the atom is about 10 −10 meter in
diameter.

The allowed energy values corresponding to allowed energy levels are given by
− me 4
En = 2
8n 2 h 2ε 0

Limitations of Bohr’s theory

1. The theory could not account the spectra of atoms complex than hydrogen

2. The theory does not give any information regarding the distribution and arrangement of
electrons in an atom

3. The theory does not explain the experimentally observed variations in intensity of the
spectral lines an element.

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4. The theory fails for accounting the fine structure of spectral line.

5. The theory cannot be used for the quantitative explanation of chemical bonding.

6. The theory fails to give correct results when an electric or magnetic field is applied to the
atom.

Dual Nature of Radiation and de Broglie’s hypothesis

The phenomenon like Interference, Diffraction and Polarization are attributed to the
wave properties of radiation. The Quantum theory of radiation and experiments like
Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect describe the particle nature of radiation. Thus
radiation behaves like waves and like particles under different suitable circumstances.
Hence radiation exhibits dual nature.
In the year 1924 French physicist Louis de Broglie made a daring suggestion “If
radiant energy could behave like waves in some experiments and particles or
photons in others and since nature loves symmetry, then one can expect the
particles like protons and electrons to exhibit wave nature under suitable
circumstances.” This is well known as de Broglie’s hypothesis.
Therefore waves can be even associated with moving material particles called Matter
waves and the wavelength associated with matter waves is called de Broglie wavelength.
The de Broglie wavelength is given by where ‘m’ is the mass of the particle and ‘v’ is

its velocity.

Expression for de Broglie wavelength (Wavelength of matter wave)

According to the Einstein’s photon theory the energy of the photon is given by

Here ‘ν’ is the frequency of the incident radiation and ‘h’ is Planck’s constant. If ‘m’ is the
mass equivalent of the energy of the photon then

Since the frequency of the incident radiation could be expressed in terms of wavelength
‘λ’as we get,

Here ‘p’ is the momentum of the photon

Therefore,

Thus, according to de Broglie’s hypothesis, for a particle moving with velocity ‘v’ the above
equation can be modified by replacing the momentum of photon with the momentum of the
moving particle ‘mv’. Therefore the de Broglie wavelength associated with a moving particle
is given by

…… (1)
Here ‘m’ is the mass of the moving particle.

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de Broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated with a potential difference of ‘V’

volt
Consider an electron accelerated by a potential difference of ‘V’ volts. The kinetic energy
acquired by the electron is given by

Here ‘m’ is the mass of the electron and is given by 9.1 x 10-31 kg
Substituting the value of ‘v’ in equation (1) we get

Since the electron acquires kinetic energy from the applied potential difference ‘V’ The
kinetic energy of the electron is also given by E=eV where ‘e’ is the charge on electron with
value 1.6 x 10-19C
Hence the expression for the de Broglie wavelength

Substituting the values for the constants h, m and e we get

Davisson-Germer’s experiment:

The De-Broglie’s hypothesis of possibility of wave nature of material particles under

appropriate conditions was first experimentally verified by Davisson and Germer. In order to
show that particles can also exhibit wave nature, it needs to be proved that material
particles can also produce effects such as interference, diffraction, etc which are
characteristic phenomena associated exclusively with waves.

Davisson and Germer were studying the phenomenon of scattering of electrons from
material targets and they observed diffraction of electrons in a crystal of nickel, similar to X-
ray waves undergoing diffraction in crystals, thus proving the wave behavior of electrons.

FIGURE:

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The experimental apparatus consists of an electron gun to produce a beam of electrons, a

solid nickel crystal used as a target mounted on a rotatable stand and an ionization chamber
(detector) C which is connected to a galvanometer to collect and measure the current due
to the scattered electrons.

The electron gun (G) consists of a filament which upon heating by a low-tension
battery emits electrons. These emitted electrons are accelerated by applying a high
potential from a high-tension battery and using a series of metallic diaphagrams as slits, a
narrow beam of electron is obtained. This narrow beam of electrons is incident normally on
the Nickel crystal (N) mounted on a rotatable stand. The electrons incident on the Nickel
crystal undergo scattering in all directions inside the crystal, just as X-ray waves are
scattered in the phenomenon of X-ray diffraction by crystals. The scattered electrons are
collected by the ionization chamber (C) and the current due to these collected electrons is
measured by the galvanometer connected to the ionization chamber. The ionization
chamber can be rotated along a circular path S to collect the electrons at various scattering
angles φ .

In the Davisson-Germer experiment, the accelerating potential was kept constant in

G and ionization chamber C collects scattered electrons at various scattering angles φ . For
each scattering angle φ , the ionization current as measured by the galvanometer was noted
and the same procedure was repeated by applying different potentials to the electron gun
G.

Initially by applying a constant potential of 40V, the ionization current was noted as
a function of scattering angle φ and the same was repeated by applying 44,48,54,60 and 68
volts respectively.

A polar plot of ionization current and scattering angle φ, for various applied
potentials is obtained as shown in the figures. In the polar plot, for each data point, the
angle of inclination to Y-axis equals the scattering angle and the length of the arrow to the
data point gives the ionization current.

At the acceleration potential of 40V, as seen from figure, the variation is found to be
smooth without any maxima or minima. However, at V=44volts a distinct maxima was
observed as seen in figure and this maxima became more and more pronounced till 54V.
With further increase in applied voltage, this maximum declines and fades away as seen in
Fig. The values of applied voltage and the scattering angle φ at which the ionization current
was maximum was found to be V=54volts and φ =50 degrees (Fig ).

If electrons were to be behaving only as particles, then from classical theories, it is

expected that with increasing applied potential, the ionization current due to scattered
electrons would increase and therefore, the nature of polar plot at higher potentials should
be similar or a laterally pulled version to that of 40volts curve. But as can be seen from the
above plots, such behavior is not observed.

To explain the observation of distinct maxima of the ionization current over a certain
scattering angle φ , Davisson & Germer proposed that the incident electron beam is

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scattered from the nickel crystal as a beam of monochromatic waves associated with
electrons (i.e., De-Broglie waves or Electron waves associated with the electron) similar to
X-ray waves undergoing diffraction in crystals.

According to de Broglie’s hypothesis for an electron accelerated by potential difference of 54

V the de Broglie wavelength is given by

12.26 1.226 × 10 −9
λ= Ao = = 1.66 × 10 −10 m
V 54

According to Bragg’s law the diffracted waves from a crystal undergo constructive
interference only for that angle of incidence θ which satisfies the equation

nλ = 2d sin θ

In the Davisson-Germer experiment the constructive interference was observed at a

glancing angle of θ = 65 0 and it would occur only for those waves with their wavelength λ
given by λ = 2d sin θ (assuming the order of diffraction n to be equal to one).
−10
We therefore have λ = 2 × 0.91 × 10 × Sin(65 0 ) = 1.65 × 10 −10 m

−10
In the above evaluation we have taken the value of d = 0.91 × 10 m for the lattice
spacing in a nickel crystal.

The experimentally determined value is in good agreement with the value calculated
according to de Broglie’s hypothesis. Thus Davisson and Germer experiment not only
confirms the wave associated with moving particle it also verifies the de Broglie’s
hypothesis.

Standing de Broglie waves of electron in Bohr’s orbits

According to de-Broglie hypothesis an electron of mass ‘m’ in motion with velocity ‘v’
is associated with a wave whose wavelength ‘λ’ is given by
h
λ= where ‘h’ is Planck’s constant
mv
On the basis of this hypothesis proposed an atomic model in which the stationary orbits of
the Bohr’s model were retained but with the difference that electron in various orbits
behaves as wave as shown in fig.

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He suggested that stationary orbits those in which orbital circumference (2πr) is an integral
multiple of de-Broglie wavelength λ, i.e., stationary orbits for an electron are those which
contain the complete wave of electron. Thus
2π r = nλ where n=1,2,3…..
h
But, λ = substitute in the above equation
mv
h h
2π r = n or mvr = n
mv 2π
mvr is the angular momentum of the electron as particle. The above equation is nothing
but Bohr’s postulate, i.e., the total angular momentum of the moving electron is the integral
h
multiple of .
2π

Phase velocity and Group velocity

Phase velocity (vp)

The velocity with which a wave travels is called phase velocity and is also called
wave velocity. If a point is marked on the wave representing the phase of the particle then
the velocity with which the phase propagates from one point to another is called phase
velocity. It is given by Where ‘ω’ is the angular frequency and ‘k’ is wave number.

Substituting for and . We get ,

Therefore Where ‘E’ is the energy and ‘p’ is momentum

Where ‘c’ is the velocity of light and ‘v’ is the velocity of the article.

From the above expression it is evident that the phase velocity is not only greater
than the particle velocity it is also greater than the velocity of light. Hence there is no
physical meaning for phase velocity of matter waves.

Properties of Matter waves

The following are the properties associated with the matter waves
1) Matter waves are associated only with particles in motion
2) They are not electromagnetic in nature
3) Group velocity is associated with matter waves
4) The phase velocity has no physical meaning for matter waves
5) The amplitude of the matter wave at a given point is associated with the probability of
finding the particle at that point.
6) The wave length of matter waves is given by

Group velocity (vg)

Since the velocity of matter waves must be equal to that of the particle velocity and
since no physical can be associated with phase velocity the concept of group velocity is
introduced.

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Matter wave can be considered as a resultant wave due to the superposition of many
component waves whose velocities differ slightly. Thus a wave group or wave packet is
formed. The velocity with which the wave group travels is called group velocity which is
same as particle velocity. It is denoted by vg.

Expression for Group velocity using the concept of superposition of waves

Consider a wave group formed by the superposition of a minimum of two waves
which slightly differ in their velocities with amplitudes ‘A” traveling in the same direction and
are represented mathematically as below
………….(1)
………….(2)
According to the principle of superposition the resultant wave is given by

We know that

………..(3)
But and since very small
Therefore equation (3) could be written as
……..(4)
Compare the eqn.(4) with eqn.(1)
Eqn.(4) represents the resultant wave whose amplitude varies as

Which is a constant but varies as a wave

As by definition of group velocity with which the variation in amplitude is transmitted in the
resultant wave is the group velocity and is given by,

or

Relation between group velocity and phase velocity

The phase velocity is given by

The group velocity of matter waves is given by

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………….. (1)

The wave number ‘k’ is given by

Differentiate the above equation we get,

⇒ …………. (2)
Substituting eqn.(2) in eqn.(1) we get

The relation between group velocity and phase velocity is given by

Relation between group velocity and particle velocity

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘v’. We know that the group
velocity is given by

But the angular velocity is given by E

Differentiating we get

The propagation constant is given by ⇒

Differentiating we get

= …………… (1)
The total energy of the particle is given by E= Kinetic energy + Potential energy

Differentiate the above equation we get

⇒ The particle velocity

Hence the group velocity and particle velocity are equal.

Dept. of Physics, Jain University 14

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Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

Statement: “The simultaneous determination of the exact position and momentum
of a moving particle is impossible”

Explanation: According to this principle if ∆x is the error involved in the

measurement of position and ∆p is the error involved in the measurement of momentum
during their simultaneous measurement, then the product of the corresponding
uncertainties is given by

The product of the errors is of the order of Planck’s constant. If one quantity is measured
with high accuracy then the simultaneous measurement of the other quantity becomes less
accurate.
Physical significance: According to Newtonian physics the simultaneous
measurement of position and momentum are “exact”. But the existence of matter waves
induces serious problems due to the limit to accuracy associated with the simultaneous
measurement. Hence the “Exactness” in Newtonian physics is replaced by “Probability” in
quantum mechanics.

-ray microscope
Consider an imaginary experiment in which an electron is tried to be spotted using a
high resolution -ray microscope.

The limit of resolution of the microscope is given by

Here ‘λ’ is the wavelength of the scattered -ray photon, θ is the semi vertical

angle.
According to the definition of limit of resolution becomes the uncertainty in the
determination of position of the electron. In order to observe the electron, the scattered
photon from the electron must enter the microscope anywhere within angle of . The x
component of momentum ∆px may lie between and . Here p is the

momentum of the photon is given by . Since the momentum is conserved during the
collision, the uncertainty in the x component of momentum is given by

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Thus the product of the uncertainties is of the order of ‘ h ’. More rigorous calculation results
in the value

Diffraction by single slit

Consider a narrow beam of electrons passes through a single narrow slit and
produces a diffraction pattern on the screen as shown in the Fig. The first minimum of the
pattern is obtained for n=1, in the equation describing the behavior of diffraction pattern
due to a single slit. Hence,
∆y sin θ = λ ........(1)
Where ∆y is the width of the slit and θ is the angle of diffraction corresponding to
first minimum.

In producing the diffraction pattern on the screen all the electrons have passed
through the slit but we can not say definitely at what place of the slit. Hence the uncertainty
in determining the position of the electron is equal to the width ∆y of the slit. From equation
(1) we have
λ
∆y = ………..(2)
sin θ
Initially the electrons are moving along the x-axis and hence they have no component of
momentum along y-axis. After diffraction at the slit, they are deviated from their initial path
to form the pattern and have a component p sin θ . As y component of momentum may lie
anywhere between p sin θ and − p sin θ . Uncertainty in y component of momentum is
h
∆p y ≈ p sin θ − (− p sin θ ) ≈ 2 p sin θ ≈ 2 sin θ ……….. (3)
λ
Hence from equations (5) and (6)

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λ 2h sin θ
∆y × ∆p y ≈ × ≈ 2h
sin θ λ
∆y × ∆p y ≈ h
Thus the product of the uncertainties is of the order of ‘ h ’. More rigorous calculation results
in the value

Wave function
A wave is constituted by a periodic oscillation of a particular physical quantity. For
ex, in case of water waves, the quantity that varies is the height surface, in sound waves it
is the pressure variation and in case of electromagnetic waves it is the variation of electric
and magnetic fields that constitutes the electromagnetic wave.

In case of waves associated with material particles (matter waves) the quantity
whose variations make up the matter waves is called the wave function and is denoted
byψ . The value of the wave function ψ ( x, y , z , t ) of a body at the point ( x, y , z ) in space and
time t , determines the likelihood of finding the body at the location ( x, y , z ) at that instant of
time ‘ t ’
The wave function for a wave moving along x-axis in complex notation is given by

Where -angular frequency, k- wave number or propagation constant,

- Amplitude of the wave

Physical significance of wave function

The wave function just as itself has no direct physical meaning. It is more difficult
to give a physical interpretation to the amplitude of the wave. The amplitude of the wave
function is certainly not like displacement in water wave or the pressure wave nor the
waves in stretched string. It is a very different kind of wave. But the quantity, the squared
Absolute amplitude gives the probability for finding the particle at given location in space
and is referred to as probability density. It is given by

Thus, in one dimension the probability of finding a particle in the width ‘dx’ of length ‘x’

Similarly, for three dimension, the probability of finding a particle in a given small volume
dV of volume V is given by
here
Here ‘P’ Probability of finding the particle at given location per unit volume and is called
Probability Density.
According to Max Born’s interpretation
The wave function is complex the probability density is given by

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Where * is the complex conjugate of and the above product results in real number.

Normalization and Normalized wave function

Since the particle exists somewhere in volume V then the probability of finding the
particle in the given volume V is equal 1.

Thus
If we are unable to locate the particle in volume V then the notion can be extended
to the whole space with

But, normally, the value of the above integral will not be unity but contains an indefinite
constant which can be determined along with sign using above considerations. The process
is called normalization and the wave function which satisfies the above condition is called
normalized wave function.

Operators
An operator ‘O’ is a mathematical operation which may be applied to a function f (x)
which changes the function to another function g (x ) . This can be represented as,
O f ( x) = g ( x)
d 3
For example,
dx
( )
x + 1 = 3x 2

d
In operator language, it may be stated that when the operator operates on
dx
function (x 3
)
+ 1 , it changes to 3x 2 .
Now we shall illustrate the importance of remembering the order in which the
individual operations must be carried out.
For example, if we first operate function f (x ) on the operator x , getting x f (x ) , and
d
next operate the result with then the final result is
dx
d
[x f ( x ) ] = x d f ( x ) + f ( x )
dx dx
d
Now if we operate f (x) first with and then the result with operator x , then the
dx
d
result is x f (x)
dx

Dept. of Physics, Jain University 18

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d
So that [x f ( x ) ] ≠ x d f ( x )
dx dx

Eigen functions and Eigen values

The Schrodinger wave equation is a second order differential equation. Thus solving
the Schrodinger wave equation to a particular system we get many expressions for wave
function ( ). However, all wave functions are not acceptable. Only those wave functions
which satisfy certain conditions are acceptable. Such wave functions are called Eigen
functions for the system. The energy values corresponding to the Eigen functions are called
Eigen values. The wave functions are acceptable if they satisfy the following conditions

1) must be finite everywhere (not zero everywhere)

2) must be single valued which implies that solution is unique for a given position in
space
3) and its first derivatives with respect to its variables must be continuous everywhere.

Schrödinger Wave Equation

In quantum mechanics, the basic fundamental governing equation which describes
the state of the system is the Schrödinger Equation
We can determine the motion of an atomic particle using Schrödinger Equation just
as we determine the motion of the classical particle using Newton’s law. The solution of the
Schrödinger Equation gives the wave function of the particle that carries information about
the wave behavior associated with the particle.
The Schrödinger Equation can be set up in two different contexts. One, which is
general and takes care both position and time variations of the wave function, It is called
Time dependent Schrödinger Wave Equation.
The other one is applicable only to steady state conditions, in which case the wave
function can have variation with position not with time. It is called Time independent
Schrödinger Wave Equation.

Time dependent Schrödinger Wave Equation

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘ v ’ along +ve X-axis. The deBroglie
wave length ‘λ
λ’ is given by
h
λ= .................. (1)
mv
The wave equation for one dimensional propagation of waves is given by

∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
= along + ve X − axis
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2

Where ' v' is Wave Velocity

Here ψ = ψ 0 e − i ( ϖt − kx ) ..................(2)
Where ψ0 is the amplitude at the point of consideration ω is angular frequency and k is
Wave Number.
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Differentiating equation (2) with respect to time (t), we get

∂ψ
= −iωψ..............(3)
∂t
Differentiating equation (2) twice with respect to x, we get

∂ 2ψ
2
= − k 2 ψ .......... ....( 4 )
∂ x
Using Einstein and deBroglie equations
E 2π p 2π
ω= and k =
h h
Substitute the above in the equations (3) and (4)
∂ψ 2π
(3) ⇒ = − iE ψ
∂t h
− h ∂ψ
or = E ψ ........( 5 )
i2π ∂ t
∂ 2ψ 2 4π
2
( 4) ⇒ = − p ψ
∂ x2 h2
h 2 ∂ 2ψ
or − 2 2
= p 2 ψ.........(6)
4π ∂ x
The total energy of the moving particle is given by
E = K.E + P.E
p2
or = (E − V)
2m
Multiply above equation throughout by Ψ, we get

p2
ψ = E ψ − Vψ
2m
Substituting, for Eψ and p 2 ψ from equations (5) and (6) resp., we get,

h 2 1 ∂ 2ψ 1 h ∂ψ
− 2 2
+ Vψ = −
4π 2m ∂ x i 2π ∂ t
h 2 ∂ 2ψ ih ∂ψ
or − 2 2
+ Vψ = .......(7) Q −1 = i 2
8π m ∂ x 2π ∂ t
Equation (7) is the one-dimensional time-dependent Schrödinger equation.

Time-Independent Schrödinger Wave Equation

The wave equation which has variations only with respect to position and describes the
steady state is called Time-Independent Schrodinger wave equation.

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Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘ v ’ along +ve X-axis. The deBroglie
wave length ‘λ
λ’ is given by
h
λ= .................. (1)
mv

The wave equation for one dimensional propagation of waves is given by

∂ 2ψ 1 ∂ 2ψ
= ..................(2) along + ve X − axis
∂x 2 v 2 ∂t 2

Where ' v' is Wave Velocity

Here ψ = ψ 0 e − i (ϖt −kx ) ..................(3)

Where ψ0 is the amplitude at the point of consideration ω is angular frequency and k is
Wave Number.
Differentiating ψ twice with respect to time (t), we get

∂ 2ψ
2
= −ω 2ψ 0 e −i (ϖt − kx ) ..................(4)
∂t
Substituting equation (4) in equation (2)

∂ 2ψ 1 1
(
= 2 − ω 2ψ = ) (− 2πf )2ψ Here f is the frequency of the wave and λ is the wave length
∂x 2
v ( fλ ) 2

∂ 2ψ  4π 2 
∴ 2 = − 2 ψ
∂x  λ 
∂ 2ψ  4π 2 
⇒ 2 +  2 ψ = 0
∂x  λ 
Substituting for λ from equation (1) we get

 
 
∂ 2ψ  4π 2 
+
∂x 2   h  2 ψ = 0

  mv  
  
∂ 2ψ  4π 2  2 m 2 v 2
+  ψ =0
∂x 2  h 2  2
∂ 2ψ  8π 2 m  1
2
+  2  mv 2ψ = 0 ..................(5)
∂x  h 2

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1
The kinetic energy of the particle mv 2 is given by
2

1
mv 2 = E − V here E is the Total Energy of the particle and V is the Potential Energy
2

Therefore equation (5) becomes

∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m( E − V )
2
+ ψ =0
∂x h2

Generalizing the equation for three dimensions we get

∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m( E − V )
+ + + ψ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 h2

8π 2 m( E − V )
∆2ψ + ψ =0
h2

∂2 2 ∂2 ∂2
Here ∆ = + +
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

Hence the Time-Independent Schrodinger Wave equation for three dimensions.

Applications of Schrödinger wave equation

Particle in a one dimensional box or one dimensional potential well of infinite

height

Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ bouncing back and forth between the walls of one
dimensional potential well. The particle is said to be under bound state. Let the motion of
the particle be confined along the X-axis in between two infinitely hard walls at x=0 and
x=a. Since the walls are infinitely hard, no energy is lost by the particle during the collision
with walls and the total energy remains constant.

In between walls i.e. 0 < x < a, the potential

energy V=0.

Beyond the walls i.e. x ≤ 0 and x ≥ a, the potential

energy V=∞.

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Beyond the walls

Since the particle is unable to penetrate the hard walls it exists only inside the potential
well. Hence ψ=0 and the probability of finding the particle outside the potential well is also
zero.

Inside the potential well

Since the potential inside the well is V=0, the Schrodinger wave equation is given by

∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m(E − 0)
+ ψ =0
∂x 2 h2

∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m E
∴ + ψ =0
∂x 2 h2

∂ 2ψ 8π 2 m E
+ k2 ψ = 0 .................(1) Here k 2 = ...........(2)
∂x 2 h2

For the given value of E, k is constant. The general solution for the equation (1) is given by

ψ ( x) = A sin kx + B cos kx ...............(3) Where A and B are arbitrary constants. The values of

these constants can be obtained by applying the boundary conditions

I) At x=0 , ψ(x)=0 . Substituting the values in equation (3) we get

0 = Asin0 + B cos0
∴B = 0
Hence equation(3) becomesψ (x) = Asinkx ............(4)

II) At x=a, ψ(x)=0. Substituting the values in equation (4) we get

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0 = Asin ka
Since A ≠ 0 (Otherwiseno Solution), ka = nπ Where n= 1, 2, 3,……
nπ
⇒k = ...................(5)
a

nπ x
Thus the wave function becomes ψ ( x) = A sin ...............(6)
a

Also substituting the value of ‘k’ from eq (5) into eq (2) we get

2 2
 nπ  8π m E n2h2
  = ⇒ E= ...............(7) hence the energy Eigen
 a  h2 8ma 2
values.

Thus substituting n=1 in the equation (7) we get

h2
E1 = is the ground state energy of the particle and is also called zero point
8ma 2
energy.

Hence E n = n 2 E1 E2 and E3 are energies of the first and second excited states respectively

and so on. Hence for a particle in the bound state, the energy values are discrete.

Normalization of wave function

The wave function for a particle in a box is given by equation (6)

nπ x
ψ ( x) = A sin
a

The value of the arbitrary constant ‘A’ can be determined by the process of
normalization. Since the particle has to exist somewhere inside the box we have

a a

∫ P( x) dx = ∫ ψ ( x) dx = 1 Substituting the wave function from equation (6)

2

0 0

a
 nπ x 
∫A sin 2   dx = 1
2

0  a 

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1
Since sin 2 θ = [1 − cos 2θ ] we have
2

A2   2 nπ x  
a

∫
2 01 − cos
 a 
  dx = 1 Integrating the equation we get

a
A2  a  2 π n x 
 x − 2nπ sin  a  = 1 The second term takes the value zero for both the limits
2    0

A2
∴ [a − 0] = 1 ⇒ A = 2
2 a

Thus the Eigen function is given by

 2 nπ x
ψ n ( x) =   sin
 a a

The wave functions and the probability densities for the first three values of ’n’ are as
shown in fig

Thus for ground state (n=1) The probability of finding the particle at the walls is zero and at
the centre (a/2) is maximum. The first excited state has three nodes and the second excited
state has four nodes.
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LASERS
Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser is a
highly “monochromatic coherent beam of light of very high intensity”. In 1960 Mainmann
built the first “LASER” using Ruby as active medium.

Interaction of Radiation with matter:

1. Stimulated Absorption: -
E2 When an atom in the ground state say E1 absorbs a photon
Photon of energy (E2 - E1) it makes transition into exited state E2. This
is called Stimulated or Induced absorption. It is represented as
E1 follows,

Photon + Atom = Atom*.

2. Spontaneous Emission: -Spontaneous emission is one in which atom in the excited

state emits a photon when it returns to its lower energy state without the influence of any
external energy.
E2
Consider an atom in the excited state E2. Excited state of an
atom is highly unstable. With in a short interval time, of the
hν order of 10-8 sec,atom returns to one of its lower energy state
E1 say E1 and emits difference in energy in the form of photon of
energy hv = E2 - E1 spontaneously.

If the two atoms are in the same excited state and returns to some lower energy states
two photons of having same energy are emitted. These Two photons may not travel in the
same direction. They produce in-coherent beam of light. Spontaneous emission is
represented as follows,

Atom* = Atom + Photon.

3. Stimulated Emission: -Consider an atom in the excited state E2. If a photon of energy
E2 - E1 is made to incident on the atom in the excited state E2.
The incident photon forces (stimulates) the atom in the excited
E2 state to make transition in to ground state E1 by emitting
Photon hν difference in energy in the form of a photon. This type of
hν emission in which atom in the excited state is forced to emit a
E1 photon by the influence of another photon of right energy is
called stimulated emission. Stimulated emission can be
represented as follows.

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Photon + atom* = Atom + (photon + photon).

When stimulated emission takes place, incident photon and the emitted photon are in phase
with each other and travel along the same direction. Therefore they are coherent.

Lasing Action (Laser Action) : -

Let an atom in the excited state is stimulated by a photon of right energy so

that atom makes stimulated emission. Two coherent photons are obtained. These two
coherent photons if stimulate two atoms in the exited state to make emission then four

coherent photons are produced. These four coherent photons so that stimulates 4 atoms in
the excited state, 8 coherent photons are produced and so on. As the process continues
number of coherent photons increases. These coherent photons constitute an intense beam
of laser. This phenomenon of building up of number of coherent photons so as to get an
intense laser beam is called lasing action.

Population inversion and optical pumping: -

In an order to produce laser beam there should be more number of

stimulated emissions when compared to spontaneous emission. It is possible only if number
of atoms in the exited stats is grater than that is the ground state. When system is in
thermal equilibrium, then number of atoms in the higher energy level is always less than
the number of atoms in the lower energy level. If by some means number of atoms in the
exited slate is made to exceed number of atoms in the ground state then population
inversion is said to have established between excited state and ground state. The method
of achieving the population inversion is called pumping. If light is used to pump electrons
to the higher level then the method is called Optical Pumping. If the electric field is used
to pump electrons to the higher level then the method is called Electrical Pumping.
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Metastable State: - Population inversion can be created with the help of three energy
levels as follows.

Excited Let E1 is the ground state of an atom. Let E2 and E3

E3 Radiation less are the two excited states. If an atom is excited into the
energy state, within a short inter of time of 10-8 sec,
E2 Metastable
atom makes a transition into the energy state E2. Let
Laser lifetime of the atom in the energy level E2 is of the order
of 10-2 to 10-3 sec. Then atoms stay in the excited state
E1 Ground
E2 for sufficiently long time without making any
spontaneous emission.

As more and mare atoms are excited from the ground state to E1 more and more atoms
are transferred from E3 to E2. As a result, within a short interval of time population inversion
is established between energy level E2 and E1. The energy level E2 in which atoms remain for
unusually longer time is called Metastabte state. When transition from E3 to E2 takes place
excited atom looses energy in the form of heat without emitting any radiation. Such
transitions are called radiation less transition (Non-radiative transitions).

Requisites of a Laser System: -

The Three requisites of a Laser system are

1) Energy Source or Excitation Source for Pumping action

2) Medium Supporting population inversion called Active Medium
3) The Laser Cavity

Appropriate amount of energy is to be supplied for the atoms in order excite them to
higher energy levels. If the Input energy is in the form of light energy then pumping is
called optical pumping. If it is in the form of electrical energy then pumping is called
electrical pumping.

Population inversion occurs at certain stage in the Active medium due to the
absorption of energy. After this stage the Active medium is capable of Emitting laser light.

The Laser Cavity consists of an active medium bound between two mirrors. The
Mirrors reflect the light two and fro through the active medium. This also helps to tap
certain permissible part of laser energy from the active medium.

The Ruby Laser

Construction

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• The ruby is a crystal of Al2O3 (Corundum) with some of the Al3+ ions replaced by Cr3+
ions. The chromium ions give the characteristic colour (red) to the ruby crystal. For the
purpose of laser production, the doping concentration of chromium ions is 0.05%.
• A single crystal of ruby in the form of a cylindrical rod is chosen. The length of the rods
can vary from 5 to 20 cm while their diameter can vary from 0.5 to 2cm.
• The end faces of the rod are made optically flat and parallel to each other. One face of
the rod is fully silvered while the other face is partially silvered
• The ruby crystal is placed along the axis of a helical Xenon flash tube. The xenon flash
tube is connected to a high voltage pulse generator. For each single voltage pulse, the
Xenon tube gives out flashes of powerful light which last for several milliseconds.
• Surrounding the flash tube is a cylindrical mirror whose function is to reflect light on to
the ruby crystal.
• During the working of the laser a lot of heat is generated. This heat is dissipated by
circulating cold water in thin tubes which surround the crystal.
• The ruby laser satisfies the four requisites needed for any laser system. The crystal rod
along with the mirrored faces functions as the resonant cavity. Optical pumping is
achieved using light from xenon flash tube. Chromium ions are the active medium,
which support population inversion.
•
Working

Shown here is the energy level diagram

of chromium ions.

• Light from the flash tube excites the

ions from the ground state (4A1) to
the two higher energy bands (4F1 and
4
F2). Remember when chromium ions
interacts the outermost energy levels
split into many levels forming a band.

• As there are many levels present in this band, the number of photons available, for
exciting the ions, are many. Therefore numerous ions are able to absorb the photons
and make transition from the ground state to one of the levels of the band.

• The atoms in the 4F1 and 4F2 band reside there for a period of 10-8s and then make a
transition to the metastable levels 2Ā and Ē. The energy difference between the energy
bands and the metastable levels is not released as electromagnetic energy but is taken
up by the vibrating atoms of the lattice and is dissipated as heat. These kind of
transitions are non- radiative in nature.
4
• Therefore F1 ⇒ 2Ā
4
F1 ⇒ Ē
4
F1 ⇒ 2Ā Non-radiative transitions
4
F2 ⇒ Ē

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• The 2Ā and Ē levels being metastable, the atoms reside in them for an unusually long
period of time. In a short while the number of atoms in the two metastable levels is
more than the ground level. Thus population inversion is established. Induced transitions
between these metastable levels and the ground state give rise to the needed laser
radiation. Transition from 2Ā to the ground state gives rise to photons of wavelength
692.8nm and the transition from Ē to the ground state gives rise to photons of
wavelength 694.3nm.

• The output of the laser is taken from the partially silvered mirror. In the output the
intensity of radiation of wavelength 694.3nm is more than the 692.8nm radiation. One
of the probable reasons for this could be that the population of the Ē level is more than
the 2Ā level. That is why more photons of wavelength 694.3nm would be released per
second. The second probable reason (although not significant) is that the probability of
transition from the Ē to the ground level is more than the probability of a transition from
2Ā level to the ground level. Why it is not significant is that the two levels have an
energy difference of only 0.004eV. This is not too great to cause a significant difference
in the probabilities.

Application of ruby laser

• It is used in holography
• As drilling requires pulsed laser, ruby lasers are the most suitable

The biggest disadvantage of this laser is that since the output is discontinuous, its use is
limited to only special applications. Wherever continuous laser beam is required the helium -
neon laser is more suitable.

Helium-Neon Laser (Gaseous state laser): -

Construction: -It consists of quartz discharge tube of length 1m and diameter 1.5cm fitted
with Brewster’s windows on either side and filled with the mixture of He and Ne gas in the
ratio of 10:1. It is placed between two highly parallel plane mirrors one of which is
completely silvered while the other is partially silvered. The ends of the tube have two
electrodes which are connected to a high power voltage source.

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Working: The energy level diagram for He and Ne atoms are as shown in the fig. When
discharge is produced in the tube large numbers of electrons are produced. These highly
energetic electrons collide with He atoms, which are abundant and excite them to energy
levels 21s or 23s of He system. This type of collision is called collision of first kind and
represented as follows,

e1+He → He + e2

Where el and e2 are energies of electrons before and after collision.

When the helium atoms collide with the neon atoms in the ground state, because of close
E 13S ≅E E 2S3 ≅E
coincidence in the energy values 2 S ; 2S , resonant energy transfer takes
place from helium to neon atoms. As a result, the neon atoms get excited to 2S and 3S
levels, whereas the helium atoms return to the ground state. This is called 2nd kind of
collision and can be represented as

He* + Ne Ne* + He

Here, the states 3S and 2S are called as virtual metastable states because the energy
values of 3S and 2S of Ne are equal to the 21S and 23S metastable state of He. Thus
population inversion built up between 2S and 3S levels with the lower energy level 2p which
leads the laser transitions. [3S to 2p transition gives laser light of wavelength 6328Ao and
2S and 2p transition giving rise to 11523Ao radiation which is in the Infrared region]

Applications of Laser

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Because of high intensity, high degree of monochromaticity and coherence, lasers find
remarkable applications in medicine, communication, defence, photography, material
processing etc.

Laser Welding

In performing the task of welding, laser welding is superior to other welding such as arc
welding, gas welding, electron welding, etc.

• Focus the laser beam on to the spot to be welded.

• Due to the excess of heat generated, only focused portion melts.
• The heat produced by the beam is so intense that, impurities in the material such
as oxides float up on the surface and upon cooling the material becomes
homogeneous solid structure and it makes a strong joint.

Advantages:

• Laser welding is a contact less process and thus no foreign materials can enter
into the welded joint.
• In this type of welding, no destruction occurs in the shape of work piece and the
heat is dissipated immediately ( since the total amount of heat supplied is very
small compared to the regular welding)
• The laser beam can be controlled to a great precision, so that we can focus the
laser beam precisely to the welding spot. Even we can weld difficult to reach
the locations in the material.
• Since the heat affected zones are very small, laser welding is ideal at places
which are surrounded by heat sensitive components.

Laser Cutting

Laser cutting of metals is generally associated by gas blowing. The oxygen gas is
passed through the nozzle and the tip of the nozzle is pointed at the spot, where the
laser beam is focused.

• The combustion of the gas burns the metal thus reducing the laser power
required for cutting.
• Also the tinny splinters along with the molten part of the metal will blow away by
the oxygen jet.
• The blowing action increases the depth and also the speed of cutting.
• The laser, which controls the accuracy of the cutting thus, the cut edges will be
high quality.

Advantages:

• The quality of cutting is very high

• There will be no thermal damage and chemical change when cutting is done in
inert atmosphere.
• 3-d cutting can also be done very easy.

Drilling:

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• Drilling of holes is achieved by subjecting the material to 10-4 to 10-3S duration

pulse.
• The intense heat generated over a short duration by the pulses evaporates the
material locally, thus leaving a hole.

Advantages:

Conventional Method Laser

The tools wear out while drilling This problem doesn’t exist in laser
setup

Whereas it could be done only to a Drilling can be achieved at any

limited extent oblique angle

It is difficult Very fine holes 0.2 to 0.5mm

diameter can be drilled. The holes
may be even adjacent to each other

Large force has to apply to drill the Very hard material or brittle
hard materials or brittle materials. materials can be drilled. There is no
mechanical stress with a laser beam.

Measurement of pollutants in atmosphere:

The concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere such as carbon monoxide, sulphur

dioxide, nitrous oxide, etc, can be measured using laser the way RADAR system is
used. Hence it is called LIDAR i.e Light Detection and Ranging. The laser technique
consists of a Laser source, retro reflector, optical detector, signal processing unit and
analyzer.

Project the pulses of laser beam to the atmosphere, the area where the
pollutants are to be measured. The back scattered light by the congestion of matter
is detected by the photo detector. The reflected laser beam undergoes attenuation
due to the absorption by the pollutants in the atmosphere. Since different gases in
atmosphere absorb laser energy at different wavelength, the amount of absorbance
by each wavelength indicates the amount of pollutants in the atmosphere. The
energy of the attenuated beam received at the detector is integrated and compared
with the reference laser energy source. The difference in energy called error signal
is analyzed and convert into a readout signal by the computer. The reading indicates
the concentration and distribution of pollutants at different section in the
atmosphere. But it does not give any information about the nature of the scattered
particles. However it can be obtained by Raman back scattering experiment.

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Raman Back Scattering:

Laser light is passed through the sample and the spectrum of the transmitted light is
obtained.

Since laser is a monochromatic, hence, we expect only one line in the spectrum. But
due to Raman scattering, we are observing several lines along with the expected
line.

The other lines of low intensity lie symmetrically above and below to this line. These
additional lines are called side bands and their frequencies result when the oscillating
frequencies of the gas molecules are added or subtracted from the incident light’s
frequency.

Since different types of gas molecules will have different oscillating frequencies and
produce different side band.

Thus by observing Raman spectra of the back scattered light in the gas sample, the
nature of the scattering particles and their compositions can be measured.

HOLOGRAPHY

HOLO - COMPLETE GRAPHY – RECORDING (WRITING)

Holography was discovered by Dennis Gabor in 1948.

Defn: Holography is a technique of capturing pictorial details of 3-d on 2-d recording

aid, by using the phenomenon of interference.

When an object is illuminated with the light source, the light gets reflected and
scattered from the various parts of the object and they carry the information of the
object in the form of intensity and phase.

** In Photography only the intensity is recorded and the phase information is lost

** In holography both intensity and phase distribution is recorded simultaneously

using interference technique. The holographic picture provides 3-d effects even
though the recording is of 2-d.

Principle of Hologram construction:

The interference pattern, which is formed due to the superposition of reference and
object beams, has the ability to produce the transmitted effect of the object beam,
without the presence of the object, by diffracting the reference beam.

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** The photographic plate on which the interference fringes are recorded is the
hologram.

The holography consist of two steps process called recording and reconstructions of
the image.

Recording of the image of an object:

There are two methods of recording the image, they are:

(1) Wavefront division technique: [Wavefront: It is the locus of points where the
particles vibrate in the same phase simultaneously.]

-> The given object and a mirror are placed one below the other such that a
part of the expanded laser beam is incident on the mirror and remaining part
falls on the object.

->The part of light reflected from the mirror (plane Wavefront) called
reference beam is incident on the photographic plate.

When the light incident on the object, every point on the object scatters the
incident light.

Hence spherical wave fronts generates from each points on the object. The
reflected beam is called object beam which incident on the photographic
plate.

The photosensitive surface responds to the resultant effect of interference
between the spherical wavelets of the object beam, and the plane waves of
the reference beam. Thus the interference effects are recorded on the plate.

The interference pattern consists of concentric circular rings pattern that mark
successive regions of constructive and distructive interference. The ring
pattern is called Gabor Zone Plate. Every set of spherical wavelets that
start from each point on the object generates its own zone plates. Thus
recording consists of number of zone plates.

Such a developed photographic film is called hologram.

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(2) Amplitude division technique: In this method an expanded laser source is

incident on a beam splitter. The beam splitter reflects a part of the incident light and
remaining part will be transmitted.

The beam splitter is oriented such that the reflected light incident on the
mirror and transmitted light incident on the object.

The mirror in-turn reflects the beam called reference beam, directly on to a
photographic plate kept at a suitable position for recording the image of the object.

The transmitted light, which is incident on the object, gets scattered. The
spherical wave fronts associated with the scattered rays serve as object beam and
interfere with the reference beam at the photographic plate and the resultant pattern
is recorded in it.

The photographic plate after the development becomes the hologram of the object.

Reconstruction Process:

It is a second step in holography. For the reconstruction of the image, the

same laser beam is directed at the hologram in the same direction as the reference
beam was incident on it at the stage of recording.

When the light is incident on the hologram, diffraction takes place and
secondary waves originates from each constituent zone plate, which interfere
constructively in certain directions and generate both a real and a virtual image of
the corresponding point of the object on the transmission side of the hologram.

A real image will be formed infront of the hologram at the same distance as
that of the virtual image behind from the hologram.

By seeing through the hologram (like seeing through a window) from the
transmission side, it appears as though the original object is lying on the other side

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of it at the same place. This is virtual image due to regeneration. By switching the
direction of view, different set of points which corresponds to constructive
interference are observed, which regenerate a different prospective of the object.
Therefore, it gives three dimensional effects.

Applications of Holography:

1. Holographic interferometry:

Interferometry is This is used to study the small distortions of an object that

take place such as due to stress or vibration etc. An object beam from an object and
a reference beam are made to superpose on a photographic film forming an
interference pattern. After the film is developed, it is put back in the same place and
the reference beam is now sent again as before. Also the object now is put under
stress, so that it undergoes deformation. The object beam from the deformed object
superposes on the diffracted reference beam. The diffracted reference beam, which
imitates the object beam, forms an interference pattern with the object beam from
the stressed object. This interference pattern gives us the information about the kind
and the extent of deformation. This is very useful when the deformation is extremely
small and as such cannot be determined by other conventional techniques.

2. Diffraction grating:

When two parallel beams superpose on the photographic film, the interference
pattern consists of parallel straight fringes. The film when developed appears like a
grating. The quality of such a grating is much superior when compared to the
conventional grating in the sense that the grating constant in this case is truly a
constant .

3. Acoustic grating:

In this case two coherent ultrasonic breams, one reference and the other
reflected from an object, are made incident on a medium. The resulting interference
pattern serves as a grating for laser light, which forms an optical image of the

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object. This is useful for imaging the human body parts and studying physical
changes.

4. Encoding :
If the reference beam is sent through a mask, then the interference pattern
becomes very unique. If an attempt is made to read the hologram and if the person
reading the hologram is not aware of the masking used, then he will not be able to
decipher the image of the object. This procedure ensures further secrecy in recording
information

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Dept. of Physics, Jain University