38

Analog Electronics

Introduction
The electronics labs in this manual are designed to reinforce many of the principles
relating to electronics devices and circuit theory. It is also designed to help the student to
gain familiarity with measurement techniques and proper equipment use. An
understanding of every piece of equipment used is critical in this course.

Students should seek to get a clear understanding of the objectives of each lab exercise,
as this will greatly enhance the learning process.

General Objectives:-

On completion of this module students should have a working knowledge of:

1. Diodes
2. Transistors
3. Operational Amplifier
4. Electronics Workbench Software

Specific Objectives:

Diodes
1. To verify the one way conduction property of the diode
2. To verify the threshold voltage for the silicon and germanium diode
3. To test the working condition of the diode
4. To investigate the I-V characteristics of the silicon, germanium and zener diodes
5. To investigate half-wave and full-wave rectification circuits
6. To investigate smoothing circuits
7. To investigate zener voltage regulator circuits

39
 Transistors

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

1. To investigate the BJT as a switch

2. To investigate the BJT ‘s V-I characteristic curve
3. To investigate the properties of the common emitter BJT amplifier
(i) Biasing
(ii) Q-point
(iii) Cutoff and saturation mode
(iv) Voltage and current gain

Junction Field Effective Transistor (JFET)

1. To investigate the JFET’s V-I characteristic curve

Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amp)

Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amp)

1. To investigate the Op-amp as a comparator

2. To investigate the Op-amp as an amplifier
(i) Non-inverting amplifier
(ii) Inverting amplifier
(iii) Summing amplifier
(iv) Differential amplifier

3. To investigate the Op-amp as a filter

(i) Low pass filter
(ii) High pass filter
(iii) Band pass filter
(iv) Band stop filter

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 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Experiment 1: Semiconductor diode

OBJECTIVES
1. To test the working condition of a diode
2. To investigate the I-V characteristics of the silicon and germanium diode.
3. To investigate the temperature effect of the silicon diode.

PRELAB ASSIGNMENT
Write a summary of the terms:
1. Forward and reverse bias
2. Threshold voltage of a diode
3. Temperature coefficient

EQUIPMENT:
Digital Multimeter (DMM)
DC Power Supply (Variable)
1- 1KΩ Resistor
1- Silicon Diode
1- Germanium Diode

Section A: Diode Test

The diode testing scale of the DMM can be used to determine the condition of a diode.
With one polarity, the DMM should provide the threshold potential of the diode.
For silicon the threshold voltage should be in the neighborhood of 700mV and
300mV for germanium. The reverse connection should result in an “OL” response
to support the open circuit approximation. If a low reading (less than 1V) is
obtained in both directions, the junction is shorted internally. If an OL indication is
obtained in both directions, the junction is open.

FORWARD TEST

Red Lead Black Lead

(+) (-)

Anode Cathode

Figure. 1

41
Perform the test of table 1 for the silicon and germanium diode. Figure 1 show the
forward test connection.

TEST Silicon Germanium

FORWARD
REVERSE
Table 1

Based on the results of table 1, are the diodes in working condition?

Section B: Forward-Biased Diode Characteristics

1. Use the multimeter to measure the actual value of the 1KΩ resistor.
RMeas ____________.

2. Construct the circuit of figure 2 using a silicon diode.

Figure 2

3. Increase the supply voltage until the voltage across the resistor,VR1 reads 0.1V.
Now measure the diode voltage, VD and record the value in table 2.

4. Calculate the diode current, ID using the formula ID =VR/RMeas and record the
value in table 2.

5. Repeat procedures 3 and 4 for the other values of VR1 in table 2.

42
 VR1 (V) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
VD (V)
ID (mA)

VR1 (V) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
VD (V)
ID (mA)

Table 2: Silicon Diode test results

6. Replace the silicon diode in figure 1 with the germanium and repeat
procedures 3 through to 5 and record your results in table 3.

VR1 (V) 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
VD (V)
ID (mA)

VR1 (V) 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
VD (V)
ID (mA)

Table 3: Germanium Diode test results

7. On the same graph, neatly plot the ID versus VD curve for the silicon and the
germanium diodes. Complete the curves by extending the lower region of the curve to the
intersection of the axis at ID = 0mA and VD = 0V. Label each curve.

8. Draw a tangent to the straight portion of the curve and extend it until it touches
the horizontal axis. The intersection with the VD axis is the threshold voltage VT.

9. Determine graphically the threshold value for both the silicon and germanium
diodes.
VT (Silicon) :_______________ VT (Germanium) :______________

How does the two curves differ? What are their similarities?

Section C: Temperature Effect

1. Reconstruct the circuit of figure 2 using the silicon diode. Establish a current of
about 1mA by setting VR1 to 1V.
2. Place the voltmeter across the diode and note the voltage change as the instructor
heats the diode with the heat gun. Record the effect on VD by the heating of the
diode.

43
 3. Let the diode cool down and then place the voltmeter across the resistor R1. As
the instructor heats the diode, make note of the effect on VR1 of heating the diode.
Since ID =VR/R1 what is the effect on the diode current that results from heating
the diode?

4. Since Rdiode = VD/ID, what is the effect of increasing temperature on the resistance
of the diode?
Does the semiconductor diode have a positive or negative temperature
coefficient? Explain.

Analysis of Results

Write an analysis of your results. This should include:

1. A comparison of the characteristics of the silicon and germanium diode in the

forward bias region.
2. The heating effect on a silicon diode.

3. If a germanium diode was placed in series with the silicon diode as shown figure 3
and with the supply set to 12V. What would be the practical:

a. voltage drop across each diode ?

b. voltage drop across the resistor?
c. the total voltage drop across both diodes?
d. current in the circuit?

Show all working

Figure 3

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 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA
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Experiment 2: Rectification and smoothing circuits

OBJECTIVE

To investigate rectification and smoothing circuits.

PRELAB ASSIGNMENT
Write a summary of the terms:

1. Half-wave and full-wave rectification

2. Capacitor smoothing

EQUIPMENT:
Oscilloscope
Digital Multimeter (DMM)
1 - 12V Centre tap Transformer
2 - 2.2KΩ Resistor
4 - Silicon Diode
1 - 10µ F Capacitor
1 - 100µ F Capacitor

Section A: Half-Wave Rectifier

1. Construct the circuit of figure 1

Figure 1

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Make a neat, labeled sketch of the input voltage and the output voltage. Make note of the
vertical and horizontal sensitivity on the oscilloscope.

3. The average or equivalent DC level of a half wave signal is 31.8% of the peak
value.
Use the peak voltage recorded in your sketch to calculate the DC level of the
signal.
Measure and record the DC output with the multimeter.

Section B: Full-Wave Rectifier (Centre -Tap)

1. Construct the circuit of figure 2.

Figure 2

Make a neat, labeled sketch of the voltage at the points A, B and the output voltage.
Make note of the vertical and horizontal sensitivity on the oscilloscope.

3. The average or equivalent DC level of a full wave signal is 63.6% of the peak
value.
Use the peak voltage recorded in your sketch to calculate the DC level of the
signal.
Measure and record the DC output with the multimeter

Section C: Full-Wave Rectifier and Smoothing (Bridge)

1. Construct the circuit of figure 3.

46
 Figure 3

2. Make a neat, labeled sketch of the input voltage and the output voltage. Make
note of the vertical and horizontal sensitivity on the oscilloscope.

3. The average or equivalent DC level of a full wave signal is 63.6% of the peak
value.
Use the peak voltage recorded in your sketch to calculate the DC level of the
signal.
Measure and record the DC output with the multimeter.

Measure and record the DC output with the multimeter.

4. Please Take Caution! Place the 10µ F capacitor across the output of the bridge
rectifier, making sure that the positive terminal of the capacitor is connected
to positive of the bridge output.
Use the oscilloscope to view the output voltage. Make a neat, labeled sketch of
the output.
Please Take Caution! Replace the 10µ F capacitor with the 100µ F Capacitor.
Use the oscilloscope to view the output voltage. Make a neat, labeled sketch of
the output.
Place the other 2.2KΩ resistor in parallel with the one in the circuit and note the
effect on the output ripples.

Analysis of Results
Write an analysis of your results. This should include:
1. A comparison of the DC levels in half-wave and full-wave rectification.
2. A comparison of the measured and calculated DC levels, accounting for any
differences.
3. A discussion on the effect of the capacitors on the output voltage.
4. What effect does load have on the output ripple? If a load with a much lower
resistance is connected to the power supply with the100µ F Capacitor, what
modification do you suggest to maintain a steady DC output?

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 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Experiment 3: Zener voltage regulator circuits

OBJECTIVES

1. To investigate the I-V characteristics of zener diode

2. To investigate zener voltage regulator circuits.

PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENT
Write a summary of the terms:

1. Zener Voltage
2. Zener diode voltage regulator circuits

EQUIPMENT:
Digital Multimeter (DMM)
DC Power Supply (Variable)
1 - 1KΩ Resistor
1 – 10KΩ Variable Resistor
1 - 5.1V Zener Diode

Section A: Zener Diode Characteristics

Figure 1

1. Measure and record the actual value of R1.

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 2. Construct the circuit shown in figure 1 without the variable resistor.
Set the DC supply to the values in table 1 and measure and record both
the voltage across the diode, VZ and the resistor, R1.
3. Calculate IZ using the formula IZ =VR/R1 (measured) to complete the table.

VDC(V) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
VZ (V)
VR (V)
IZ (mA)

Table 1

4. The zener region is in the third quadrant of a complete diode

characteristics curve.
Place a minus sign before both IZ and VZ . Using a suitable scale plot the
curve of IZ versus VZ. Determine from the graph the zener voltage. How
does the zener value determined from the graph compare with the
manufactures value?

Section B: Zener Diode Regulator

1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure 1. With the power supply set at
10V set the variable resistor to the load values, RL shown in table 2.
Measure and record the corresponding voltage across the variable resistor,
VRL. (Note: Remove the variable resistor from the circuit when measuring
its value).

RL (KΩ ) 0.1 0.2 0.5 2.0 5.0 7.0

VRL (V)
Table 2

Why was the output voltage, VL much less than the zener voltage in some
of the values?

Calculate the minimum load that would maintain the zener voltage?

What would be the maximum output of the circuit in figure 1, if another

diode, of exactly the same characteristics, was placed in series in the same
direction with the one already in the circuit?

Show all calculations.

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 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Experiment 4: Bipolar Junction Transistor Switching

OBJECTIVE

To investigate BJT transistor switching.

PRE-LAB ASSIGNMENT

1. Examine the specification sheet for the 2N3904 NPN transistor and determine the
maximum d.c. current gain, base and collector current.
2. What is meant by the term transistor saturation?

EQUIPMENT:

Digital Multimeter (DMM) 1 – SPDT Switch

DC Power Supply 1 – Small disposable cup with water
1 – 2N3904 NPN Transistor
2 – 2.2KΩ Resistor
1 – 4.7 KΩ Resistors
1 – 10KΩ Resistor
1 – Light Emitting Diode (LED)
1 – Light dependent Resistor (LDR)

Section A: BJT Transistor Switch

Figure 1

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1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure 1. Before connecting the power
supply measure and record the actual value of the 2.2KΩ resistor that is in
series with the LED.

2. Connect the power supply. With the switch in position A, turn on the power
supply. Is the LED ON or OFF? Measure and record the voltage across:
i) the base and emitter
ii) the collector and emitter
iii) the 2.2K resistor in series with the LED.

What is the current flowing through the collector of the transistor?

Is the transistor ON or OFF?

3. Now place the switch in position B. Is the LED ON or OFF? Measure and
record the voltage across:
i) the base and emitter
ii) the collector and emitter
iii) the 2.2K resistor in series with the LED.

What is the current flowing through the collector of the transistor?

What is the power dissipated by the transistor? Is the transistor ON or OFF?

Section B: Switching by Water

Figure 2

1. Construct the circuit of figure 2. For the probe, take two pieces of wire long
enough to extend from the breadboard to the cup of water.
Strip about two inches of the coated plastic from the loose end of both wires. Do
not allow the striped part of the wires to touch.

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 2. Turn on the power supply and record the state of the LED.

3. Now place the probe in the cup of water and record the state of the LED.
Explain the operation of this circuit.

Section C: Switching by Light

Figure 3

1. Construct the circuit of figure 3. What is the state of the LED?

2. Now cover the LDR with a piece of paper and record the state of the LED.

Explain the operation of this circuit.

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 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Experiment 5: Common Emitter Amplifier

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the parameters and operation of a common-emitter NPN transistor

amplifier.

PRELAB ASSIGNMENT

For the circuit shown, calculate the following DC parameters: IE, VE, VB, VC, and VCE.
Also draw the "composite" waveforms expected at the input and the output of the circuit,
assuming the input signal is 5 kHz sine wave at 100 mv peak.

Assume Beta = 100, VBE = 0.7V, in the pre-lab analysis.

EQUIPMENT:

Digital Multimeter (DMM)

DC Power Supply (Variable)
Signal Generator
1 - 2N3904 (NPN Transistor)
1 - 100 Ω Resistor
1 - 3.3 KΩ Resistors
1 - 4.7 KΩ Resistor
2 - 47 KΩ Resistor
2 - 10 KΩ Resistor
3 - 10µ F Capacitor

The Common Emitter Amplifier is one of the three basic transistor amplifier
configurations. In this experiment, you are expected to build and investigate a basic NPN
common emitter transistor amplifier.

PROCEDURE

1. Build the circuit shown in figure 1 and verify the DC parameters: IE, VE, VB, VC,
VCE and the output signal. Determine also the voltage gain.

2. Temporarily remove C3 and re-measure the output voltage. What is the voltage
gain?

53
 3. Determine the input impedance, Zi by inserting a 10KΩ resistor in series
between the signal generator and C1. Measure the new signal level at the
generator and the input of the amplifier. Use these values in the voltage divider
rule to find the value of Zi.

4. Determine the output impedance, Zo, by temporarily removing the load resistor,
RL and measuring the unloaded ac output voltage. Then replace the load, and re-
measure the ac output voltage. Use these measurements along with the voltage
divider rule to determine Zo.

Figure 1 - NPN Common Emitter Amplifier

Analysis of Results

Compare your results with your pre-lab calculations. Explain any significant
discrepancies. Also explain the purpose or function of the various components in the
circuit; the 100Ω resistor at the emitter, the input, output and the emitter bypass
capacitors C1, C2 and C3 respectively?

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 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Experiment 6: Common Source JFET Amplifier

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the operation of a common-source JFET transistor amplifier.

1. To introduce the simulation features of Electronics Workbench

PRELAB

Computer simulation using Electronics Workbench

Draw the circuit shown in Figure 1 using Electronics Workbench (EWB), except replace
the terminal marked "VDD = +12V" with a +12V battery (to allow the simulator to work).
Connect the amplifier’s input to the signal generator in EWB with an input signal of 5
kHz sine wave at 100 mv peak. Use the DVM (digital voltmeter) in Electronics
Workbench to measure the DC voltages at the FET terminals. Then connect the
oscilloscope in EWB to the input and output of the circuit. Sketch the two waveforms and
calculate the gain.

Try changing some of the circuit’s component values, and see how this affects the output
signal. For example, by temporarily removing CS, you can see that the output signal
dramatically decreases. By changing the source and drain resistors, it may be possible to
further optimize the amplifier for a larger peak output signal.

Using Electronics Workbench, note how easy it is to interactively change any component
at will, and immediately see the effects. This should further stimulate, encourage, and
enhance the learning process.

For more accurate simulations, change the ideal default JFET model in EWB to the
following JFET parameters, "Vto" = - 4V, and "Beta" = 0.00063 A/V2.

EQUIPMENT:

Digital Multimeter (DMM) 1 - 10KΩ Resistor

Dual Trace Oscilloscope 2 – 0.1µ F Capacitor
Signal Generator 1 – 10µ F Capacitor
DC Power Supply (Variable)
1 - JFET (2N5951, MPF102, or equivalent)
2 - 1MΩ Resistor
1 - 1KΩ Resistor

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 1 – 3.3KΩ Variable Resistor

Figure 1 - Common Source JFET Amplifier

PROCEDURE

The Common Source Amplifier is one of the three basic FET transistor amplifier
configurations. In comparison to the BJT common-emitter amplifier, the FET amplifier
has much higher input impedance, but a lower voltage gain. In this experiment, you will
build and investigate a simple n-channel, common source JFET amplifier.

1. Build the circuit shown in figure 1, and verify the voltages at the JFET’s
terminals. First check the DC quiescent voltages with no ac input signal. If these
are reasonably close to your predictions, connect the ac input signal to the input of
the amplifier. Use the dual-trace on the oscilloscope, as appropriate, to observe
the waveforms at the input and output.

Is the output signal close to expected?

How do the waveforms seen at the FET’s drain and the output compare?

56
2. Temporarily remove CS, and re-measure the output voltage, did it decrease as
expected?

3. Determine the input impedance, Zi by inserting a 1MΩ resistor in series between

the signal generator and C1. Measure the new signal level at the generator and the
input of the amplifier. Use these values in the voltage divider rule to find the
value of Zi.

4. Determine the output impedance, Zo by temporarily removing the load resistor,

RL and measuring the unloaded ac output voltage. Then replace the load, and re-
measure the ac output voltage. Use these measurements along with the voltage
divider rule to determine Zo.

Comments and Conclusions

Compare your results with your pre-lab calculations.

Explain any significant discrepancies. Also, explain clearly the purpose or function of the
various components in the circuit; for example, what is the purpose of the source bypass
capacitor?

How does this circuit generally compare to a common-emitter amplifier?

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 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA
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Experiment 7: Introduction to the Operational

Amplifier (OP-Amp)

OBJECTIVE:

To investigate the operational amplifier as a comparator, inverting and non-inverting

amplifier .

PRE-LAB
Investigate the following terms as they relate to OP-Amp circuits.
1. Voltage comparator
2. Inverting and non-inverting amplifier
3. Bandwidth and clipping

What can you say about the input and output impedance of an OP-Amp?

EQUIPMENT:

1 Dual ± 15V Power Supply

1 Digital Multimeter (DMM)
1 Dual trace Oscilloscope
1 Signal Generator
1 Breadboard
1 741 OP-Amp
1 4.7 KΩ Resistor
1 6.8 KΩ Resistor
4 10 KΩ Resistor
1 22 KΩ Resistor
1 47 KΩ Resistor
1 100 KΩ Resistor
2 10 KΩ Linear Potentiometer
2 1 µ F Capacitor

Section A: Basic OP-Amp Comparator

Introduction:
The polarity of the voltage at the output of the op-amp depends on the relationship of the
polarity of the voltage at the inputs. When the inverting input is more positive than the
non-inverting input, the output will be negative, and when the inverting input is more

58
negative than the non-inverting input, the output will be positive. Without feedback, the
output will either be +Vsat or -Vsat.
Procedure:

1. Examine the circuit of figure 1 and record in table 1, the expected

value of the output.
2. Construct the circuit in figure 1.
3. Set the input voltage V1 and V2 according to table1.
4. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the various values of V1 and V2.

V1(V) V2(V) Expected Measured

Vout Vout
+1 0
-1 0
0 +1
0 -1
+2 +1
+1 +2
+1 -1
-1 +1
-1 -2
-2 -1
Figure 1
Table
1

Section B: OP-Amp Inverting Amplifier

Introduction:

The gain of the inverting amplifier can be calculated by the formula Av = -Rf /Rin where
the minus sign indicates that the polarity of the output voltage is opposite to the polarity
of the input voltage. The gain can also be calculated using the formula
Av =Vout /Vin .
The resistor Rn is used to reduce offset bias currents and is equal to the value of Rin and
RF in parallel. The junction of Rin and RF at the inverting input is about the same voltage
as the non-inverting input and is referred to as virtual ground.
The input impedance is usually equal to Rin.

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When the inverting amplifier is use for ac signals, capacitors are used to block any dc
voltage from the circuit that may cause distortion. The frequency response of an op-amp
circuit depends on its gain. The lower the gain the wider the frequency response is.

Procedure:

1. Construct the circuit show in figure 2a using the value of Rin and RF of the first
line of table 2a.
2. Using the voltmeter, set Vin according to table 2a.
3. Using the voltmeter, measure and record Vout in the table.
4. Calculate the gain of the circuit using the formula Av = - RF / Rin and record this
value in the table.
5. Calculate the gain of the circuit using the formula Av = Vout / Vin and record this
value in the table.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for all the values of Rin and RF given in table 2a.
7. Modify your circuit to the one shown in Figure 2b using RF = 100 KΩ .
8. Using the oscilloscope, set the signal generator for Vin to be the frequency given
in the first line of table 2b. ( Maintain 1Vp-p for all input)
9. Use the oscilloscope to measure Vout and record the value in the table.
10. Calculate the gain using the formula Av = Vout / Vin and record this value.
11. Repeat sets 9 and 10 for the various frequencies given in the table.
12. Change RF to 47 KΩ and repeat steps 8 to 11.
13. Use the results of table 2b to neatly draw the frequency-response curves for the
two circuit gains.

Figure 2a

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Rin RF (KΩ ) Vin Vout Av= - RF / Rin Av = Vout / Vin
(K
Ω)

10 47 +1

10 100 +1

10 22 +1

4.7 47 -1

22 47 -1

10 47 -1

Table 2a

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 Figure 2b

RF = 47KΩ
RF =100KΩ

Vin (1Vp-p) Vout(Vp-p) Av = Vout / Vin Vout = (Vp-p) Av = Vout / Vin

Frequency (Hz)

100

1K

10K

100K

500K

1M

Table 2b

Section C: OP-Amp Non-inverting Amplifier

Introduction:

The gain of the non-inverting amplifier can be calculated using the formula
Av = RF / Rin+1 or Av = Vout /Vin .
When the inverting amplifier is use for ac signals, capacitors are used to block any dc
voltage from the circuit that may cause distortion.

Procedure:

1. Construct the circuit in figure 3a using the value of Rin and RF of the first line of
table 3a.
2. Using the voltmeter, set Vin according to table 3a.
3. Using the voltmeter, measure and record Vout in the table.

62
4. Calculate the gain of the circuit using the formula Av = RF / Rin +1 and record this
value in the table.
5. Calculate the gain of the circuit using the formula Av = Vout / Vin and record this
value in the table.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for all the values of Rin and RF given in table 3a.
7. Modify you circuit to construct the circuit show in figure 3b.
8. Calculate the gain of the circuit using the formula Av = RF / Rin +1 and record this
value in the space provided.
9. Use the oscilloscope to set the signal generator for Vin given in the first line of
table 3b.
10. Use the oscilloscope to measure Vout and record the value in the table.
11. Calculate Vout using the formula Vout =Av Vin and record the value in the table.
12. Repeat steps 10 and 11 for the various amplitudes of Vin given in table 3b.

Figure
3a

63
 Rin(KΩ ) RF (KΩ ) Vin Vout Av = Av =Vout / Vin

(RF / Rin) +1

10 47 +1

10 100 +1

10 22 +1

4.7 47 -1

22 47 -1

10 47 -1

Table 3a

Figure 3b

Calculated value of Av =____________

Vin (Vp-p) Vout (measured) Vout = AvVin (calculated)

0.2
0.4
1.0
2.0
3.0
Table 3b

Note: Recorded voltages in table 3b should be expressed in peak to peak.

64
Analysis of result

From your results,

1. What can you say about the output of an op-amp comparator, when the inverting
input is (i) more negative than the non-inverting?
(ii) more positive than the non-inverting?

2. What is the phase relationship between the input and output of the (i) inverting
amplifier? (ii) non-inverting amplifier.

3. Comment on the frequency response curves.

4. For the last measurement in table 3b, explain why the measured output voltage
was less than the calculated output voltage and why was the signal distorted?

65
 UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING

Experiment # 8: OP-Amp Active Filters

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the frequency response of a Low-Pass, High-Pass and Band-Pass Active

filters.

PRELAB

Students should investigate the following:

Low-pass, High-pass and Band-pass Active filters
Centre Frequency,
Critical frequency, fc
Bandwidth, BW
Quality factor, Q

INTRODUCTION

A filter is a circuit that passes certain frequencies and attenuates or rejects all other
frequencies.
The pass band of a filter is the region of frequencies that are allowed to pass through the
filter with attenuation less than 3dB. The critical frequency, fc defines the end of the pass
band and is specified at the point where the response drops -3dB from the pass band.
The critical frequency, fc for a high pass and a low pass filter is fc =1 / (2π √ RARBCACB).
For simplicity we make RA = RB and CA = CB, thus making fc =1 / 2π RACA.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED

Dual Power Supply

Signal Generator
Oscilloscope
Bread-Board
2 - LM 741
2 - 2.2 KΩ Resistor
2 - 4.7 KΩ Resistor
2 - 5.6 K( Resistor
2 - 10 K( Resistor
4 - 0.01(F capacitor

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 Section A: The Sallen-Key Low-Pass Filter

1. Connect the circuit as show in figure 1.

Figure 1

2. Calculate the critical frequency, fc.

3. Set up the signal generator to provide a 1 Vp-p sinusoidal signal and connect it to
the input. Set the frequency to the necessary values to complete table 1, use the
oscilloscope to measure Vout. (Do not dismantle this circuit)

Frequency (Hz) Vout (Vp-p)

1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000

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 20000
30000
40000
50000

Table 1

4. Use the values in the table to plot a smooth and well labeled frequency response
curve for the filter on a semi-log sheet, Gain (dB) verses Frequency.
(Gain (dB) = 20 Log Vout / Vin)

Section B: The Sallen-Key High-Pass Filter

5. On a separate location connect the circuit as show in figure 2.

Figure 2

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 Frequency (Hz) Vout (Vp-p)
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000

Table 2

6. Repeat steps 2 to 4 for this filter.

Section C: Band-Pass Filter (Cascaded Low-Pass and High-

Pass Filter)
7. Connect the output of the high pass filter to the input of the low pass filter.
8. Repeat steps 2 to 4.

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 Frequency (Hz) Vout (Vp-p)
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000

Table 3

Compare the actual values and the theoretical values of fc, bandwidth, centre frequency
and Q factor (Show all calculations). Suggest reason/s for any difference in your values.

If you were to modify the low pass filter is figure 1 to have a cut off frequency of 5.0kHz,
what value resistor would you use for RA and RB?

Sketch the frequency response of a low pass filter with a cutoff frequency of 3kHz
paralleled with a high pass filter with cutoff frequency 7khz as shown in the block
diagram figure 3 .

High Pass
Filter
Output
Input

Low Pass
Filter

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 Figure 3

APPENDICES

71
 Useful Information
Resistors

The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current.

This symbol is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known as a schematic.
Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm." A 1000 Ohm resistor is typically shown
as 1K-Ohm ( kilo Ohm ), and 1000 K-Ohms is written as 1M-Ohm ( megohm ).

There are two classes of resistors, fixed resistors and the variable resistors. They are also
classified according to the material from which they are made. The typical resistor is made of
either carbon film or metal film. There are other types as well, but these are the most common.
The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a resistor for
use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the electric power ratings of the resistor are also important.
The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated resistence value. For
example, a ±5% tolerance would indicate a resistor that is within ±5% of the specified resistance
value.
The power rating indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate. Just like you
wouldn't use a 6 volt flashlight lamp to replace a burned out light in your house, you wouldn't use
a 1/8 watt resistor when you should be using a 1/2 watt resistor.

The maximum rated power of the resistor is specified in Watts.

Power is calculated using the square of the current ( I2 ) x the resistance value ( R ) of the
resistor. If the maximum rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot,
and even burn.
Resistors in electronic circuits are typically rated 1/8W, 1/4W, and 1/2W.
When powering a light emitting diode, a comparatively large current flows through the
resistor, so you need to consider the power rating of the resistor you choose.

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Rating electric power
For example, to power a 5V circuit using a 12V supply, a three-terminal voltage regulator
is usually used.
However, if you try to drop the voltage from 12V to 5V using only a resistor, then you
need to calculate the power rating of the resistor as well as the resistance value.

At this time, the current consumed by the 5V circuit needs to be known. Assume the
current consumed is 100 mA (milliamps) in the following example. Now 7V must be
dropped with the resistor. The resistance value of the resistor becomes 7V / 0.1A =
70(ohm). The consumption of electric power for this resistor becomes 0.1A x 0.1A x 70
ohm = 0.7W.
Generally, it's safe to choose a resistor that has a power rating of about twice the power
consumption needed.

Resistor Color Code Chart

1st. & 2nd Color Band Digit it Represents -----Multiplier-----

BLACK 0 X1

BROWN 1 X10
RED 2 X100
ORANGE 3 X1,000 or 1K
YELLOW 4 X10,000 or 10K
GREEN 5 X100,000 or 100K
BLUE 6 X1,000,000 or 1M
VIOLET 7 Silver is divide by 100
GRAY 8 Gold is divide by 10
 Tolerances
 Gold= 5%
WHITE 9
 Silver=10%
 None=20%

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 Capacitors
The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy.
The capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking
direct current (DC).
This symbol is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram.

The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing each other, but separated by
an insulator.

When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each

electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop flowing
when the capacitor has fully charged.

When a circuit tester, such as an analog meter set to measure resistance, is connected to a
10 microfarad (µF) electrolytic capacitor, a current will flow, but only for a moment. You
can confirm that the meter's needle moves off from zero, but returns to zero right away.
When you connect the meter's probes to the capacitor in reverse, you will note that
current once again flows for a moment. Once again, when the capacitor has fully charged,
the current stops flowing. So the capacitor can be used as a filter that blocks DC current.
(A "DC cut" filter.)
However, in the case of alternating current, the current will be allowed to pass.
Alternating current is similar to repeatedly switching the test meter's probes back and
forth on the capacitor. Current flows every time the probes are switched.
The value of a capacitor (the capacitance), is designated in units called the Farad ( F ).
The capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so units such as the microfarad
( 10-6F ), nanofarad ( 10-9F ), and picofarad (10-12F ) are used.
Recently, an new capacitor with very high capacitance has been developed. The Electric
Double Layer capacitor has capacitance designated in Farad units. These are known as
"Super Capacitors."
Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor. There are two
ways in which the capacitance can be written. One uses letters and numbers, the other
uses only numbers. In either case, there are only three characters used. [10n] and [103]
denote the same value of capacitance. The method used differs depending on the
capacitor supplier. In the case that the value is displayed with the three-digit code, the 1st
and 2nd digits from the left show the 1st figure and the 2nd figure, and the 3rd digit is a
multiplier which determines how many zeros are to be added to the capacitance.
Picofarad ( pF ) units are written this way.
For example, when the code is [103], it indicates 10 x 103, or 10,000pF = 10 nanofarad
( nF ) = 0.01 microfarad( µF ).
If the code happened to be [224], it would be 22 x 104 = or 220,000pF = 220nF = 0.22µF.
Values under 100pF are displayed with 2 digits only. For example, 47 would be 47pF.
The capacitor has an insulator( the dielectric ) between 2 sheets of electrodes. Different
kinds of capacitors use different materials for the dielectric.

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Breakdown voltage
When using a capacitor, you must pay attention to the maximum voltage which can be
used. This is the "breakdown voltage." The breakdown voltage depends on the kind of
capacitor being used. You must be especially careful with electrolytic capacitors because
the breakdown voltage is comparatively low. The breakdown voltage of electrolytic
capacitors is displayed as Working Voltage.
The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the dielectric
(insulator) inside the capacitor to break down and conduct. When this happens, the failure
can be catastrophic.

Electrolytic Capacitors
Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization membrane.
Large values of capacitance can be obtained in comparison with the size of the capacitor,
because the dielectric used is very thin.
The most important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that they have polarity.
They have a positive and a negative electrode.[Polarised] This means that it is very
important which way round they are connected. If the capacitor is subjected to voltage
exceeding its working voltage, or if it is connected with incorrect polarity, it may burst. It
is extremely dangerous, because it can quite literally explode. Make absolutely no
mistakes.
Generally, in the circuit diagram, the positive side is indicated by a "+" (plus) symbol.
Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1µF to thousands of µF. Mainly this
type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in a power supply circuit, or as a filter to bypass
low frequency signals, etc.

In the photograph above, the mark indicating the negative lead of the component can be
seen. You need to pay attention to the polarity indication so as not to make a mistake
when you assemble the circuit.

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