Electrical Tomography Lecture v3

Industrial Tomography
Electrical Tomography for Industrial

Applications
Tony Peyton
Manchester University
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
a.peyton@lancaster.ac.uk
Industrial Tomography Slide 1

Electrical Tomography
Overview of the course:
• Introduction to tomography
• Overview of sensing modalities
• Hardware design
• Image reconstruction techniques
• Industrial applications
• Conclusions

Introduction
GE
http://www.ge.com/medical/
Analogic
http://www.analogic.com/Level3/CT%20III.html
Siemens
http://www.med.siemens.com/

Introduction
Industrial tomography
• High resolution (spatial or contrast) may not be essential

• High imaging speeds may be required
(e.g. 100’s frames/sec for fast flow applications)
• Rugged operating conditions
(temperature and pressure)
• Safety considerations
• Greater inhomogeniety
• Wide range of material properties
• Cost

Introduction
Examples of industrial techniques 1
Microstructural characterisation Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
of components, particles, pastes, Neutron tomography.
foams, filters X-ray micro-tomography.
(1—10000 μm) Optical tomography
Liquid mixing and Optical tomography.

multi-phase flow Electrical resistive tomography.
(0.01—0.5 m) Electrical capacitance tomography.
Ultra-sonic / acoustic tomography
Powder mixing, transport and Positron-emission tomography (PET).
conveying Electrical capacitance tomography.
(0.01—0.5 m) γ-ray transmission.
Electro-dynamic tomography.
Introduction
Fluidisation and trickle bed γ-Tomography.

reactor studies X-ray tomography.
(0.01—3.0 m) Positron-emission tomography (PET).
Electrical capacitance tomography.
Thermal mapping of reactors, Infra-red emission imaging.
objects and atmospheres Electrical resistance tomography.
(0.01 m to 5 km) Microwave tomography.
Groundwater monitoring Electrical impedance tomography

and soil remediation
(1 m to 2 km)

Introduction
Atmospheric pollution Laser absorption imaging

monitoring
(50 m to 10 km)
Ore deposit and oilfield Acoustic velocity imaging.
reservoir exploration Acoustic diffraction tomography
(50 m to 50 km)
Air traffic control RADAR

(100 m to 50+ km)

Sensing Techniques
• Electromagnetic (hard field)

• Electromagnetic (soft field)
• Particle
• Other
• Hybrids
• Multi-modal systems

Sensing techniques:
Basic principles
Images are formed by projections:
Rotate
Excitation (array) Process Detection array
• Mechanical rotation
• Excitation and detection array
Sensing techniques:
EM (hard field)
Type Comments
γ-ray - Radio-active sources.
- Mechanically scanned or fixed
arrays.
- Potentially fast.
X-ray - High resolution.
- Mechanically scanned.
f
- Radiation confinement.
UV - Fast.
Optical - Optical access.
Infra red - Use spectrometry to give
component specificity.
Millimeter - System components emerging.
1010
wave
Sensing techniques:
EM (soft field)
1010
Type Comments
Micro-wave - Hard or soft.
- Fast.
- Moderate resolution
(wavelength dependant)
f - Attentuation, reflection,
defraction
Electrical - Low resolution
- Capacitance (ECT) - Fast
- Resistance (ERT) - Low cost
- Inductance (EMT) - Robust
0

Sensing techniques:
Nuclear particle
Type Comments
Positron emission - Uses labelled particles.
(PET) - Not on-line.
Neutron - High resolution.
- Spectrometry (TOF) for
element specificity.
- Pulse or radioactive
sources.
- Radiation confinement.

Sensing techniques:
Others
Type Comments
Nuclear magnetic - Fast
resonance - High performance.
- Large high stabiltiy
magnet.
- “Gold” standard
Ultra-sound (sonic) - High resolution.
- Frame rate determined by
speed of sound.
- Phased arrays for beam
steering.
Thermal conduction - Slow
(heat flux) - Soft field

Sensing techniques: PET
Positron emission tomography (PET, positron emission computed tomography,
PECT) a technique in nuclear medicine for cross-sectional imaging that enables
a non-invasive assessment and localization of metabolic activity to be made.
Emission of a positron by a radioisotope results in annihilation of the positron on
collision with an electron, and the creation of two gamma rays of known energy
travelling in exactly opposite directions. The PET scanner has detectors on each
side of the patient to detect the simultaneous arrival of the gamma rays. Images
are created using reconstruction algorithms similar to CT scanning.
Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), using fluorine-18, is used to examine glucose
metabolism, and ammonia, using nitrogen-13, gives information on perfusion.
Carbon-11 and oxygen-15 can also be used as radioisotopes for PET scanning.
Some diseases result in decreased uptake of the radio-labelled material due to
decreased function; others, including many tumours, show increased glucose
metabolism and concentrate the isotope avidly. In this way functional activity of
the tissues can be compared with anatomical images obtained by CT or MRI
scanning. Originally used to study activity in the brain, PET is now also used for
investigating the chest and abdomen. See also tomography. Compare
computerized tomography.
"positron emission tomography" Concise Medical Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 2002. Oxford
Reference Online. Oxford University Press.
Sensing techniques: MRI
This diagnostic imaging technique is based on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), in which protons interact with a strong
magnetic field and with radio waves to generate electrical pulses that can be processed in a similar way to computerized
tomography. Images produced by MRI are similar to those produced by computerized tomography using X-rays, but without
the radiation hazard.
A major factor in the high costs of MRI is the need for a superconducting magnet to produce the very strong magnetic fields
(0.1–2 tesla). Superimposed on this large magnetic field are smaller fields, with known gradients in two directions. These
gradient fields produce a unique value of the magnetic field strength at each point within the instrument (see illustration).
Some nuclei in the atoms of a patient's tissues have a spin, which makes them behave as tiny nuclear magnets.
The purpose of the large magnetic field is to align these nuclear magnets. Having achieved this alignment, the area under
examination is subjected to pulses of radio-frequency (RF) radiation. At a resonant frequency of theRF pulses the nuclei
under examination undergo Larmor precession. This phenomenon may be thought of as a ‘tipping’ of the nuclear magnets
away from the strong field alignment. The nuclear magnets then precess, or ‘wobble’, about the axis of the main field as the
nuclei regain their alignment with that field.
The speed at which the nuclei return to the steady state gives rise to two parameters, known as relaxation times. Because
these relaxation times for nuclei depend on their atomic environment, they may be used to identify nuclei. Small changes in
the magnetic field produced as the nuclei precess induce currents in a receiving coil. These signals are digitized before being
stored in a computer.
MRI has produced spectacular results in studies of the brain and central nervous system, providing excellent images of
delicate structures without the risk of the damage associated with ionizing radiation. Systems using very strong fields, in the
region of 2 tesla or above, produce images of extremely high quality.
MRI: the way unique field strengths are produced at different
points in a specimen.
"nuclear magnetic resonance" A Dictionary of Physics.

Ed. Alan Isaacs. Oxford University Press, 2000.
Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press.

Sonics Principles – Active Sonar
(Courtesy J&S Marine Ltd)
Transducer Dense reflecting object

Reflected Wave
Mismatch in
acoustic
impedance
Incident Wave
Time delay
proportional
to distance
between
source and
reflector
Slide 16
Sonics Principles – Types of Scan
Transmitter
Object
A – Scan: Receiver

Transmitter
Scan mechanism
Object
B – Scan:
Receiver
Z modulation
Y Axis
X Axis
Time base

Beam scanned
over object
Object
Medical
scan:
Z modulation
Scan control
Y Axis
X Axis
Timebase

Phased Ө
array:

Sonics Principles – Time Varied Gain
(TVG)
Two mechanisms result in need for

Time Varied Gain (TVG)
1) Spherical spreading 2) Absorption

Loss (dB) = 40 log (R) Loss (dB) = 2 α R
R = distance from transducer to reflector
Sonar System Overview
(Courtesy J&S Marine Ltd)
RS485 To AUV
serial link control PC
Fixed Analog to
TVG Quadrature FIFO
gain Digital
amplifiers detectors memory
preamps Converters
System
Timing
generator
Fixed
transmit
power DSP
amplifier DDS signal
generators
TVG
generattion
Steered Phased
transmit array
power signal
amplifiers generators

Sensing techniques:
Electrical techniques
Method Sensor Typical Measure Typical material Typical material
elements arrangement values properties ??
εr 1 – 100 Oil, water, non-metallic

ECT Capacitive Capacitance powders, polymers, burning
plates C σ < 10-1 S/m gasses
(low)
σ 10-1 - 107 S/m Water / saline, biological

ERT Electrodes Resistance (wide) tissue, rock /geological
(EIT) (Impedance) materials, semi-conductors
R/Z εr 100 - 102 e.g. silicon
σ 102 - 107 S/m Metals, some minerals,

EMT Coils Self/ mutual (high) magnetic materials and
(MIT) Inductance ionised water ?
L/M μr 1 to 10,000

Sensing techniques
Operation of ECT
Measure:
11 10
C1-2
12 9 C1-3
etc...
1 8 C1-12
then
2 7 C2-3
C2-4
3 6 etc...
4 5 C2-12
n.(n − 1) independent measurements

2
Sensing techniques
Hardware
“Typical” electrical tomography system:
Sensor array Conditioning Host computer

electronics
Reconstruction algorithm
Excitation coils I1 = C11 C21. . CM1 D1
I2 C12 C22. . CM2 D2
I3 C13 C23. . CM3 D3
Field control Data . . . . . . .
& & . . . . . . .
Detection coils . . . . . . .
Measured signals Control
IN C1NC2N. . CMN .
AC magnetic DM
field

Sensing techniques
Example of an EMT system
Sample images
(SIRT & ART)
Image of 3 copper
bars.
(15 mm dia, 10%
of object space)
Designed and built
experimental systems
Image of 2 copper
bars & 1 ferrite.
(15 mm dia, 10%
of object space)

Example of Hardware Design: ECT
Typical ECT sensor

• 11 times excitation
• 66 measurements 4 3
• Circular or square 5 2 Measurement
electrode
6 1 Earthed screen
Imaging area
7 12 Radial screen
8 11 Insulating pipe
9 10

Capacitance Values
0.6 0.1
Capacitance (pF)
Capacitance (pF)
0.08
0.4
0.06
0.04
0.2
0.02
0 0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Detection electrode number Detection electrode number
Standing C (<0.5 pF) Change in C (<0.1 pF)
Requires:
• Highly sensitive circuit
• Large measurement range (>100 times)
• Stray-immune (150 pF stray C)
Switched Capacitor Input Circuit
SW, frequency fSW
V1 Charge transferred each cycle ΔQ = C.(V1 – V2)

V2
I
Current, I = ΔQ.fSW = C. fSW.(V1 – V2)
C 1
Equivalent resistance, REQ =
C. f SW
Simple schematic of a switched capacitor C to V converter:

fSW
RF
VREF A major practical
-
VOUT difficulty is the effects
+ of charge injection
C VOUT = − C. f SW .VREF

AC-based Input Circuit
Rf
Cx Charge amplifier:
Cf jω C x R f
Vi Vo Vo = − Vi
jω C f R f + 1
Cs1 Cs2
Vo
0
Vi 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
-45
ω
1 -90
C f Rf
Transient Analysis
Output Laplace transform with a sine sC x R f ω
Vo ( s ) = −
wave input, frequency, ω sC f R f + 1 s 2 + ω 2
Time domain response:

Cx R f ω ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
α = cot −1 (C f R f ω )
⎜ t ⎟ sin(ωt + α )⎥
Vo (t ) = ⎢− exp⎜ −
1 + (C f R f ω ) ⎢⎣
⎟
⎝ C f Rf
2
⎠ ⎥⎦
Time constant τ = C f R f
Capacitive feedback, Resistive feedback,
1 Cx 1
<< R f Vo = − Vi R f << Vo = − jωC x R f Vi
ωC Cf ωC f
• Independent on frequency, • Stable frequency required
good for spectroscopy • Small τ = RfCf << 1/ω
• Large τ = RfCf >> 1/ω → short transient process
→ long transient process
Block Diagram of one Channel
Rf
Cx
Vi
DDS signal Cf
AC Analogue Vd Low-pass
generator
Vo PGA multiplier filter
capacitance
latch Cs1 Cs2
DDS signal measurement
Clock generator
latch
digital control
signal
• DDS signal generators (AD7008) – A, f, φ programmable

• AC-PGA necessary (SNR of multiplier)
• Multiplier-based demodulator – no odd harmonics
• 4th order Butterworth low-pass filter -- 80 dB/decade
• C+R
• Spectroscopy
System Block Diagram
Data acquisition
DDS signal
card
generators
digital control signals
Digital
Electrode 1 output
port
Capacitance
transducer
offset voltage
M PC
DAC
U
Electrode N X
Capacitance Differential DC
ADC
transducer amplifier PGA
• Standing capacitance compensation

• DC PGA for large measurement range
• PCI data acquisition card
Circuit Details - Demodulation
Multiplier-based demodulator
1 AB
Vd = A sin ωtB sin(ωt + α ) = [cosα − cos(2ωt + α )]
S 2S
AB
In phase component, Vd = [1 − cos 2(ωt )]
AB 2 S
After low-pass Vd =
2S
What is the output for a purely resistive object?

How would you measure R?
Electrical Tomography:
How could you modify the system for ERT or EMT?

Circuit Details -Butterworth low-pass
filter
2C
Vo
Vi
R R
C
Vo ( jω ) ωn 2
1
= =
Vi ( jω ) ( jω ) + 2ξω n jω + ω n
2 2
⎡ ⎛ ω ⎞2 ⎤ ⎛ω ⎞
⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ + j 2ξ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ ω n ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎝ ωn ⎠
ξ = 0.707 1
Derive f0 → f o =
2π 2 RC
Feature → maximally flat in the pass band
Circuit Details –Excite / Detect Switching
T-configuration switch:
Principle
Practical
1
DDS signal
generator 1 2
DDS signal
generator
Switch coupling 3
Electrode capacitance
2 Electrode
Switch coupling
4
capacitances
Minimises problems due to parasitic “off” capacitance

System Model
Reference voltage, Vref
D Offset signal
generator
4096 0.5F
Cp
+ - + 4096
Cx + + + E
Kc K Kd
g F
AC-based Diff. DC DC
ADC
circuit with amp PGA amp
AC PGA
⎛ E ⎞
F + 0.5 F
1 ⎜ 4096 D ⎟
Cx + C p = ⎜ + Vref ⎟
Kc ⎜ K g Kd 4096 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Simplified System Model
D1 DAC
PGA ADC D3
Vx
D2
Calibration:
Excitation Offset, D1 PGA, D2 ADC, D3
Empty pipe max. ↨ (0-4096) max. >0
Full pipe max. keep same ↨ (1-16) < 4095
Parasitic 0 ↨ (0-4096) max. >0
Image reconstruction techniques
• Basic concepts of image reconstruction

• Difficulties
• Sensitivity maps
• reconstruction algorithms
• Sample images

Image reconstruction
Some basic concepts
Basic concepts
Permittivity Capacitance
distribution measurements
Conductivity Resistance
Permeability Inductance
Forward problem C = f (ε(x, y)) R = f (σ (x, y)) I = f ( μ ( x, y))

Inverse problem ε(x, y) = f −1(C) σ(x, y) = f −1(R) μ(x, y) = f −1(I)
Some basic concepts
Projection
Point
distribution
Object
distributions
X X X
Projections
Y Y Y
Reconstructed
images
Clearly we need sufficient projections to Radial projections Æ

obtain a unique solution: Industrial Tomography Point spread function
Slide 41
Difficulties
Several difficulties associated:
“Soft field” effect
Ill-condition of the problem (ill posed)
Limited number of independent measurement
Non-linearity

Image reconstruction:
The “soft field” effect
Simple model of an EMT sensor:
Model
Ferrite
Air target
Aluminium μR = 1000
target
Ferrite target
(a)(d)
(c)
(b)
Object
The magnetic insulator
does not field
affect the lines of
cannot
Flux lines
magnetic
penetrate drawn
flux
the into
target duethe
to eddy
target effects aluminium
current
target
Object space diameter, 150 mm excitation frequency 100kHz
The distribution of the excitation field lines is determined by

the object material
Image reconstruction:
The “soft field” effect – ERT example
In electromagnetic theory, at the interface between two media

tan( α 1 ) σ 1 tan(α 1 ) ε 1 tan( α 1 ) μ1
= = =
tan( α 2 ) σ 2 tan(α 2 ) ε 2 tan( α 2 ) μ 2
α 1 and α 2 denotes the angles between field lines and the direction normal to interface
Limited independent measurements
• There are only a limited number of independent

measurements per frame, i.e. n(n + 1) n(n − 1) n(n − 3)
2 2 2
EMT ECT ERT
• Cannot expect high resolution images,
No. of independent ~ No. of independent
pixels measurements
• Smoothing used to improve appearance of the image.

number of independent measurements
EMT ECT ERT
n(n + 1) n(n − 1) n(n − 3)
2 2 2
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7D8 D34 D45 D56 D67 D78 D81
D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7D8
E1
Excitation source
E1 E1-2
Excitation source
Excitation source
E2
E2 E2-3
E3
E3 E3-4
E4
E4 E4-5
E5
E5 E5-6
E6
E6 E6-7
E7
E7
E8
Detector channel Detector channel Detector channel
8(8 + 1) 8(8 − 1) 8(8 − 3)

= 36 = 28 = 20
2 2 2
8-coils example 8-electrodes example 8-electrodes example
Increase the number of independent measurements?
Ill-conditioning (ill-posed)
The spatial sensitivity distribution is highly non-uniform, i.e. the sensitivity near the wall
is very high and the sensitivity near the centre is very low, which is linked with an ill-
conditioned sensitivity matrix. The very large condition number of the sensitivity matrix
can result in the magnification of both measurement error and numerical error in the
reconstructed image.
600000
500000
400000
S e n s it iv it y
300000
200000
100000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Elements Across Diameter
• Expect blurring images near the center

Non-linearity
C1 = f (ε1( x, y)) = [..............]

T
(a)
+ +
C2 = f (ε 2 ( x, y)) = [..............]
T
≠
(b)
=
C3 = f (ε3 ( x, y)) = [..............]
T
(c)
target
Algorithms
Several approaches:
Lower Higher
computation computation
requirements requirements
Rule Neural Weighted ART SIRT Parametric Quantitative

based networks back-projection algorithms FE based
algorithms algorithms
Sensitivity
coefficient
NOSER
Non-iterative Iterative
Back-projection (along field lines)
One of the simplest methods involves projecting back along the
field lines:

Determining the sensitivity maps
The main approaches:

1. Measure them.
- Tedious unless automated
- Only useful for the simpler algorithms
- Effectively calibrates offset and gain errors at the same time
2. Sweep a perturbation over the model.
- Slow
- Subject to FE quantisation error
3. Calculate from field values extracted from the model.
• The sensitivity maps are strongly affected by boundaries.
• So static sensitivity maps are very poor for looking inside
conductive objects.
• Need to know where the “main” boundaries are and
dynamically update the maps.
Examples of sensitivity maps (ECT)
Sensitivity maps are commonly used.
These quantify the response of a particular excite / detector pair to
each pixel location
6 7
5 8
4 1
3
2
How many sensitivity maps for a ECT sensor with 8 electrodes?
Examples of sensitivity maps (EMT)
Sensitivity maps are commonly used.
These quantify the response of a particular excite / detector pair to
each pixel location
Coil
4
Coil
3 Coil
5
Coil
2
Coil
6
Coil
1

Algebraic techniques
Algebraic techniques are widely used to in image reconstruction
As a first step both measurement and image values can be re-arranged
into a vector format, i.e.
Measured data Image
(Pixel positions)
Excitation source
=D = P N×1
M×1
Detector channel
. etc ..
. etc ..
Shown with common excitation /
detection elements, i.e. triangular array
Back-projection
etc.
⎡a1T ⎤ ⎡d1 ⎤
⎢ T ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ M
⎢ a ⎥ d2
P = A .D A =
T ⎢
⎢. ⎥ D = ⎢.
2 ⎥ P = ∑α m ⋅ d m
⎥ m =1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢a T ⎥ ⎢⎣d M ⎥⎦
⎣ M ⎦ A linear combination of sensitivity maps
Linear forward model
For small changes in the pixel values or for a first order approximation,
we can make a linear approximation:
δD = A.δP
The matrix, A, is know as the Jacobian and represents a linear model of
the system. It has M rows and N columns, where M is the number of
measurements and N is the number of pixels.
For this presentation, we will drop the δ, so
D = A.P
The values in the rectangular matrix A are obtained by re-organizing
the M sensitivity matrices (maps) on a row by row basis. The values
are re-arranged to be consistent with the organization of the vectors D
and P.
Formulating an inverse solution
For image reconstruction, we need to determine P from measured data

D. Unfortunately, the matrix A cannot be directly inverted.
A natural solution would be to choose the Moore-Penrose generalised
inverse, i.e.
A† = (AT.A)-1.AT
P = A†.D is the least squares solutions to D = A.P
Unfortunately the problem is extremely ill-posed and the calculation of

(A.AT )-1 or (AT.A)-1 will be swamped by numerical error.

Formulating an inverse solution
Condition number is normally used to describe inevitable loss
in solution of linear equations.
the largest singular value
Condition number =
the smallest singular value
Condition number =14.9
1 2 x 3 x=1 1 2 x 3.3 x=1.9

= =
1 3 y 4 y=1 1 3 y 4 y=0.7
0.01 2 x 2.01 x=1 0.01 2 x 2.211 x=61.3

= =
0.01 3 y 3.01 y=1 0.01 3 y 3.01 y=0.799
Condition number =1300

Regularising the inverse solution (Tikhonov)
The previous solution, i.e., (AT.A)-1.AT provide a solution of
min || D - A.P ||2
This is irrespective of the magnitude of vector P. A better solution
would be to seek the minimum of
|| D - A.P ||2 + α2 || P ||2
The coefficient α controls a compromise between fitting the data and
controlling the size of the solution. Note, x = ∑ x k2
k
A better solution, called the Tikhonov regularized solution, is given by,

P =(AT.A + α.I)-1.AT.D
Regularising the inverse solution(TSVD)
SVD – singular value decomposition
A = U S VT
Where U is an M by M orthogonal matrix, V is am N by N orthogonal matrix and S is
M by N matrix with all elements zero except diagonal components (δ1, δ2, .. δp).
P = V S-1 UT . D
δ1 δ1
δ2 δ2
S= δ3 ST = δ3
δr
δp
δ δ
1
> 1
δ p δ r
A better solution, called the Truncated singular value decomposition
P = V S-1 UTT . D
Iterative Image Reconstruction
Some of the most effective algorithms employ iterative schemes:
Measurements Latest estimate of
from the sensor + APPROXIMATE the image, P
array, D Σ λ INVERSE
- SOLVER
Update / constrain /
programme flow
FORWARD
SOLUTION
• Linear model
• Finite element model (FEM)
• Parametric model
• Analytical (rare)
Iterative Linear Schemes

- SOLVER ≈ A-1
Relaxation,
often adaptive programme flow
Regularised
FORWARD
pseudo-inverse.
SOLUTION
Some variety
e.g. ART vs. SIRT
Linear model, Adaptable flow
i.e. D = A.P
ART and SIRT
SIRT (Simultaneous iterative reconstruction technique)
Spˆ k − d
pˆ k +1 = pˆ k − λ S
T
diag (SS T )
A new image is computed before updating.
A type of descent gradient method
ART (Algebraic reconstruction technique)
gˆ k = gˆ k −1 −
(s k gˆ k −1 − λk ) T
⋅ sk
T
sk sk
Image is updated after each pixel calculation.
Converges more quickly.
But, more sensitive to noise
Iterative parametric algorithms
Based on a priori knowledge
- SOLVER ≈ A-1
programme flow
FORWARD
SOLUTION Prior knowledge
Parameterised model. can be used to
Pixels are a very basic dictate the
form of parameterisation constraining or
regularisation.
Parametric algorithms - Examples
Explicit model
Determine θ, d Determine x, y, r
Requires prior knowledge and accurate forward model
Implicit model
• Linear image reconstruction algorithm
• Change threshold to match area
Iterative FE based algorithms

- SOLVER ≈ A-1
programme flow
Regularised
FORWARD
pseudo-inverse.
SOLUTION
as earlier slides
Update the
Full FE (or analytical) model sensitivity maps
Mesh adapted to pixel geometries on each iteration
FEM – 2D
Simple mesh used for previous examples

FEM – 3D

Comparison of algorithms (EMT)
Object space 150 mm diameter, 16 pole system (separate excite and
detect coils) 100kHz.
Target 15 mm copper tube, at radius 75 mm.
Back-projection ART SIRT NOSER

No Constraining 20 iterations 500 iterations No Constraining
No Constraining No Constraining

Illustration of spatial resolution (EMT)
Object space 150 mm diameter, 16 pole system (separate excite and
detect coils) 100kHz, Aluminium rods
d
2d
3
2d
ART, 10 it.s, λ = 0.9 ART, 10 it.s, λ = 0.9 ART, 10 it.s, λ = 0.9

min. = -0.075 min. = -0.16 min. = -0.21
max. = 0.3 max. = 0.46 max. = 0.67
mean = -0.022 mean = -0.038 mean = -0.046
20 mm diameter 25 mm diameter
Industrial Tomography 30 mm diameter
Slide 70
Comparison of algorithms (ECT)
Back-projection TSVD Tikhonov Iterative

Single object Stratified Annular Two objects
Simulated
test object
LBP
SVD
Tikhonov
Iterative
Tikhonov
Projected
Landweber

EMT Images - Rods
Single rod Two rods Three rods Four rods
SIRT
Tikhonov
regularization
SVD

EMT Images – 8 coil array
Square Rectangle Quarter cylinder U-shape
Coaxial tube and rod Tube alone Tube with rod Difference image

Example Applications
•Biomedical experiment
•Body composition
•Metal production processes
•Hydraulic conveying
•Hydraulic conveying
•Flow monitoring
•Bubble Column

EM Imaging of metal production
processes
Ladle
Ladle shroud
Tundish
Submerged Entry Nozzle Water Cooled

(S.E.N) Mould
Rollers
Spray Banks
Tundish
Submerged Entry Nozzle

Example of Predicted of Flow
Regimes
Full Half-full Annular

Pilot Plant Experiments
Photograph of a pilot Transparent quartz tube:
plant experiment:
Example of flow:

Sample Images
Small bar
(19 mm dia.)
at the centre
of the SEN
Large bar
Medium bar (38 mm dia.)
(25 mm dia.) at the centre
at the centre of the SEN
of the SEN

Tomographic Imaging of Hot Steel

Images of molten steel flow profiles

Taphole Monitoring
Wear mechanisms:
• Aggressive nature of the hot materials
• Opening and closing methods
• Thermal cycling
Closing: a taphole:
Opening Maintenance:
Outer Insert Change - furnace on line,
2-3 hr job
Inner Insert Change - furnace shut down,
labour intensive
(2 outer changes for every inner changed)
Risks
• Unable to plug hole, leading to a run out
• Structural integrity of tapping assembly
may be compromised
• Contact between molten materials and
cooling water channels

Body Composition
Camera system
Screened cubical
Electromagnetic array
Weight measurement
Embedded PC
Dave

Applications (ITS Ltd)
• Mixing • Transportation
liquid-liquid hydraulic
gas-liquid powder conveying
solid-liquid
• On-line monitoring
gas-solid-liquid
product consistency
• Separation diffusion in foodstuffs
hydrocyclone • Material characterisation
filtration
micro-structure

Liquid mixing example
Outputs Sensor
Industrial Tomography 10mm

Slide 85
Liquid mixing example

Hydraulic conveying example
Visualization of swirling flow in a hydraulic conveyor
2.5
2
flow velocity (m/s)
1.5
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
dis tanc e (L/D) Slide 87
Hydraulic conveying: Tomographs and
Photographs
Visualization of swirling flow in a hydraulic conveyor
Tomograms
Side view

Air-water flows in a horizontal pipeline
Reconstructed 2D images in respect to typical air cavity formation in the flow loop
Photograph of a slug flow

Experimental Biomedical System
Image of brain
Circular MIT sensor

Human head cross-section: one of the first in-vivo
images. Two bright spots in the central part may be
identified as ventricles of the brain filled with CSF.
(from Korjenevsky's web site)

Conclusions
• Overview of electrical tomography as

applied to industrial applications.
• Summarised
- Sensing modalities
- Applications
- Image reconstruction

Electrical Tomography Lecture v3

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Industrial Tomography

Electrical Tomography for Industrial

Industrial Tomography Slide 1

Industrial Tomography Slide 2

Industrial Tomography Slide 3

• High resolution (spatial or contrast) may not be essential

Industrial Tomography Slide 4

Liquid mixing and Optical tomography.

Fluidisation and trickle bed γ-Tomography.

Groundwater monitoring Electrical impedance tomography

Industrial Tomography Slide 6

Atmospheric pollution Laser absorption imaging

Air traffic control RADAR

Industrial Tomography Slide 7

• Electromagnetic (hard field)

Industrial Tomography Slide 8

Excitation (array) Process Detection array

Industrial Tomography Slide 11

Industrial Tomography Slide 12

Industrial Tomography Slide 13

"nuclear magnetic resonance" A Dictionary of Physics.

Industrial Tomography Slide 15

Transducer Dense reflecting object

Industrial Tomography Slide 17

Industrial Tomography Slide 18

Industrial Tomography Slide 19

Industrial Tomography Slide 20

Two mechanisms result in need for

1) Spherical spreading 2) Absorption

Industrial Tomography Slide 22

εr 1 – 100 Oil, water, non-metallic

σ 10-1 - 107 S/m Water / saline, biological

σ 102 - 107 S/m Metals, some minerals,

Industrial Tomography Slide 23

n.(n − 1) independent measurements

“Typical” electrical tomography system:

Sensor array Conditioning Host computer

Industrial Tomography Slide 25

Industrial Tomography Slide 26

Typical ECT sensor

Industrial Tomography Slide 27

Standing C (<0.5 pF) Change in C (<0.1 pF)

V1 Charge transferred each cycle ΔQ = C.(V1 – V2)

Simple schematic of a switched capacitor C to V converter:

Industrial Tomography Slide 29

Time domain response:

• DDS signal generators (AD7008) – A, f, φ programmable

• Standing capacitance compensation

What is the output for a purely resistive object?

Industrial Tomography Slide 34

Minimises problems due to parasitic “off” capacitance

Industrial Tomography Slide 36

• Basic concepts of image reconstruction

Industrial Tomography Slide 39

Forward problem C = f (ε(x, y)) R = f (σ (x, y)) I = f ( μ ( x, y))

Clearly we need sufficient projections to Radial projections Æ

Several difficulties associated:

“Soft field” effect

Ill-condition of the problem (ill posed)

Limited number of independent measurement

Industrial Tomography Slide 42

The distribution of the excitation field lines is determined by