Restoration Movement

Restoration Movement 1
Restoration Movement
The Restoration Movement (also known as the American Restoration Movement or the Stone-Campbell
Movement) is a Christian movement that began on the American frontier during the Second Great Awakening of the
early 19th century. The movement sought to restore the church and "the unification of all Christians in a single body
patterned after the church of the New Testament."[1] :54 They do not consider themselves to be Protestants since they
maintain that they stem directly from the first century church.
The Restoration Movement developed from several independent efforts to return to apostolic Christianity, but two
groups, which independently developed similar approaches to the Christian faith, were particularly important to the
development of the movement.[2] :27-32 The first, led by Barton W. Stone, began at Cane Ridge, Kentucky and called
themselves simply "Christians". The second began in western Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia) and
was led by Thomas Campbell and his son, Alexander Campbell; they used the name "Disciples of Christ". Both
groups sought to restore the whole Christian church on the pattern set forth in the New Testament, and both believed
that creeds kept Christianity divided. In 1832 they joined in fellowship with a handshake.
Among other things, they were united in the belief that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God; that Christians should
celebrate the Lord's Supper on the first day of each week; and that baptism of adult believers by immersion in water
is a necessary condition for salvation. Because the founders wanted to abandon all denominational labels, they used
the biblical names for the followers of Jesus.[3] :27 Both groups promoted a return to the purposes of the first-century
churches as described in the New Testament. One historian of the movement has argued that it was primarily a unity
movement, with the restoration motif playing a subordinate role.[4] :8
The Restoration Movement has since divided into multiple separate groups. There are three main branches in the
U.S.: the Churches of Christ, the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, and the Christian Church
(Disciples of Christ). Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of
restoration and ecumenism, with the Churches of Christ and Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ
resolving the tension by stressing restoration, while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension
by stressing ecumenism.[4] :383 A number of groups outside the U.S. also have historical associations with this
movement, such as the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada and the Churches of Christ in Australia.
Background influences
During the late Middle Ages, some early dissenters such as John
Wycliff and John Huss called for a restoration of a primitive form of
Christianity, but they were driven underground. As a result, some
scholars believe it is difficult to find any direct links between such
early dissenters and the restoration movement.[5] :13
Beginning with the Renaissance period, intellectual roots become
easier to discern.[5] :11 At the heart of the Reformation was an emphasis
on the principle of "Scripture alone" (sola scriptura).[5] :22-23 This,
along with the related insistence on the right of individuals to read and
interpret the Bible for themselves and a movement to reduce ritual,
formed part of the intellectual background of early Restoration
Movement leaders.[5] :32-33 The branch of the Reformation movement
represented by Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin also contributed an
emphasis on "restoring biblical forms and patterns."[5] :33
Huldrych Zwingli as depicted by Hans Asper in

an oil portrait from 1531; Kunstmuseum
Winterthur.
The rationalism of John Locke provided another influence.[5] :78

Reacting to the deism of Lord Herbert, Locke sought a way to address
religious division and persecution without abandoning Scripture.[5] :78
To do this, Locke argued against the right of government to enforce
religious orthodoxy and turned to the Bible to supply a set of beliefs
that all Christians could agree upon.[5] :78-79 The core teachings which
he viewed as essential were the messiahship of Jesus and Jesus' direct
commands.[5] :78-79 Christians could be devoutly committed to other
Biblical teachings but, in Locke's view, they were non-essentials over
which Christians should never fight or try to coerce each other.[5] :79
Unlike the Puritans and the later Restoration Movement, Locke did not
call for a systematic restoration of the early church.[5] :79
One of the basic goals of the English Puritans was to restore a pure,
John Locke by Herman Verelst. "primitive" church that would be a true apostolic community.[5] :40,41
This conception was a critical influence in the development of the
Puritans in Colonial America.[5] :50-56
During the First Great Awakening, a movement developed among those Baptists known as Separate Baptists. Two
themes of this movement were the rejection of creeds and "freedom in the Spirit."[5] :65 The Separate Baptists saw
Scripture as the "perfect rule" for the church.[5] :66 However, while they turned to the Bible for a structural pattern
for the church, they did not insist on complete agreement on the details of that pattern.[5] :67 This group originated in
New England, but was especially strong in the South where the emphasis on a biblical pattern for the church grew
stronger.[5] :67 In the last half of the 18th century, Separate Baptists became more numerous on the western frontier
of Kentucky and Tennessee, where the Stone and Campbell movements would later take root.[5] :68 The development
of the Separate Baptists in the southern frontier helped prepare the ground for the Restoration Movement. The
membership of both the Stone and Campbell groups drew heavily from among the ranks of the Separate Baptists.[5]
:67
Separate Baptist restorationism also contributed to the development of the Landmark Baptists in the same area as the
Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement at about the same time. Under the leadership of James Robinson Graves, this
group looked for a precise blueprint for the primitive church, believing that any deviation from that blueprint would
keep one from being part of the true church.[5] :68
The ideal of restoring a "primitive"
form of Christianity grew in popularity
in the U.S. after the American
Revolution.[5] :89-94 This desire to
restore a purer form of Christianity
played a role in the development of
many groups during this period, known
as the Second Great Awakening,
including the Mormons, Baptists and
Shakers.[5] :89 The Restoration
Movement began during, and was
greatly influenced by, this second
Awakening.[6] :368
While the
Campbells resisted what they saw as
the spiritual manipulation of the camp
1839 Methodist camp meeting, watercolor from the Second Great Awakening.
meetings, the Southern phase of the
Awakening "was an important matrix
of Barton Stone's reform movement" and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the
Campbells.[6] :368
James O'Kelly was an early advocate of seeking unity through a return to New Testament Christianity.[7] :216 In
1792, dissatisfied with the role of bishops in the Methodist Episcopal Church, he separated from that body. O'Kelly's
movement, centering in Virginia and North Carolina, was originally called Republican Methodists. In 1794 they
adopted the name Christian Church.[8]
During the same period, Elias Smith of Vermont and Abner Jones of New Hampshire led a movement espousing
views similar to those of O’Kelly.[5] :68[9] :190 They believed that members could, by looking to scripture alone,
simply be Christians without being bound to human traditions and the denominations that had been brought over
from Europe.[5] :68[9] :190
Stone movement
Barton W. Stone was born to John and Mary Stone in 1772 in Port Tobacco, Maryland.
During his childhood, the boy grew up within the Church of England, then had Baptist,
Methodist and Episcopal church influences as well. Preachers representing Baptists and
Methodists came to the area during the Second Great Awakening, and Baptist and
Methodist chapels were founded in the county.
Barton entered the Guilford Academy in North Carolina in 1790.[4] :71 While there,
Stone heard James McGready (a Presbyterian minister) speak.[4] :72 A few years later, he
became a Presbyterian minister.[4] :72 But, as Stone looked more deeply into the beliefs
of the Presbyterians, especially the Westminster Confession of Faith, he doubted that
Barton W. Stone
some of the church beliefs were truly Bible-based.[4] :72,73 He was unable to accept the Calvinistic doctrines of total
depravity, unconditional election and predestination.[4] :72,73 He also believed that "Calvinism's alleged theological
sophistication had . . . been bought at the price of fomenting division" and "blamed it . . . for producing ten different
sects within the Presbyterian tradition alone."[10] :110
Cane Ridge revival

In 1801, the Cane Ridge Revival in
Kentucky planted the seed for a movement
in Kentucky and the Ohio River valley to
disassociate from denominationalism. In
1803 Stone and others withdrew from the
Kentucky Presbytery and formed the
Springfield Presbytery. The defining event
of the Stone wing of the movement was the
publication of Last Will and Testament of
The Springfield Presbytery, at Cane Ridge,
Kentucky, in 1804. The Last Will is a brief
document in which Stone and five others
announced their withdrawal from
Presbyterianism and their intention to be
solely part of the body of Christ.[11] The Interior of the original meeting house at Cane Ridge, Kentucky
writers appealed for the unity of all who
follow Jesus, suggested the value of congregational self-governance, and lifted the Bible as the source for
understanding the will of God. They denounced the divisive use of the Augsburg Confession,[3] :79 and adopted the
name "Christian" to identify their group. [3] :80
Christian Connection
Elias Smith had heard of the Stone movement by 1804, and the O'Kelly movement by 1808.[9] :190 The three groups
merged by 1810.[9] :190 At that time the combined movement had a membership of approximately 20,000.[9] :190 This
loose fellowship of churches was called by the names "Christian Connection/Connexion" or "Christian Church."[5]
:68[9] :190
Characteristics of the Stone movement

The cornerstone for the Stone movement was Christian freedom, which led them to a rejection of all the historical
creeds, traditions and theological systems that had developed over time and a focus on a primitive Christianity based
on the Bible.[5] :104,105
While restoring primitive Christianity was central to the Stone movement, they saw restoring the lifestyle of the
early church as essential, and during the early years "focused more . . . on holy and righteous living than on the
forms and structures of the early church.[5] :103 The group did also seek to restore the primitive church.[5] :104
However, due to concern that emphasizing particular practices could undermine Christian freedom, this effort tended
to take the form of rejecting tradition rather than an explicit program of reconstructing New Testament practices.[5]
:104
The emphasis on freedom was strong enough that the movement avoided developing any ecclesiastical
traditions, resulting in a movement that was "largely without dogma, form, or structure."[5] :104,105 What held "the
movement together was a commitment to primitive Christianity."[5] :105
Another theme was that of hastening the millennium.[5] :104 Many Americans of the period believed that the
millennium was near and based their hopes for the millennium on their new nation, the United States.[5] :104
Members of the Stone movement believed that only a unified Christianity based on the apostolic church, rather than
a country or any of the existing denominations, could lead to the coming of the millennium.[5] :104 Stone's
millennialism has been described as more "apocalyptic" than that of Alexander Campbell, in that he believed people
were too flawed to usher in a millennial age through human progress.[12] :6,7 Rather, he believed that it depended on
the power of God, and that while waiting for God to establish His kingdom, one should live as if the rule of God
were already fully established.[12] :6
For the Stone movement, this had less to do with eschatological theories and more about a countercultural
commitment to live as if the kingdom of God were already established on earth.[12] :6,7 This apocalyptic perspective
or world view led many in the Stone movement to adopt pacifism, avoid participating in civil government, and reject
violence, militarism, greed, materialism and slavery.[12] :6
Campbell movement
The Campbell wing of the movement was launched when Thomas Campbell published
the Declaration and Address of the Christian Association of Washington in 1809. The
Presbyterian Synod had suspended his ministerial credentials. In The Declaration and
Address he set forth some of his convictions about the church of Jesus Christ, as he
organized the Christian Association of Washington, in Washington County,
Pennsylvania, not as a church but as an association of persons seeking to grow in faith.[3]
:108-111
On May 4, 1811, the Christian Association constituted itself as a
congregationally governed church. With the building it constructed at Brush Run,
Pennsylvania, it became known as Brush Run Church.[3] :117 When their study of the
Thomas Campbell New Testament led the reformers to begin to practice baptism by immersion, the nearby
Redstone Baptist Association invited Brush Run Church to join with them for the
purpose of fellowship. The reformers agreed, provided that they would be "allowed to preach and to teach whatever
they learned from the Scriptures."[13] :86
Thomas' son Alexander immigrated to the US to join him in 1809, and before long
assumed the leading role in the movement.[5] :106
The Campbells worked within the Redstone Baptist Association during the period 1815
through 1824. While both the Campbells and the Baptists shared practices of baptism by
immersion and congregational polity, it was soon clear that he and his associates were
not traditional Baptists. Within the Redstone Association, some of the Baptist leaders
considered the differences intolerable when Alexander Campbell began publishing a
journal, The Christian Baptist, which promoted reform. Campbell anticipated the conflict
and moved his membership to a congregation of the Mahoning Baptist Association in Alexander Campbell
1824.[3] :131
Alexander used The Christian Baptist to address what he saw as the key issue of reconstructing the apostolic
Christian community in a systematic and rational manner.[5] :106 He wanted to clearly distinguish between essential
and non-essential aspects of primitive Christianity.[5] :106 Among what he identified as essential were
"congregational autonomy, a plurality of elders in each congregation, weekly communion and immersion for the
remission of sins."[5] :106 Among practices he rejected as non-essential were "the holy kiss, deaconesses, communal
living, footwashing and charismatic exercises."[5] :106
In 1827, the Mahoning Association appointed Walter Scott as an evangelist. Through

Scott’s efforts, the Mahoning Association grew rapidly. In 1828, Thomas Campbell
visited several of the congregations formed by Scott and heard him preach. Campbell
believed that Scott was bringing an important new dimension to the movement with his
approach to evangelism.[3] :132-133
Several Baptist associations began disassociating congregations that refused to subscribe
to the Philadelphia Confession.[14] The Mahoning Association came under attack. In
1830, The Mahoning Baptist Association disbanded. The younger Campbell ceased
publication of the Christian Baptist. In January 1831, he began publication of the
Walter Scott Millennial Harbinger.[3] :144-145
Influence of the Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment had a significant influence on the Campbell movement.[5] :80-86 Thomas Campbell was a
student of the Enlightenment philosopher John Locke.[5] :82 While he did not explicitly use the term "essentials," in
the Declaration and Address, Campbell proposed the same solution to religious division as had been advanced
earlier by Herbert and Locke: "[R]educe religion to a set of essentials upon which all reasonable persons might
agree."[5] :80 The essentials he identified were those practices for which the Bible provided "a 'Thus saith the Lord,'
either in express terms or by approved precedent."[5] :81 Unlike Locke, who saw the earlier efforts by Puritans as
inherently divisive, Campbell argued for "a complete restoration of apostolic Christianity."[5] :82 Thomas believed
that creeds served to divide Christians. He also believed that the Bible was clear enough that anyone could
understand it and, thus, creeds were unnecessary.[15] :114
Alexander Campbell was also deeply influenced by Enlightenment thinking, in particular the Scottish School of
Common Sense of Thomas Reid and Dugald Stewart.[5] :84 This group saw the Bible as providing concrete facts
rather than abstract truths, and advocated a scientific or Baconian approach to interpreting the Bible that would begin
with those facts, arrange the ones applicable to a given topic, and then use them to draw conclusions.[5] :84 Alexander
Campbell reflected this approach, when arguing that "the Bible is a book of facts, not of opinions, theories, abstract
generalities, nor of verbal definitions."[5] :84 He believed that if Christians would limit themselves to the facts found
in the Bible, they would necessarily come to agreement. He saw those facts as providing a blueprint or constitution
for the church.[5] :84,85
Characteristics of the Campbell movement

Thomas Campbell combined the Enlightenment approach to unity with the Reformed and Puritan traditions of
restoration.[5] :82,106 The Enlightenment affected the Campbell movement in two ways. First, it provided the idea
that Christian unity could be achieved by finding a set of essentials that all reasonable people could agree on. The
second was the concept of a rational faith that was formulated and defended on the basis of a set of facts derived
from the Bible.[5] :85,86
Alexander Campbell's millennialism was more optimistic than Stone's.[12] :6 He had more confidence in the potential
for human progress and believed that Christians could unite to transform the world and initiate a millennial age.[12] :6
Campbell's conceptions were postmillennial, as he anticipated that the progress of the church and society would lead
to an age of peace and righteousness before the return of Christ.[12] :6 This optimistic approach meant that, in
addition to his commitment to primitivism, he had a progressive strand in his thinking.[12] :7
Merger of the Stone and Campbell movements

The Campbell movement was characterized by a "systematic and rational reconstruction" of the early church, in
contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma.[5] :106-108 Despite
their differences, the two movements agreed on several critical issues.[5] :108 Both saw restoring apostolic
Christianity as a means of hastening the millennium.[5] :108 Both also saw restoring the early church as a route to
Christian freedom.[5] :108 And, both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic
Christianity as a model.[5] :108 The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting
Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements.[12] :8,9
The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832.[13] :116-120[16] :212[2] :28[17] :xxi[18]
:xxxvii
This was formalized at the High Street Meeting House in Lexington, Kentucky
with a handshake between Barton W. Stone and "Raccoon" John Smith.[13] :116-120 Smith
had been chosen, by those present, to speak in behalf of the followers of the
Campbells.[13] :116 A preliminary meeting of the two groups was held in late December
1831, culminating with the merger on January 1, 1832. [13] :116-120[18] :xxxvii
Two representatives of those assembled were appointed to carry the news of the union to
all the churches: John Rogers, for the Christians and "Raccoon" John Smith for the
reformers. Despite some challenges, the merger succeeded.[3] :153-154 Many believed the "Raccoon" John Smith
union held great promise for the future success of the combined movement, and greeted
the news enthusiastically.[12] :9
With the merger, there was the challenge of what to call the new movement. Clearly, finding a Biblical,
non-sectarian name was important. Stone wanted to continue to use the name "Christians." Alexander Campbell
insisted upon "Disciples of Christ". As a result, both names were used.[3] :27-28[19] :125 The confusion over names has
been present ever since.[3] :27-28
From the beginning of the movement, the free exchange of ideas among the people was fostered by the journals
published by its leaders. Alexander Campbell published The Christian Baptist and The Millennial Harbinger. Stone
published The Christian Messenger.[16] :208. In a respectful way, both men routinely published the contributions of
others whose positions were radically different from their own.
Following Campbell’s death in 1866, journals continued to keep the discussion and conversation alive. Between
1870 and 1900, two journals emerged as the most prominent. The Christian Standard was edited and published by
Isaac Errett of Cincinnati. The Christian Evangelist was edited and published by J. H. Garrison from St. Louis. The
two men enjoyed a friendly rivalry, and kept the dialog going within the movement.[16] :364 A third journal became
part of the conversation with the publication in 1884 of The Christian Oracle, later to become The Christian
Century, with an interdenominational appeal.[16] :364 In 1914, Garrison’s Christian Publishing company was
purchased by R. A. Long, who then established a non-profit corporation, “The Christian Board of Publication” as the
Brotherhood publishing house.[16] :426
When Stone and Alexander Campbell's Reformers (also known as Disciples and Christian Baptists) united in 1832,
only a minority of Christians from the Smith/Jones and O'Kelly movements participated.[9] :190 Those that did were
from congregations west of the Appalachian Mountains that had come into contact with the Stone movement.[9] :190
The eastern members had several key differences with the Stone and Campbell group: an emphasis on conversion
experience, quarterly observance of communion, and nontrinitarianism.[9] :190 Those who did not unite with
Campbell merged with the Congregational Churches in 1931 to form the Congregational Christian Churches.[9] :191
In 1957, the Congregational Christian Church merged with the Evangelical and Reformed Church to become the
United Church of Christ.[9] :191
Internal strains
In 1849, the first National Convention was held at Cincinnati, Ohio.[16] :245 Alexander Campbell had concerns that
holding conventions would lead the movement into divisive denominationalism. He did not attend the gathering.[16]
:245
Among its actions, the convention elected Alexander Campbell its President and created The American Christian
Missionary Society (ACMS).[16] :247 By the end of the century, The Foreign Christian Missionary Society and the
Christian Women's Board of Missions were also engaged in missionary activities. Forming the ACMS clearly did not
reflect a consensus of the entire movement, and these para-church organizations became a divisive issue. In the
succeeding decades, for some congregations and their leaders, co-operative work through missionary societies and
the adoption of instrumental music was straying too far. Division over these issues grew after the American Civil
War.
The use of musical instruments in worship was discussed in journal articles as early as 1849, though initial reactions
were generally unfavorable.[20] :414 However, some congregations are known to have been using musical instruments
in the 1850s and 1860s.[20] :414 Both acceptance of instruments and discussion of the issue grew after the American
Civil War.[20] :414 Opponents argued that the New Testament provided no authorization for their use in worship,
while supporters argued on the basis of expediency and Christian liberty.[20] :414 Affluent, urban congregations were
more likely to adopt musical instruments, while poorer and more rural congregations tended to see them as "an
accommodation to the ways of the world."[20] :414
The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement notes that Restoration Movement historians have tended to
interpret the controversy over the use of musical instruments in worship in ways that "reflect their own attitudes on
the issue."[20] :414 Examples are given of historians from different branches of the movement interpreting it in
relation to the statements of early Restoration Movement leaders, in terms of social and cultural factors, differing
approaches to interpreting scripture, differing approaches to the authority of scripture, and "ecumenical
progressivism" versus "sectarian primitivism."[20] :414, 415
Separation of the Churches of Christ and Christian Churches
David Lipscomb
“
Nothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved
”
[21]
— David Lipscomb, 1899
Factors leading to the separation

One issue that created tension in the movement was whether the brotherhood should adopt organizational structures,
such as missionary societies and conventions, above the local congregational level. On October 23, 1849, a group of
individuals met in Cincinnati, Ohio with the intention of creating a "general church organization for the furtherance
of the work by the church collectively." This action caused immediate disagreements among the churches, because
such organizations had previously been abolished. Barton W. Stone himself had in fact taken part in the abolition of
the Springfield Presbytery, and authored at that time a very influential document, The Last Will and Testament of the
Springfield Presbytery, which contained within it the idea that the existence of all such bodies was necessarily
divisive and hence sinful.
About a decade later, L. L. Pinkerton, who was a member of the
Midway, Kentucky church brought a melodeon into the church
building.[22] :95,96[20] :414 The poor quality of the congregation's
singing had the minister at his "breaking point."[22] :96 The instrument
was first used for singing practices held on Saturday night, but was
soon used during the worship on Sunday.[22] :96 One of the elders of
that assembly removed the first melodeon, but it was soon replaced by
another.[22] :96 Generally speaking, the bulk of the urban
congregations, particularly in the Northern states, were not totally
averse to this development, which was also gaining momentum in the
other religious groups around them, while rural congregations,
particularly in the Southern United States, tended to oppose this trend.
As the nineteenth century progressed, a division gradually developed

between those whose primary commitment was to unity, and those
whose primary commitment the restoration the primitive church.[12] :5,6
Those whose primary focus was unity gradually took on "an explicitly
ecumenical agenda" and "sloughed off the restorationist vision."[12] :6
Melodeon This group increasingly used the terms "Disciples of Christ" and
"Christian Churches" rather than "Churches of Christ."[12] :6 At the
same time, those whose primary focus was restoration of the primitive church increasingly used the term "Churches
of Christ" rather than "Disciples of Christ."[12] :6 In the majority of Northern churches, the call for unity prevailed; in
the majority of the Southern churches, the calls for restoration prevailed.
The rise of women leaders in the temperance[23] :728-729 and missionary movements also played an important role in
separating the Christian Churches and Churches of Christ. In the Christian Churches, many women spoke in public
on behalf of the new Christian Woman's Board of Mission (CWBM) and Woman's Christian Temperance Union
(WCTU). In contrast, the Churches of Christ largely discouraged women from speaking in public and joining activist
women's organizations such as the WCTU.[24] :292-316 The Erie (IL) Christian Church ordained Clara Celestia Hale
Babcock as the first known woman Disciple preacher in 1889.[25] :47-60
Formal recognition in 1906

In 1906, the U.S. Religious Census listed the Christian Churches and the Churches of Christ as separate and distinct
groups for the first time.[3] :251 This, however, was simply the recognition of a division that had been growing for
years, with published reports as early as 1883.[3] :252 The most obvious distinction between the two groups was the
rejection of musical instruments in the Churches of Christ. The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860
with the introduction of organs in some churches. More basic were differences in the underlying approach to Biblical
interpretation. For the Churches of Christ, any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not
permissible in the church, and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in
worship. For the Christian Churches, any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered.[3] :242-247
After the division Disciples churches used "Christian Church" as the dominant designation for congregations. While
music and the approach to missionary work were the most visible issues, there were also some deeper ones. The
process that led to the separation had begun prior to the American Civil War.[26] :17-18
Aftermath
After the split the Churches of Christ generally became more congregational, while the Disciples of Christ became
more denominational. The Churches of Christ remained more literal in biblical interpretation, while the Disciples of
Christ became closer to mainline Protestant groups. In fact, Disciples of Christ have been very cooperative with
other Protestant denominations, dismissing the exclusive quality what was once a part of the entire movement.
Churches of Christ have maintained a more exclusive stance, although the lack of a "clearinghouse" for determining
acceptable doctrine has led to myriad manifestations that the movement may credit as heresy.
The Disciples of Christ today are still not totally devoid of the conservative-liberal tension. A movement of
conservative congregations and individuals among the Disciples formed the "Disciple Renewal" in 1985.[27] :p.272
They were motivated by concern about what they perceived as increasingly liberal views among the Disciples
fellowship on issues such as the lordship of Christ, the authority of the Bible and homosexuality.[27] :p.272 In the
wake of the rejection in 1985 by the Disciples General Assembly of a resolution on the inspiration of scripture, the
Disciple Renewal planned to encourage renewal of the fellowship from within through a journal that was also
entitled Disciple Renewal.[27] :p.272 There was also a concern that the Disciples had abandoned the fundamental
principles of the Restoration Movement.[27] :p.272 The Disciple Heritage Fellowship (website [28]) was established in
1995. It is a fellowship of autonomous congregations, about half of which are formally associated with the Disciples
of Christ.[27] :p.272 As of 2002 the Disciples Heritage Fellowship included 60 congregations and 100 "supporting"
churches.[27] :p.272 It is closely related to the Confessing Movement found in several other mainline denominations.
Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism,
with the Churches of Christ and Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ resolving the tension by
stressing restoration while the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism.[4]
:p.383[29] :p.210
Subsequent development of the Christian Churches

Following the 1906 separation of the Churches of Christ (a cappella), controversy still existed within the movement
over whether the missionary efforts should be cooperative or independently sponsored by congregations. Questions
on the role of the methods of Biblical Criticism to the study and interpretation of the Bible were also among the
issues in conflict.[16] :418-420 By the 1920s the question of "open membership," or "admission of the pious
unimmersed to membership" had arisen as an additional source of tension.[30] :182[31] :63
During the first half of the twentieth century the opposing factions among the Christian Churches coexisted, but with
discomfort. The three Missionary Societies were merged into the United Christian Missionary Society in 1920.[16]
:428,429
Human service ministries grew through the National Benevolent Association providing assistance to orphans,
the elderly and the disabled. By mid century, the cooperative Christian Churches and the independent Christian
Churches were following different paths.
By 1926 a split began to form within the Disciples over the future direction of the church. Conservatives within the
group began to have problems with the perceived liberalism of the leadership, upon the same grounds described
earlier in the accepting of instrumental music in worship. In 1927 they held the first North American Christian
Convention, and the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ began to emerge as a distinct group from
the Disciples, although the break was not totally formalized until the late 1960s. By this time the decennial religious
census was a thing of the past and it is impossible to use it as a delineation as it was in 1906.
In 1968, at the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ), those Christian Churches that
favored cooperative mission work adopted a new "provisional design" for their work together, becoming the
Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[4] :495 Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new
denominational organization went their own way as the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ,
completing a separation that had begun decades before.[4] :407-409 Independent Christian Churches/Churches of
Christ have both organizational and hermeneutic differences with the churches of Christ.[29] :186 For example, they
have a loosely organized convention, and they view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively.[29] :186
Nonetheless, they are much more closely related to the churches of Christ in their theology and ecclesiology than
they are with the Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ).[29] :186
Restructuring and development of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)

Following World War II, it was believed that the organizations that had been developed in previous decades no
longer effectively met the needs of the postwar era.[3] :419 After a number discussions throughout the 1950s, the 1960
International Convention of Christian Churches adopted a process to plan the "restructure" of the entire
organization.[3] :421 The Commission on Restructure, chaired by Granville T. Walker, held its first meeting October
30 & November 1, 1962. [3] :436-437 In 1968, the International Convention of Christian Churches (Disciples of
Christ) adopted the Commission's proposed “Provisional Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).”[3]
:442-443
Soon the Provisional Design became “The Design.”
Under the Design, all churches in the 1968 yearbook of Christian Churches (Disciples of Christ) were automatically
recognized as part of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ). In the years that followed, many of the Independent
Christian Church Congregations requested formal withdrawal from the yearbook. Many of those congregations
became part of the Independent Christian Churches and Churches of Christ.
Separation of the Independent Christian Churches / Churches of Christ

The development of the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ as a separately identifiable religious
body from the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) (DoC) was a lengthy process.[32] :185 The roots of the
separation can be found in the polarization resulting from three major controversies that arose during the early 20th
century.[32] :185 One, which was a source of division in other religious groups, was "the theological development of
modernism and liberalism."[32] :185 The early stages of the ecumenical movement, which led in 1908 to the Federal
Council of Churches, provide a second source of controversy.[32] :185 The third was the practice of open membership,
in which individuals who had not been baptized by immersion were granted full membership in the church.[32] :185
Those who supported one of these points of view tended to support the others as well.[32] :185
Support by the United Christian Missionary Society of missionaries who advocated open membership became a
source of contention in 1920.[32] :185 Efforts to recall support for these missionaries failed in a 1925 convention in
Oklahoma City and a 1926 convention in Memphis, Tennessee.[32] :185 Many congregations withdrew from the
missionary society as a result.[32] :185
A new convention, the North American Christian Convention, was organized by the more conservative
congregations in 1927.[32] :185 An existing brotherhood journal, the Christian Standard, also served as a source of
cohesion for these congregations.[32] :185
The official separation between the independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ and the Christian Church
(Disciples of Christ) is difficult to date.[4] :407 Suggestions range from 1926 to 1971 based on the events outlined
below:
• 1926: The first North American Christian Convention (NACC) in 1927[4] :407 was the result of disillusionment at
the DoC Memphis Convention.
• 1930s - 1940s: Symbolic differences and disagreements flourished.
• 1944: International Convention of Disciples elects as president a proponent of open membership[4] :408
• 1948: The Commission on Restudy, appointed to help avoid a split, disbands[4] :409
• 1955: The Directory of the Ministry was first published listing only the "Independents" on a voluntary basis.[4]
:408
• 1968: Final redaction of the Disciples Year Book removing Independent churches[4] :408
• 1971: Independent churches listed separately in the Yearbook of American Churches.[4] :408
Because of this separation, many independent Christian Churches/churches of Christ are not only
non-denominational, they can be anti-denominational, avoiding even the appearance or language associated with
denominationalism holding true to their Restoration roots.
Subsequent development of the Churches of Christ

One of the issues leading to the 1906 separation was the question of organizational structures above the level of the
local congregation. Since then, Churches of Christ have maintained an ongoing commitment to church governance
that is congregational only, rather than denominational. Churches of Christ purposefully have no central
headquarters, councils, or other organizational structure above the local church level.[33] :238[34] [15] :124[29] :214[35]
:103
Rather, the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion
in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations (see Sponsoring church (Churches of
Christ)).[36] [37] [38] [15] :124 Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles.[36]
[35] :106
Since Churches of Christ are autonomous and purposefully do not maintain an ecclesiastical hierarchy or doctrinal
council, it is not unusual to find variations from congregation to congregation. The approach taken to restoring the
New Testament church has focused on "methods and procedures" such as church organization, the form of worship,
and how the church should function. As a result, most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of
"methodological" disputes. These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with
which they take the goal of "restoring the form and structure of the primitive church."[29] :212
Three quarters of the congregations and 87% of the membership are described by the The Encyclopedia of the
Stone-Campbell Movement as "mainstream", sharing a consensus on practice and theology.[39] :213 The remaining
congregations may be grouped into four categories, the largest of which is the churches of Christ (non-institutional).
Approximately 2,055 congregations fall in this category.[39] :213[40] The second group does not use separate Bible
classes, and consists of approximately 1,100 congregations. A third group does not use multiple communion cups
(approximately 550 congregations; this category overlaps somewhat with those congregations that do not use
separate Bible classes for children). The fourth group "emphasize[s] mutual edification by various leaders in the
churches and oppose[s] one person doing most of the preaching." This group includes roughly 130 congregations.[39]
:213[40]
These groups generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices, rather than in theological
perspectives, and tend to have smaller congregations on average.[39] :213
While there are no official membership statistics for the Churches of Christ, growth appears to have been relatively
steady through the twentieth century.[12] :4 One source estimates total U.S. membership at 433,714 in 1926, 558,000
in 1936, 682,000 in 1946, 835,000 in 1965 and 1,250,000 in 1994.[12] :4
Separation of the International Churches of Christ

The International Churches of Christ had their roots in a "discipling" movement that arose among the mainline
Churches of Christ during the 1970s.[41] :418 This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck
Lucas.[41] :418
In 1967, Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville, Florida (later renamed the
Crossroads Church of Christ). That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance (based on principles
borrowed from the Campus Crusade and the Shepherding Movement). Centered on the University of Florida, the
program called for a strong evangelical outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of soul talks and
prayer partners. Soul talks were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader
who delegated authority over group members. Prayer partners referred to the practice of pairing a new Christian
with an older guide for personal assistance and direction. Both procedures led to "in-depth involvement of each
member in one another's lives", and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism.[42]
The Crossroads Movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ. One of Lucas' converts, Kip McKean,
moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with "would-be disciples" in the Lexington Church of
Christ.[41] :418 He asked them to "redefine their commitment to Christ," and introduced the use of discipling partners.
The congregation grew rapidly, and was renamed the Boston Church of Christ.[41] :418 In the early 1980s, the focus
of the movement moved to Boston, Massachusetts where Kip McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became
prominently associated with the trend.
With the national leadership located in Boston, during the 1980s it commonly became known as the "Boston
movement."[41] :418 A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 with the organization of
the International Churches of Christ.[41] :418 This new designation formalized a division that was already in existence
between those involved with the Crossroads/Boston Movement and "mainline" Churches of Christ. Much of the
outside literature during this period refers to it as the "Boston Movement" or occasionally the "Discipling
Movement", after the practice of assigning each new church member a mentor who was to "disciple" the newer
member through prayer and advice about a wide range of day-to-day decisions.
In November 2002, the McKeans announced their resignations from their roles as World Mission Evangelist,
Women's Ministry Leader and Leader of the World Sector Leaders.[43] What followed was a period of increased
sovereignty among local churches, what McKean calls a "reactionary 'new vision' of autonomous congregations,
consensus leadership with no lead evangelists, the elimination of structured outreach (Bible Talks) and the
elimination of discipleship partners." Many in leadership positions issued public apologies for their participation in
authoritative abuses, and some resigned or were asked to leave. By 2004, Boston, Atlanta, and New York had lost
over 30% of their members, and some entire congregations severed their ties with the ICOC.[44] Local fellowships
varied in their reactions to the power vacuum. ICOC Chronicler Chris Lee asserts that three factions emerged, still
extant today: a conservative group which seeks a return to the former, authoritarian structure; a moderate group that,
"while they recognize that reform is necessary, feel that the current rate of reform is sufficient"; and a reformist
group which advocates radical restructuring.[45]
Reunion efforts
Efforts have been made to restore unity among the various branches of the Restoration Movement. In 1984 a
"Restoration Summit" was held at the Ozark Christian College, with fifty representatives of both the Churches of
Christ and the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ.[46] :642 Later meetings were open to all, and were
known as "Restoration Forums."[46] :642 Beginning in 1986 they have been held annually, generally in October or
November, with the hosting venue alternating between the Churches of Christ and the Independent Christian
Churches/Churches of Christ.[46] :642 Topics discussed have included issues such as instrumental music, the nature of
the church, and practical steps for promoting unity.[46] :642 Efforts have been made in the early 21st century to
include representatives of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).[46] :642 These efforts followed the
"Stone-Campbell Dialogue," which was a series of meetings beginning in 1999 that included representatives of all
three major U.S. branches of the Restoration Movement.[46] :642[47] :720 The first full meeting in 1999 included six
representatives from each of the three traditions.[47] :720 Meetings were held twice annually, and in 2001 were
expanded to include anyone associated with the Restoration Movement who was interested in attending.[47] :720 Also,
special efforts were made in 2006 to create more intentional fellowship between the various branches of the
Movement.[48] [49] This was in conjunction with the one hundredth anniversary of the "official" recognition of the
split between the Christian Church and the Churches of Christ by the U.S. Census in 1906.[48] [49] One example of
this was the hosting, by Abilene Christian University (also founded in 1906), of the annual Restoration Unity Forum
for 2006, as part of ACU's annual Bible Lectureship.[50] During the program Don Jeanes, president of Milligan
College and Royce Money, president of ACU, jointly gave a presentation on the first chapter of the Gospel of John.
Additionally, the compilation and publication of The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement[51] is evidence
that scholars in the three wings still work together on common projects. Collaboration on the Encyclopedia also
included representatives of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).
Names for the movement

Because the Restoration Movement lacks any centralized structure, having originated in a variety of places with
different leaders, there is no consistent nomenclature for the movement as a whole.[52] :551 When the Stone and
Campbell movements united in 1832, Barton Stone advocated using the name "Christians" based on its use in Acts
11:26 [53], while Campbell preferred the term "disciples" because he saw it as both a more humble and an older
designation.[52] :551 After 1832, use of term "Reformation" became frequent among leaders of the movement.[52] :551
The Campbells had designated themselves as "Reformers," and other early leaders also saw themselves as reformers
seeking Christian unity and restoring apostolic Christianity.[52] :551 The movement's language at the time included
phrases such as "religious reformation," the "present reformation," the "current reformation" and "the cause of
reformation."[52] :551
The term "Restoration Movement" became popular as the 19th century progressed.[52] :551 It appears to have been
inspired by Alexander Campbell's essays on "A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things" in the Christian
Baptist.[52] :551 This name has remained popular among the Churches of Christ and the Independent Christian
Churches/Churches of Christ.[52] :551 Because of the emphasis it places on the theme of restoration, it has been a less
comfortable fit for those whose primary focus has been on the theme of unity.[52] :551 Historically, the term
"Disciples of Christ" has also been used by some as a collective designation for the movement.[52] :551 It has
evolved, however, into a designation for a particular branch of the movement - the Christian Church (Disciples of
Christ) - as a result of the divisions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[52] :551
The term "Stone-Campbell Movement" emerged towards the end of the 20th century as a way to avoid the
difficulties associated with some of the other names that have been used, and to maintain a sense of the collective
history of the movement.[52] :551 Other names that have been used include "the Brotherhood", "the Cause" and "the
churches."[52] :551 While the use of the word "movement" is supported by a fairly broad consensus, no single
terminology is generally accepted or has official status.[52] :551
Key principles
• Christianity should not be divided, Christ intended the creation of one church.
• Creeds divide, but Christians should be able to find agreement by standing on the Bible itself (from which they
believe all creeds are but human expansions or constrictions) instead of on the opinions of people about the Bible.
• Ecclesiastical traditions divide, but Christians should be able to find common ground by following the practice (as
best as it can be determined) of the early church.
• Names of human origin divide, but Christians should be able to find common ground by using biblical names for
the church (i.e., "Christian Church", "Church of God" or "Church of Christ" as opposed to "Methodist" or
"Lutheran", etc.). It is in this vein that conservative members of the Churches of Christ object to the phrase
"Stone-Campbell Movement."
A number of slogans have been used in the Restoration Movement, which are intended to express some of the
distinctive themes of the Movement.[54] :688 These include:
• "Where the Scriptures speak, we speak; where the Scriptures are silent, we are silent."[54] :688
• "The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially, intentionally, and constitutionally one."[54] :688
• "We are Christians only, but not the only Christians."[54] :688
• "In essentials, unity; in opinions, liberty; in all things love."[54] :688
• "No creed but Christ, no book but the Bible, no law but love, no name but the divine."[54] :688
• "Call Bible things by Bible names."[54] :688
All of the three major U.S. branches of the Movement share the following characteristics:
• A high view, compared to other Christian traditions, of the office of the elder; and[55] :532
• A "commitment to the priesthood of all believers".[55] :532
Churches outside North America

Restoration Movement churches are found around the world and the World Convention of Churches of Christ
provides a link for them.
Their genealogies are representative of developments in North America. Their theological orientation ranges from
fundamentalist to liberal to ecumenical. In some places they have joined with churches of other traditions to form
united churches at local, regional or national level.
Great Britain
A group in Nottingham withdrew from the Scotch Baptist church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ.[56] :369 James
Wallis, a member of that group, founded a magazine named the British Millennial Harbinger in 1837.[56] :369 In
1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in Edinburgh.[56] :369
Approximately 50 congregations were involved, representing a membership of 1,600.[56] :369 The name "Churches of
Christ" was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870.[56] :369 Alexander Campbell influenced the British
Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings; he visited the Britain for several months in 1847, and
"presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester."[56] :369 At that time the movement
had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2,300.[56] :369 Annual meetings were held
after 1847.[56] :369
The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain
before World War I. More significant was the issue of pacifism; a national conference was established in 1916 for
congregations that opposed the war.[56] :371 A conference for "Old Paths" congregations was first held in 1924.[56]
:371
The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in
seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as "an all-sufficient rule
of faith and practice."[56] :371 Two "Old Paths" congregations withdrew from the Association in 1931; an additional
two withdrew in 1934, and nineteen more withdrew between 1943 and 1947.[56] :371
Membership declined rapidly during and after the First World War.[56] :372[57] :312 The Association of Churches of
Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980.[56] :372[57] :312 Most Association congregations (approximately 40) united with
the United Reformed Church in 1981.[56] :372[57] :312 In the same year, twenty-four other congregations formed a
Fellowship of Churches of Christ.[56] :372 The Fellowship developed ties with the Independent Christian
Churches/Churches of Christ during the 1980s.[56] :372[57] :312
The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a "missional"
emphasis with an ideal of "Five Fold Leadership." Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these
groups as having more in common with Pentecostal churches. The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of
Christ in Britain are The Christian Worker magazine and the Scripture Standard magazine. A history of the
Association of Churches of Christ, Let Sects and Parties Fall, was written by David M Thompson.[58]
Australia and New Zealand

Historically, Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United
States in the early development of the movement in Australia.[59] :47 Churches of Christ grew up independently in
several locations.[59] :47
While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive, towards the end of the nineteenth century they
began viewing "summary statements of belief" as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from
other religious groups.[59] :50 The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical
instruments in worship, Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday Schools. Ultimately, all three found general
acceptance in the movement.[59] :51
Currently, the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States.[59] :53 There have
been strong ties with the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), but many conservative ministers and congregations
associate with the Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ instead.[59] :53 Others have sought support
from non-instrumental Churches of Christ, particularly those who felt that "conference" congregations had "departed
from the restoration ideal."[59] :53
Key figures
Although Barton W. Stone, Thomas and Alexander Campbell, and Walter Scott were to become the best-known and
most influential early leaders of the movement, others preceded them and laid the foundation for their work.
• Barton W. Stone (1772–1844)[60]
• Thomas Campbell (1763–1854)[61]
• Alexander Campbell (1788–1866)[62]
• Walter Scott (1796–1861)[63]
• Rice Haggard (1769–1819)[64]
• Amos Sutton Hayden (1813-1880)[65]
• Abner Jones (1772–1841)[66]
• Marshall Keeble (1878–1969) His successful preaching career notably bridged a racial divide in the Restoration
Movement prior to the American Civil Rights Movement.[67] [68]
• Elijah Martindale (1793-1874), active in Indiana.[69] [70]
• James O'Kelly (1735?–1826), Durham, North Carolina[71]
• Elias Smith (1764–1846)[72]
• Walter Scott (Clergyman) (1796-1861), a successful evangelist who helped to stabilize the Campbell movement
as it was separating from the Baptists[73] :673
• "Raccoon" John Smith (1784-1868), instrumental in bringing the Stone and Campbell movements together[74]
:690,691
References
• C. Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of Churches of Christ (Abilene,
Texas: ACU Press, 1988)
• Douglas A. Foster (Editor), Paul M. Blowers (Editor), Anthony L. Dunnavant (Editor), D. Newell Williams
(Editor). The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand
Rapids, Michigan. ISBN 0-8028-3898-7
• Douglas A. Foster, Jack Reese, Jeff W. Childers, The Crux of the Matter: Crisis, Tradition, and the Future of
Churches of Christ. ACU Press. ISBN 0-89112-035-1
• Flavil R. Yeakley, ed., The Discipling Dilemma: A Study of the Discipling Movement Among Churches of Christ
(Nashville: Gospel Advocate Co., 1988).
• Jennings, Walter Wilson. Origin and Early History of the Disciples of Christ Cincinnati: Standard Publishing,
1919.
• Jerry Jones, What Does the Boston Movement Teach? vols. 1-3 (Bridgeton, Missouri: Jerry Jones, 12880 Bittick,
1991-93)
• Martin Edward Wooten, "The Boston Movement as a 'Revitalization Movement'" (D.Min. thesis, Harding
Graduate School of Religion, 1990)
• Morrill, Milo True. History of the Christian Denomination in America. Dayton: The Christian Publishing
Association, 1912.
• Murch, James DeForest. Christians Only. Cincinnati: Standard Publishing, 1962.
• North, James B. (1994). Union in Truth: An Interpretive History of the Restoration Movement. Cincinnati, Ohio:
The Standard Publishing Company. ISBN 0-7847-0197-0.
• United States Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of the Census, Religious Bodies, 1906 (United States
Printing Office, 1910), 236
• West, Earl Irvin (2002). The Search for the Ancient Order Vol. 1. Gospel Light Publishing Company. ISBN
0-89225-154-9
• Zuber, Glenn (1993). "The Gospel of Temperance: Early Disciple Women Preachers and the WCTU,"
Discipliana, 53 (47-60).
• Zuber, Glenn (2002). "Mainline Women Ministers: Women Missionary and Temperance Organizers Become
'Disciples of Christ' Ministers, 1888-1908." In The Stone-Campbell Movement: An International Religious
Tradition, ed. Michael Casey and Douglas A. Foster, 292-316.
• Zuber, Glenn (2004). "Temperance", The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement, edited by Douglas A.
Foster, Paul Blowers, and D. Newell Williams. Grand Rapids, Erdmans Publishing, 728-729.
See also
• Christianity in the 18th century
• Christianity in the 19th century
• Declaration and address by Thomas Campbell
• History of Christianity
• Restorationism (Christian primitivism)
• Second Great Awakening
External links
• Restoration Movement Internet Portal [75]
• Richard M. Tristano, Origins of the Restoration Movement: An Intellectual History [76], Glenmary Research
Center, 1998, ISBN 0-914422-17-0.
• The documentary, "Our Restoration Heritage with Dr. Bill Humble" [77]
• The Restoration Movement Pages [78] at the Memorial University of Newfoundland with historical texts, images,
biographies and other resources
References
[1] Rubel Shelly, I Just Want to Be a Christian, 20th Century Christian, Nashville, Tennessee 1984, ISBN 0-89098-021-7
[2] Monroe E. Hawley, Redigging the Wells: Seeking Undenominational Christianity, Quality Publications, Abilene, Texas, 1976, ISBN
0-89137-512-0 (paper), ISBN 0-89137-513-9 (cloth)
[3] McAlister, Lester G. and Tucker, William E. (1975), Journey in Faith: A History of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), St. Louis,
MO: Chalice Press, ISBN 978-0-8272-1703-4
[4] Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN 0-89900-909-3,
9780899009094, 573 pages
[5] C. Leonard Allen and Richard T. Hughes, Discovering Our Roots: The Ancestry of the Churches of Christ, Abilene Christian University
Press, 1988, ISBN 0-89112-006-8
[6] Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of
Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7,
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Great Awakenings
[7] Jeff McFadden, One Baptism, published by Lulu.com, 2006, ISBN 1-84728-381-0, 9781847283818, 248 pages
[8] Thomas H. Olbricht, "Who Are the Churches of Christ? (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ who. html)
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Christian Connection
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on "Calvinism"
[11] Marshall, Robert; Dunlavy, John; M'nemar, Richard; Stone, B. W.; Thompson, John; and Purviance, David (1804). The Last Will and
Testament of the Springfield Presbytery (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ texts/ rmcnemar/ ocg/ OCG. HTM#Will)
[12] Richard Thomas Hughes and R. L. Roberts, The Churches of Christ, 2nd Edition, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN
0-313-23312-8, 9780313233128, 345 pages
[13] Davis, M. M. (1915). How the Disciples Began and Grew, A Short History of the Christian Church (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=HHgRAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=davis+ "how+ the+ disciples+ began"& ei=qjbCR42iJoS8iQHXlJC7CA),
Cincinnati: The Standard Publishing Company
[14] Philadelphia Confession (http:/ / www. reformedreader. org/ ccc/ pctoc. htm)
[15] Ron Rhodes, The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations, Harvest House Publishers, 2005, ISBN 0-7369-1289-4
[16] Garrison, Winfred Earnest and DeGroot, Alfred T. (1948). The Disciples of Christ, A History, St Louis, Missouri: The Bethany Press
9780802838988, 854 pages, Introductory section entitled Stone-Campbell History Over Three Centuries: A Survey and Analysis
9780802838988, 854 pages, Introductory Chronology
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Campbell, Alexander
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Instrumental Music
[21] David Lipscomb, 1899, as quoted by Leroy Garrett on page 104 of The Stone-Campbell Movement: The Story of the American Restoration
Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN 0-89900-909-3, 9780899009094, 573 pages
[22] Ben Brewster,Torn Asunder: The Civil War and the 1906 Division of the Disciples, College Press, 2006, ISBN 0-89900-951-4,
9780899009513, 135 pages
[23] Zuber, Glenn (2004). "Temperance", The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement, edited by Douglas A. Foster, Paul Blowers, and
D. Newell Williams. Grand Rapids, Erdmans Publishing, 728-729.
[24] Zuber, Glenn (2002). "Mainline Women Ministers: Women Missionary and Temperance Organizers Become 'Disciples of Christ' Ministers,
1888-1908." In The Stone-Campbell Movement: An International Religious Tradition, ed. Michael Casey and Douglas A. Foster, 292-316.
[25] Zuber, Glenn (1993). "The Gospel of Temperance: Early Disciple Women Preachers and the WCTU," Discipliana, 53 (47-60).
[26] *.
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Disciple Heritage Fellowship
[28] http:/ / www. disciple-heritage. org
[29] Samuel S. Hill, Charles H. Lippy, Charles Reagan Wilson, Encyclopedia of Religion in the South, Mercer University Press, 2005, ISBN
0-86554-758-0, 9780865547582
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Baptism
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Christian Churches/Churches of Christ
[33] Carmen Renee Berry, The Unauthorized Guide to Choosing a Church, Brazos Press, 2003, ISBN 1-58743-036-3
[34] "Churches of Christ from the beginning have maintained no formal organization structures larger than the local congregations and no official
journals or vehicles declaring sanctioned positions. Consensus views do, however, often emerge through the influence of opinion leaders who
express themselves in journals, at lectureships, or at area preacher meetings and other gatherings" page 213, Douglas Allen Foster and
Anthony L. Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian
Churches/Churches of Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, ISBN 0-8028-3898-7, 9780802838988, 854 pages
[35] Stuart M. Matlins, Arthur J. Magida, J. Magida, How to Be a Perfect Stranger: A Guide to Etiquette in Other People's Religious
Ceremonies, Wood Lake Publishing Inc., 1999, ISBN 1-896836-28-3, 9781896836287, 426 pages, Chapter 6 - Churches of Christ
[36] Batsell Barrett Baxter, Who are the churches of Christ and what do they believe in? Available on-line here (http:/ / www. woodsonchapel.
com/ coc. php), here (http:/ / www. bebaptized. org/ Who. htm), here (http:/ / church-of-christ. org/ who. html), here (http:/ / www. cris. com/
~mmcoc/ coc. html) and here (http:/ / www. scripturessay. com/ article. php?cat=& id=6)
[37] "Churches of Christ adhere to a strict congregationalism that cooperates in various projects overseen by one congregation or organized as
parachurch enterprises, but many congregations hold themselves apart from such cooperative projects." Douglas Allen Foster and Anthony L.
Dunnavant, The Encyclopedia of the Stone-Campbell Movement: Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Christian Churches/Churches of
Christ, Churches of Christ, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2004, page 206, entry on Church, Doctrine of the
[38] "It is nothing less than phenomenal that the Churches of Christ get so much done without any centralized planning or structure. Everything
is ad hoc. Most programs emerge from the inspiration and commitment of a single congregation or even a single person. Worthwhile projects
survive and prosper by the voluntary cooperation of other individuals and congregations." Page 449, Leroy Garrett, The Stone-Campbell
Movement: The Story of the American Restoration Movement, College Press, 2002, ISBN 0-89900-909-3, 9780899009094, 573 pages
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Churches of Christ
[40] Ross, Bobby Jr. "Who are we?" (http:/ / www. christianchronicle. org/ modules. php?name=News& file=article& sid=621). Features. The
Christian Chronicle. . Retrieved 2007-10-29.
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on International Churches of Christ
[42] Paden, Russell (July 1995). "The Boston Church of Christ" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?pg=PA133& lpg=PA133&
dq="international+ churches+ of+ christ"|"boston+ church+ of+ christ"& sig=xJd6vwb-MYNOHOUFTtE7pctlbxc& id=og_u0Re1uwUC&
ots=FNRFOjJOvr). in Timothy Miller. America's Alternative Religions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?printsec=frontcover&
dq="international+ churches+ of+ christ"|"boston+ church+ of+ christ"& id=og_u0Re1uwUC). Albany: State University of New York Press.
pp. 133–36. ISBN 978-0-7914-2397-4. . Retrieved 2007–08–07.
[43] Kip McKean Resignation Letter Wednesday, November 06, 2002 (http:/ / ucd. discipleforum. com/ icocmain/ Documents/ 11_02/
mckean_resignation. htm)
[44] Greeson, Timothy (2005). "ICOC Update 2005: Is the Threat Resurfacing?" (http:/ / www. newcovpub. com/ icc/ update2005. htm). New
Covenant Publications. . Retrieved 2007-07-09.
[45] Lee, Chris (2005 Sept). "Three Major Factions" (http:/ / www. reveal. org/ abouticc/ factions. html). REVEAL. . Retrieved 2007-07-09.
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Restoration Forums
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Stone-Campbell Dialogue
[48] Erik Tryggestad and Bobby Ross Jr., "1906 - 2006: 100 years later, can we converse across the keyboard?," (http:/ / www.
christianchronicle. org/ article179~1906_-_2006:_100_years_later,_can_we_converse_across_the_keyboard?) Christian Chronicle, February
1, 2006 (accessed November 27, 2009)
[49] David Faust, "The 2006 Unity Efforts–Three Years Later," (http:/ / www. christianstandard. com/ articledisplay. asp?id=1241) Christian
Standard, May 24, 2009 (accessed November 27, 2009)
[50] "ACU Bible Lectureship to focus on truth this spring; lectures moving to fall" (http:/ / www. acu. edu/ news/ 2006/ 060216_Lectureship.
html) ACU News, Feb. 16, 2006 (accessed January 21, 2009)
[51] Douglas A. Foster (Editor), Paul M. Blowers (Editor), Anthony L. Dunnavant (Editor), D. Newell Williams (Editor). The Encyclopedia of
the Stone-Campbell Movement. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, Grand Rapids, Michigan. ISBN 0-8028-3898-7
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Names of the Movement
[53] http:/ / bible. crosswalk. com/ OnlineStudyBible/ bible. cgi?word=Acts+ 11:26& version=niv
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Slogans
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Ministry
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Great Britain and Ireland, Churches of Christ in
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Europe, Missions in
[58] David M. Thompson, Let Sects and Parties Fall: A Short History of the Association of Churches of Christ in Great Britain and Ireland,
Berean Publishing Trust (Jan 1980), ISBN 978-0-85050-012-7, 160 pages
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Australia, The Movement in
[60] Barton W. Stone texts (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ bstone. html)
[61] Thomas Campbell texts (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ tcampbell. html)
[62] Alexander Campbell texts (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ acampbell. html)
[63] Walter Scott texts (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ wscott. html)
[64] Rice Haggard texts (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ rhaggard. html)
[65] Amos Sutton Hayden texts (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ ahayden. html)
[66] Abner Jones texts (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ ajones. html)
[67] Articles Appearing In The Gospel Advocate After The April 20, 1968 Death Of Marshall Keeble (http:/ / www. therestorationmovement.
com/ keeble2. htm) at therestorationmovement.com.
[68] Texts & recording (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ mkeeble. html) at the Restoration Movement pages (http:/ / www. mun. ca/
rels/ restmov/ ) at the Memorial University of Newfoundland.
[69] Biography (http:/ / www. hcgs. net/ eem. html) of Elijah Martindale at the Henry County Genealogical Services website.
[70] Biography (http:/ / www. therestorationmovement. com/ martindale. htm) of Elijah Martindale at TheRestorationMovement.com.
[71] James O'Kelly texts (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ jokelley. html)
[72] Elias Smith texts (http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ people/ esmith. html)
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Scott, Walter
9780802838988, 854 pages, entry on Smith, "Raccoon" John
[75] http:/ / www. restorationmovement. org/
[76] http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/ subs/ Tristano_Book. pdf
[77] http:/ / www. cyrilchurch. com/ cyril_church_of_christ_052. htm

[78] http:/ / www. mun. ca/ rels/ restmov/
Article Sources and Contributors 22
Article Sources and Contributors

Restoration Movement Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=362113189 Contributors: Adavidb, Afaprof01, Alan Canon, Alancoughlin, Alliemh33, Andrew Rule,
Archangelstein, Ashton1983, Barticus88, Beland, BiblicalUnitarian, Bigmalakili, BoNoMoJo (old), Briaboru, Bytebear, COGDEN, CannotResolveSymbol, Cecc, CesarLeo, Cherokeeok0817,
Chris Light, Chris Roy, Cmdrjameson, Coelacan, Colin MacLaurin, Colonies Chris, Danoldh, David aukerman, Dfoy, DoxTxob, ESkog, EastTN, Epsilon60198, Fenwatcher, Finn Froding,
Friuliveneto, GRBerry, Gaius Cornelius, Genedoug, GeoGreg, Glenn Zuber, Grubbmeister, Guðsþegn, Gzornenplatz, Hschlarb, Hu12, InFairness, Iridescent, JamestownArarat, Jbolden1517,
Jdavidb, Jdb1972, Jfruh, Jkolak, Joechao, Joel7687, Johnparkw, JonHarder, Jonathan Tweet, Jonneroo, Joseph Solis in Australia, Josh a brewer, Jowston, Jpgordon, Just nigel, JustinBaeder,
KHM03, Kickyandfun, Kjbake01, Koavf, Kvlindsey, Lavi123, Lawikitejana, Leandrod, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Lisasmall, Ltwin, Lyonscc, Matturn, Maximus Rex, Mdmcginn, Michael Hardy,
Mkmcconn, Mtstroud, Muchness, One Salient Oversight, Ozarkmovement, Parkwells, Paul Turner, Paul foord, Pollinator, Preost, Pseudo daoist, Pspadaro, Ptolemy Caesarion, Rich Farmbrough,
Richard David Ramsey, Rjakew, Rlquall, Rlvaughn, Robert1947, Robina Fox, Rudyray, Rursus, Skinner1990, Smalljim, Spanogle, Spiffy sperry, Squash, Stusutcliffe, TNProf, Tabletop,
Texastwister, TheKMan, Thegreatsoundmachine, Titoxd, Todd Gallagher, TransylvanianKarl, Velvet elvis81, Wandringpoet, Woohookitty, XKV8R, Zyrusx, 172 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Ecummenic, Fundriver, Longbow4u, Lupo,
Parpan05, Sidonius, Torsten Schleese
Image:John Locke by Herman Verelst.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Herman Verelst
(died 1690)
Image:1839-meth.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1839-meth.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknow
Image:Stonebw01.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stonebw01.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Unknow
File:Cane Ridge Meeting House Interior.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cane_Ridge_Meeting_House_Interior.JPG License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Chris Light
Image:CampbellThomas.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CampbellThomas.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Johnparkw, Polly
Image:Alexander Campbell Age 65.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alexander_Campbell_Age_65.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Engraved by
Whitechurch
Image:Walter Scott (Evangelist).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Walter_Scott_(Evangelist).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Johnparkw
Image:SMITH Raccoon John.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SMITH_Raccoon_John.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Artist unknown
Image:DavidLipscomb.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DavidLipscomb.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Cohesion
Image:American Organ Odilienberg 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:American_Organ_Odilienberg_1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Timo_Beil
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Restoration Movement 1

Huldrych Zwingli as depicted by Hans Asper in

The rationalism of John Locke provided another influence.[5] :78

Cane Ridge revival

Characteristics of the Stone movement

In 1827, the Mahoning Association appointed Walter Scott as an evangelist. Through

Influence of the Enlightenment

Characteristics of the Campbell movement

Merger of the Stone and Campbell movements

Separation of the Churches of Christ and Christian Churches

Factors leading to the separation

As the nineteenth century progressed, a division gradually developed

Formal recognition in 1906

Subsequent development of the Christian Churches

Restructuring and development of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)

Separation of the Independent Christian Churches / Churches of Christ

Subsequent development of the Churches of Christ

Separation of the International Churches of Christ

Names for the movement

Churches outside North America

Australia and New Zealand

[77] http:/ / www. cyrilchurch. com/ cyril_church_of_christ_052. htm

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