Professional Documents
Culture Documents
INTRODUCTION
1
may be overcome by cleaning, with the potential for the restoration of the
heat exchanger to its original performance.
Corrosion is another principle source of heat exchanger degradation.
Corrosion of heat exchanger structural material arises from variety of
mechanisms and progressively weakens the element to the point where the
failure by the rupture or leakage occur is eminent. The corrosion products
will likely occupy a large volume, partially blocking the flow conduits &
increasing the input pump work or inhibiting the mass flow rate of the flow.
In heat exchanger the fluid flow do not follow the idealized path
anticipated from the elementary conditions. This departure from ideality can
be very significant indeed. As much as 50% of the fluid can behave
differently from what is expected. Maldistribution of the flow is the word
often used to describe unequal flow distribution in several parallel flow
paths found in heat exchanger. The maldistribution of the fluid flow is
reduced generally by improving the baffle arrangement & proper designing
& placement of the inlet & the outlet nozzle.
The measures to combat or repair degradation of performance are
discussed ahead.
2
2
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGER
Spiral Plate - Fin Single - Pipe Double pipe Shell & Tube
Plate - Coil Plate - Frame Cluster Pipe Fin Tube
Fig. 1
It is equipped with separate flow conduits for each fluid. The fluid
flows simultaneously through the heat exchanger in separate paths & heat is
transferred from hot to the cold fluid across the walls of the flow section.
3
2.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TYPE OF FLUID FLOW (3)
2.2.1 Liquid/Liquid
This is by far the most common application of tubular exchangers.
Typically, cooling water on one side is used to cool a hot effluent stream.
Both the fluids are pumped through the exchanger so that the principal mode
of heat transfer is forced convective heat transfer. The relatively high density
of liquid results in very high rates of heat transfer. So there is very little
incentive in conventional situations to use fins or other devices to enhance
the heat transfer.
2.2.2 Liquid/Gas
It is usually used for air-cooling of hot liquid effluent. The liquid is
pumped through the tubes with very high rates of convective heat transfer.
The air in cross flow over the tubes may be in forced or free convective
mode. Heat transfer coefficients on the airside are low compared with those
on the liquid side. Fins are usually added on the outsides (air side) of the
tubes to compensate.
2.2.3 Gas/Gas
This type of heat exchanger is found in the exhaust gas /air preheating
recuperators of gas turbine systems, steel furnaces & cryogenic gas
liquification systems. In many cases one gas is compressed, so the density is
high, while the other is at the low pressure with a low density. Normally the
high-density fluid flows inside the tubes. Internal and external fins are
provided to enhance the heat transfer.
4
2.3 CLASSIFICATION BY FLOW ARRANGEMENTS (3)
The flow arrangement helps to determine the overall effectiveness, the
cost & the highest achievable temperature in the heated stream. The latter
affect most often dictates the choice of flow arrangement. The fig.2 indicates
the temperature profile for heating & heated stream, respectively. If the
waste heat stream is to be cooled below the load stream exit, a counter flow
heat exchanger must be used.
Fig. 2
Thin
Cold Fluid
Tcin
Surface Area A
Thin
Cold Fluid
Tcout Hot Fluid
Thout Cold Fluid
∆Τ
Surface Area A
Thin
Thin
Tcout
Tcout Tcin
Thout
Tcin
Thout
Cross Flow
5
2.4 TUBULAR HEAT EXCHANGER CLASSIFICATION (1)
Hot
Fluid
Cold Fluid
Fig. 4
6
2.4.3 Shell & Tube heat exchanger
To increase the capacity or reduce the required length, more than one
internal tube is incorporated within the outer tube enclosure. But the most
common form of multi tubular heat exchanger is the one shown in fig. 5.
This one is widely used for liquid/liquid heat transfer. The best-known
standards for the tubular heat exchanger are the TEMA – Standards of the
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturing Associations, which include the basic
nomenclature & classification scheme for Shell & Tube.
Fig. 5
7
2.5 PLATE HEAT EXCHANGER CLASSIFICATION (6)
8
2.6 SPECIAL PURPOSE HEAT EXCHANGER (6)
"J" Spring
Scraper Blade
Fig. 6
9
2.6.2 Finned tube Heat exchanger
When the heat transfer coefficient of one of the process fluids is very low
as compared to the other, the overall HTC becomes approximately equal to
the lower coefficient. This reduces the capacity per unit area of heat transfer
surface, making it necessary to provide very large heat transfer area. Such
situations often arise in,
1. heating of viscous liquids.
2. heating of air or gas stream by condensing steam.
Air or gas side HTC is very low in comparison of film coefficient on the
condensing side. In such cases it is possible to increase the heat transfer by
increasing / extending the surface area on the side with limiting coefficient
(air, gas or viscous liquid side) with the help of fins.
The heat transfer area is substantially increased by attaching the metal
pieces. "The metal pieces employed to extend or increase the heat transfer
surface are known as fins". The fins are most commonly employed on
outside of the tubes. According to the flow of the gas, longitudinal and
transverse fins are used.
10
2.6.4 Jackets and cooling coils in vessels
In chemical industries a number of reactions are carried out in agitated
vessel. In such cases, addition or removal of heat is conveniently done by
heat transfer surface, surface that can be in the form of jacket fitted outside
the vessel or the helical coil fitted to inside.
Jackets as well as helical coils are used for heating or cooling purpose
depending upon the situation.
Helical Vessel
Coil
Jacket
Baffle
Agitator
Fig. 7
11
3
IMPORTANCE OF HEAT EXCHANGER
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat recuperators or heat exchangers as they are called so, are pieces
of equipment, which can abstract sensible heat from one stream of flowing
fluid and supply it to another stream. They are essential features of all
production process in chemical industry. Because of importance of
improving heat recovery, consequent on the very rise in prime energy costs.
Heat exchangers are becoming increasingly important in the heating &
ventilating field as well.
1. To extract useful heat from the waste hot liquid & gases. The heat is
transferred to secondary fluids, which can then be used for either
space heating or for the supply of preheated water to the boiler.
2. For normal heat transfer from the stream heaters or flues to circulating
air, in order to raise this air to the required working temperature.
3. For normal operating of air-conditioning equipment, in which, the
heat is being abstracted from room air by refrigeration fluid or by
chilled air.
4. For heat recovery from exhaust air, flue gases & other sensible heat
source.
12
3.3 UNIT OPERATIONS (3)
Cooled
Exhaust Gas
Heated Furnace Tc Th
Air
Height of Chimney
as
st G
Coo
au
ling
Exh
Gas
Cool Furnace
Air
Th Temperature Tc
Hot
Exhaust Gas
Fig. 8
13
3.3.2 Boiler economizer
An economizer is constructed as a bundle of finned tubes, installed in
boiler breaching. Boiler feed water flows through the tube to be heated by
the exhaust gases. The extent of the heat recovery in the economizer may be
limited by the lowest allowable exhaust gas temperature in the exhaust stack.
The exhaust gases may contain water vapor both from the combustion
air & from the combustions of hydrogen that is contained in the fuel. If the
exhaust gases are cooled below the dew point of the water vapor,
condensation will occur & may cause damage to the structural material.
300°F
Flue
Exhaust 220°F
Feed water
Finned tube from deaerator
Economiser
Boiler
Exhaust
500°F
Water
Tube Boler
Fig. 9
14
4
CORROSION IN HEAT EXCHANGER (1)
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Corrosion is defined as "The degradation of a material because of
reaction with environment".
It is the part of the cycle of growth and decay that is natural order of
things. Corrosion is principal cause of failure for engineering systems. The
annual cost of corrosion runs grater than costs of floods, and earthquakes.
15
Prevention of Uniform general corrosion
Uniform corrosion can be prevented or reduced by the selection of
appropriate materials (including internal coatings), the addition of corrosion
inhibitors to the fluid, treatment of fluids to remove corrosive elements and
the use of the sacrificial cathodic protection or impressed electrical
potentials. Other forms of corrosion are difficult to predict. They tend to be
localized and concentrated with the consequent premature or unexpected
failure.
16
alloys, along with other materials of interest can be arranged in order of
decreasing corrosion resistance as shown in table.
The noble metals leading the list are cathodic and the least subject to
corrosion. Those at the bottom are anodic and most subjected to attack. The
combination of metal from the upper half of the table with any other further
down the table will establish a galvanic cell with the potential to accelerate
the rate of corrosion of the anode, lower in the table, while decreasing the
corrosion rate of the cathode. The effect increase for the metals that is
further apart in table. Magnesium will rapidly corrode in seawater in
conjunction with a titanium cathode, but less rapidly in combination with
aluminum or zinc.
Insulating Sleeve
Insulating
Washer
Nut
Bolt
Pipe Valve
Fig. 11
17
3. Local failure of the protective coating, particularly at the anode can
result in small anode to cathode area, marked by accelerated galvanic
corrosion. Maintain all coatings in good condition, especially at the
anode.
4. Avoid the use of riveted or threaded joints in favor of welded or
brazed joints.
5. Install a sacrificial anode lower in the galvanic series than both the
materials involved in the process equipment.
Fig. 12
rivet heads. Relative to heat exchangers, it is
important to note that nonmetallic deposits (fouling) of sand, or crystalline
solids may act as a shield and create the necessary stagnant condition the
essence of crevice corrosion.
The mechanism of crevice corrosion is associated with the depletion
of the oxygen in the stagnant liquid pool, which results in the corrosion of
the metal walls adjacent to the crevice. This type of corrosion occurs with
many fluids but is particularly intense with those containing chlorides. The
nature of electrochemical process is such that the corrosion attack is
18
localized within the stagnant or shielded area while the surrounding surfaces
over which the fluid moves suffer little or no damage.
Some time is required between the initial establishment to the
conditions for the crevice corrosion and the occurrence of the visible
damage, which is called the incubation period.
19
The mechanism of pitting is very close to crevice corrosion. Pits
usually grow in the direction of gravitational action i.e. downward form
horizontal surfaces. They sometimes develop on vertical surfaces, but only
in very exceptional cases do pits grow upward form the bottoms of
horizontal surfaces.
As with crevice corrosion an incubation period is required before
pitting corrosion starts; thereafter, it continues at an accelerated rate. Further
more once below the surface, the pits tend to spread out, undermining the
surface as shown in figure. This particularly is unfortunate for the small
surface pits can easily become obscured by the corrosion products or other
sediments and the deposits. Failure as leak resulting from the complete
perforation of the metal wall therefore occurs suddenly and unexpectedly.
Most pitting corrosion arises from the action of the chloride or
chlorine containing ions. The process of establishing a pit site is unstable
and is interrupted by any movement of the fluid over the surface. Thus,
pitting corrosion is rarely found in metal surface over which fluids move
constantly. Even in these few cases it can be reduced if the fluid velocity is
increased. Often a heat exchanger pump or a tube carrying a corrosive fluid
shows no sign of pitting corrosion when in service but rapidly deteriorates if
the plant is shutdown and the fluid not drained from the system.
Stainless steel alloys are particularly susceptible to pitting corrosion
attack. Carbon steel is more resistant to pitting than stainless steel.
20
Titanium, Hastelloy C or Chloriment 20, Type 316 stainless steel, Type 304
stainless steel (Pits badly in chloride solution).
21
Many fluids that are not normally considered aggressive corrosion
agents can promote erosion corrosion. High velocity gases and vapors at
high temperature may oxidize a metal and then physically strip off the
otherwise protective scale.
Many erosion corrosion failures in heat exchanger, occurs in the tube
side, particularly at the tube inlet; the process is frequently called inlet-tube
corrosion. It arises essentially from the highly turbulent flow ensuing as a
consequence of the sudden change in the section as the fluid leaves the inlet
bonnet and enters the reduced flow section of the tubes. An increase in the
rate of erosion corrosion as the velocity increases. For many materials there
appears to be a critical value, above which the rate of attack increases.
22
only or may be transgranular and advance with no preference to follow the
grain boundaries.
Stress corrosion cracks develop in specific metal-fluid combination
when the stress level is above a minimum level that depends on the
temperature, alloy structure, and environment. In some materials minimum
stress levels for crack formation are as low as 10% of the yield stress. In
other cases the critical value may be as high as 70%.
For stress corrosion cracks to initiate, the stress must be tensile in
character and exceed the critical level referred to above. They are induced
from any source, including residual welding stress. Stress corrosion often
occurs in lightly loaded structures that are not stress relived after fabrication.
Not all metal fluids are susceptible to cracking. Stainless steels crack
with fluids containing chloride but not with ammoniacal fluids, whereas
brasses crack in ammonia but not in chlorides.
It is likely that stress corrosion cracks are initiated at a corrosion pit or
other surface regularity. The base of the pit acts as a stress raiser so the local
stress concentration is very high. Once a crack is started, the stress at the tip
of the crack is very high and the fosters continuing development of the
crack. As the crack penetrates further into the metal, the remaining wall
section assumes the whole load. The general stress level is therefore raised
and is further magnified at the tip of the crack, so the rate of propagation is
accelerated. Eventually the metal fails suddenly and catastrophically when
the stress in the remaining metal exceeds the ultimate.
23
2. Relieve the stress by annealing.
3. Change the metal alloy to one that is less subjected to stress corrosion
cracking in the given environment.
4. Modify the corrosion fluid by process treatment or by adding
corrosion inhibitors, such as phosphates.
24
The atomic hydrogen diffusing through the metal will enter any voids
in the metal. Some will then reduce to molecular hydrogen, which cannot
permeate the metal wall. The equilibrium pressure for atomic pressure for
the atomic and the molecular hydrogen is several hundred thousand
atmospheres so the one way accumulative process continues, giving rise to
very high pressures - far exceeding the yield stress of the material. The
growth appears as "Blisters" on the wall of the heat exchanger.
25
Prevention of Hydrogen Damage
1. Use of void free steels.
2. Use of metallic, inorganic and organic coatings and the liners in steel
vessels. The liner must be impervious to hydrogen penetration and
resistant to other media in the vessel. Carbon steel clad with nickel is
sometimes used. Rubber, plastic and brick liners are also used.
3. Addition of inhibitors to reduce corrosion and the rate of hydrogen -
ion production. These are economically feasible in closed circulating
systems.
4. Fluid treatment to remove hydrogen – generating compounds such as
sulphides, cyanides and phosphorous containing ions.
5. Use of low hydrogen welding rods and the maintenance of dry
conditions during welding operations. Water and water vapor sources
are major sources of hydrogen.
26
5
MALDISTRIBUTION OF FLUID FLOW
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The fluid flows do not follow the idealized paths anticipated from the
elementary considerations. These departures form ideality can be very
significant indeed. As much as 50% of the fluid can behave differently from
what is expected, based on the simplistic model. The maldistribution of flow
is a term often used to describe unequal flow distribution in the several
parallel flow paths found in most heat exchangers.
27
The F stream includes other bypass streams that arise when the tube
partitions of the multipass tube bundles are arranged parallel to the direction
of the main cross flow stream. The D stream is leak flow that occurs in the
clearance space between the edge of the baffle and the shell. This represents
direct loss of fluid, for it serves no useful heat-transfer function.
Note : For more information on “Maldistribution of Fluid Flow” refer TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Asso.)
28
5.3 PARALLEL - PATH FLOW (1)
Flow paths in the tube side of shell and tube heat exchanger cannot be
made absolutely identical and fluid flows are incredibly sensitive to
apparently trivial differences between one path and another. When the
number of parallel paths is limited to two or three and the paths are highly
restricted, the difference in channel mass flow rates may be as high as 90
percent. The flow is then function of some power of the principal flow
resistance parameter e.g. the third power of the width of a slit or the square
of the cross-section area of a flow aperture.
Tube distortion in bending or the squashing resulting from improper
handling fabrications, can contribute appreciably to flow maldistribution as
shown in fig.17. A difference in the mass rate of flow through the tube
carries the implication that the flow velocity is significantly different. The
heat transfer rate depends on the fluid velocity and the tube wall and the
fluid temperatures depend on the heat transfer. Low mass flow and fluid
velocity in some tubes may give rise to high fluid and wall temperatures
with accelerated corrosion and fouling deposition rates. The fouling deposits
and products of corrosion exacerbate the difference in flow resistance
between one tube and the other and further diminish the mass flow in tubes
already starved of fluid. The process is a cancer feeding on itself.
Alternative solutions to heat transfer problem are also explored.
Special heat exchangers are shown in the fig.18. The flow channel are of
variable geometry designs to incorporate a compensatory feedback
mechanism, acting to adjust the duct geometry to ensure uniform distribution
of flow in various channels. The miniature high performance heat exchanger
was designed to achieve huge NTU of 200 (The NTU of most of industrial
exchanger is less than 5). Even with great attention to manufacturing detail,
29
the early high performance heat exchangers were unable to exceed an NTU
of 33. With the compensation feed back geometry, values of 167 were
achieved.
Fig. 17
Cold Flow
Hot Flow
Fig. 18
30
5.4 STAGNANT AREAS (1)
Disappointing heat exchanger thermal performance often arises from
the creation of stagnant areas in the fluid – flow circuits. In stagnant or semi
stagnant areas the fluid velocities are, by definitions, zero or negligibly low.
The consequences are often very serious. The obvious effect is that with low
fluid velocity area for heat transfer is not effectively utilized. Less obvious
but of greater importance is the fact that corrosion and fouling processes are
highly accelerated under stagnant conditions. Sediments in slurries aggregate
in the low velocity areas. Surface temperature in the low velocity areas may
be appreciably higher than the mean design condition, which further
accelerates the chemical reactions exacerbating the corrosion and fouling
processes.
A common location of semi stagnant fluid zones in shell and tube heat
exchanger is the region on the shell side between the tube sheet and the inlet
and outlet nozzles (fig.19). It is necessary to establish the centerlines of the
inlet and outlet nozzles some distance from the tube sheets so as to
accommodate the nozzle flanges and to provide sufficient shell strength in
the high stress areas near the tube sheets. The existence of some low velocity
regions on the shell side near the ends of the tubes is then virtually
inescapable but is frequently overlooked by inexperienced thermal
designers. They fail to add extension to the calculated tube length to
compensate for the “dead area”.
Baffle design and placement are the principal means by which to
ensure adequate fluid velocities on the shell side and a well – regulated,
dispersed flow. Even good designs can be hopelessly compromised if they
are improperly or inadequately executed. Excess clearance of the baffles in
the shell will certainly facilitate loading the tube bundle in the shell during
31
the construction. However, that clearance will lead to substantial bypassing
of the fluid at the periphery of the baffle, so that little of the fluid actually
traverses the tube bundle. Excessive clearance of the tube holes will greatly
facilitate construction, but again will result in a proportion of the fluid not
passing through the tube bundle as intended.
In figure upper diagram shows the tube bundle correctly installed. In
lower diagram the bundle has been reversed. It is immediately clear that the
compartments between the tube sheets and the first and last baffles are
completely stagnant and virtually useless for heat transfer. The effectiveness
of the tube bundle is reduced by as much as 40 percent.
(a)
Stagnant areas
(b)
fig. 19 (a) correct (b) incorrect placement of the tube bundle in shell and tube heat exchanger
32
6
FOULING
33
coefficient of 60, when corrected for 0.003 fouling allowance, shows an
effective coefficient of 50.5 as shown in the graph (Fig.20).
34
F.F. U
0.286 3.5
0.25 4.5
0.182 5.5
0.125 8
After 16 Months
Clean
0.04 25
0.02
0.01 Gas outside tubes
Flow Rate
Fig. 21 Graph for prediction of fouling and HTC as a function of velocity over a period of time (2)
35
GUIDE TO FOULING RESISTANCES (2)
Fouling resistance for Industrial fluids
Oils:
Fuel oil 0.005
Quench oil 0.004
Liquids:
Refrigerant liquids 0.001
Ammonia liquid (oil – bearing) 0.003
Co2 liquid 0.001
Chlorine liquid 0.002
Liquids:
MEA and DEA solutions 0.002
Caustics solutions 0.002
Vegetable oils 0.003
Liquids:
Rich oil 0.002
Natural gasoline 0.001
36
6.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (2)
Fig.22 shows data on some fluids showing the effects of velocity and
temperature. Also see fig.23.
The fouling factors are applied as a part of the overall HTC to both the
inside and the outside of the heat transfer surface using the factors that apply
to the appropriate material or fluid. As a rule the fouling factors are applied
without correcting for the inside diameter to outside diameter, because these
differences are not known, to any degree of accuracy. To fouling resistance
of significant magnitude, a correction is made to convert all values to the
outside surface of the tube. Sometimes only one factor is selected to
represent both sides of the transfer fouling film or scales.
In the tables the representative or typical fouling resistances are
referenced to the surface of the exchanger on which the fouling occurs - that
is, the inside or the outside tubes. Unless the specific plant/equipment data
represents fouling in question, the estimates listed in table are the reasonable
starting point. It is not wise to keep changing the estimated fouling to
achieve the specific overall HTC, U. Fouling can be generally kept to
minimum provided the proper and general cleaning of the surface takes
place.
Unless a fabricator is guaranteeing the performance of the exchanger
in a specific process service they cannot and most likely will not accept the
responsibility for the fouling effects on the heat transfer surface. Therefore,
the owner must expect to specify a value to use in the thermal design of the
equipment. This value must be determined with considerable examinations
of the fouling range, both inside and the outside of the tubes and by
determining the effects of these have on the surface area requirements. Just a
large unit may not be the proper answer.
37
Fig.. 22 Fouling factors as a function of time & temperature
0.03
.
.P
M
to
Oil
black
F
2°
g
Fouling Resistance - ro or ri
-3
atin
°C
Lamp
ax
0.02 - 86
ric
t
W
hal
Asp
Lub
in
d
ra f
Roa
Pa
0.01
Scale
- Boiler
CaSO4
Co ke
Cracking Coil
38
6.3 OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT ‘U’ (2)
In a heat exchanger the process of heat transfer from hot fluid to cold
fluid involves various conductive and convective process. This can be
individually represented in terms of thermal resistances. The summation of
individual resistances is the total thermal resistance and its inverse is the
overall HTC, U. That is,
1 = 1 + Ao 1 + Rfo + Ao Rfi + Rw
U ho Ai hi Ai
Where,
U = overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside area of tube wall
A = area of tube wall
h = convective heat transfer coefficient
Rf = thermal resistance due to fouling
Rw = thermal resistance due to wall conduction
and suffixes ‘i’ and ‘o’ refer to the inner and outer tubes, respectively.
39
6.4 FOULING AS A FUNCTION OF TIME (1)
The assumption of constant
A
values for the internal and the external B
D
fouling factors implies that, when put E
in service, the new heat exchanger C
years, perhaps may elapse before it arrives at the condition where it can no
longer perform adequately and must be cleaned.
The build up of fouling resistance as a function of time may follow
various forms as indicated in fig.24. Curve A describes a process starting
with clean surfaces having zero fouling resistance, which then develops at
constant rate with time. Curve B describes a process where the fouling
resistance develops at a progressively diminishing rate. The family of curves
C, D and E all share a lengthy incubation or induction period in which there
is little or no build up of fouling resistance, followed by a rapidly increasing
build up.
There is therefore a substantial time lapse before the heat exchanger
fouling resistance approaches the design value arbitrarily selected from some
experience based source. When first put into service, the heat exchanger will
operate with a reduced thermal resistance and therefore with surplus of heat
transfer area. In many cases involving boiling, the fouling resistance is the
principal resistance. Thus, when the heat exchanger is new, the available
temperature difference may be so great as to carry the process into the film
40
boiling region, with the possibility of enhanced surface corrosion and
consequent accelerated development of fouling resistance.
In other cases the new heat exchanger with zero fouling resistance
may be so effective as to overcool the process stream. To compensate the
cooling water flow may be reduced, with the result that the water velocity is
decreased and the water temperature increased. Both these factors are highly
conducive to fouling on the water – side. The provision of excess allowance
for fouling or an excess heat transfer area “just to be on the safe side” does
not automatically increase the interval before cleaning is necessary; quite
likely it has the reverse effect. The excess area has the reduced flow
velocities and elevated temperatures, so the exchanger deteriorates in
performance at drastic rates.
41
6. Biological fouling : Biological organisms attach to heat transfer
surface and build a surface to prevent good fluid contact with the tube
surface.
Fouling occurs to some extent in all systems where liquids, gases and
vapors are being heated or cooled. The process may involve boiling,
condensing or heat transfer without phase change. The greatest source of
fouling, principally inverse solubility crystallization and chemical reactions
occurs on hot surfaces in heating process without phase change. Cooling
processes without phase change also results in appreciable fouling as a result
of particulate deposition, sedimentation and chemical reaction.
process responsible for initial fouling. The figure shows typical fouling
resistance development histories during the induction period for carbon-
steel, stainless – steel and brass surfaces exposed to brackish water streams
under constant flow conditions.
Polished surfaces resist the growth of fouling deposits but are highly
susceptible to corrosive action that roughens the surface and increase the
42
potential crystallization sites. Improperly cleaned heat exchangers with
residual fouling deposits on the surface will degrade by fouling more readily
than those restored to the “as new” clean condition.
43
6.8 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
Temperature has a pronounced
effect on fouling that can be
generalized as shown in fig. The rate
of development of fouling resistance
and the ultimate stable level both
increase as the temperature increases.
Time
Temperature refers to either or both of Fig. 27
the surface temperature and the fluid bulk temperature. The rates of
chemical and inverse crystallization including catalytic effects, are strongly
dependent on temperature, which explains the increase in fouling rate. The
rate of removal of fouling deposits is less a function of temperature than
fluid velocity. Therefore an increase in the rate of deposition with no
increase in removal will result in a higher ultimate stable level.
44
Tubes are generally arranged in the triangular in the triangular or
square pattern shown in fig. Triangular arrangements allow for inclusion of
the greatest number of tubes in a given shell diameter and for the strongest
tube-sheet ligaments. However they are much difficult to clean with
mechanical scrapers and brushes than square tube arrangements. Exchangers
likely to require periodic cleaning on the shell side should therefore have
square tube arrangements. Of course their may be other compelling reasons
to override this general rule, so as to increase the tube count or take
advantage of the stronger tube - sheet ligaments of triangular arrangements.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 28 Baffle designs affecting fluid velocity at the creation of stagnant areas
Square Triangular
45
6.10 PRACTICAL FOULING FACTORS (2)
It is customary for the purchaser to specify the fouling resistance used
in the thermal design of the exchanger. The exposition will do little to
increase user's confidence in the value of the fouling resistance marked on
the exchanger specifications sheets; however they should have a clearer
understanding of the uncertainties prevailing in the specifications. Many
users have their own private collection of fouling factors, based on past
experience with similar equipment under equivalent conditions. These are
the most reliable data. However, the indiscriminate application of these
factors to equipment larger in size and the operating under more arduous
conditions is of questionable validity. The uncertainty increases the more
one departs from past experience.
46
7
ENERGY CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES
IN HEAT EXCHANGER
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Fouling factor plays a major role in overall HTC of heat exchanger. It
decides the area required for heat transfer. The higher the value of ‘U’, lesser
will be the area required for heat transfer. This area required is directly
proportional to the energy required for pumping of the fluid and pressure
drop.
A = Q / (U . ∆Tm )
Where,
Q = Total heat transfer
U = overall heat transfer coefficient (HTC)
∆Tm = Log mean temperature difference
A = Area of heat transfer
47
Co – current operation is used,
1. When it is necessary to transfer as much as heat possible from heat
donating fluid to the heat receiving fluid.
2. When the difference in the temperature between the fluid is less.
3. When the temperature of the heat donating fluid leaving the heat
exchanger is lower than the temperature of the heat receiving fluid
leaving the heat exchanger.
Thermal Thermal
Material Conductivity Material Conductivity
W/moK at 20oC W/moK at 20oC
Aluminum 237 Water 1.967
Copper 166 Toluene 0.44
Iron 147 Petrol 0.47
Magnesium 159 Oil 0.75
Silver 427 Glycerol 0.97
Zinc 115 Air 0.025
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When turbulent motion occurs, one can accept that the entire body of
the fluid has the same temperature because of the turbulence. The only
conduction heat transfer needed is across the boundary layer. Turbulence can
be inducted in a fluid if the Reynolds number exceeds about 2000.
NRe = Dvρ
µ
Where,
D = Diameter of pipe containing fluid (m)
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
ρ = Density of the fluid (Kg/m3)
µ = Viscosity of fluid (Kg/m.s)
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The power requirement to pump fluid in steady state is given by,
Power = v dp = (m/ρ) ∆p ~ m3
A – overall HTC
B – Pumping Power
Above graph (fig.30) explains C – Pressure drop
D – Fouling factor
that at higher fluid velocity fouling D
C
B,
will be reduced but will require
A,
Annual Cost
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7.5 RUBBER BALL CLEANING (5)
Fig. 31 (a)
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An abrasive coated ball is also
available for situations where the
cooling water tubes have already been
heavily fouled. Here the effect is
gentle souring that removes the scale
slowly but steadily, until the tube is
ready to be maintained by the normal
sponge-rubber ball. Heat - transfer
efficiency climbs steadily throughout
this treatment. Fig. 31 (b)
The balls are circulated in closed loop, including the heat exchanger
as shown in fig. At the discharge end they are caught in a screen installed
directly in the line. They are then rerouted through the collector back to the
condenser ball - injection nozzles to ensure that the balls are uniformly
distributed.
At the collector unit, the balls can be counted or checked for size. The
number required for a particular service is a function of the number of
cooling tubes. Naturally, some wear occurs so that the balls must be
eventually replaced.
These cleaning systems can be retrofitted into most existing heat
exchangers, although some modifications of piping or unit design may be
required. The slight increase in pumping resistance due to pressure drop
across the screening device is more than offsets by the reduction in fouling
resistance in the heat exchanger tubes. The most effective way to take
advantage of these systems is for its installation at the design stage. A filter
prevents solid debris from entering the water box of the heat exchanger.
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Located in the cooling water inlet, it is flushed as need without shutting
down or bypassing the filter.
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7.6 PLATE OVER TUBULAR HEAT EXCHANGER (5)
7.6.1 Introduction
The continuous search for
greater economy and efficiency
has led to the development of
many different types of heat
Fig. 33
exchanger, other than the popular
shell and tube. Some of these have been highly successful in particular fields
of application.
Briefly, a plate heat exchanger consists of number of corrugated metal
sheets provided with gaskets and corner portals (to achieve the desired flow
arrangement, each fluid passes through alternate channels). Plates are spaced
close together, with nominal gaps ranging from 2 to 5 mm. The plates are
corrugated so that the very high degree of turbulence is achieved. One of the
most widely used plates, are of the following relationship:
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Fig. 34 Advantages of PHE over Fig. 35 Performance of plate heat
tubular heat exchanger exchanger
55
7.7 ADVANCES IN HEAT EXCHANGER TECHNOLOGY
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shell and tube exchangers. The net result is a Heliflow Heat Exchanger that
is up to 40% more efficient than a standard shell and tube.
Originally built for use in boiler sample cooling over 60 years ago,
there are thousands of Graham Heliflow heat exchangers being used today in
hundreds of services. Many units have been in operation for well over 40
years. The service life of a Heliflow varies with the application, but its many
features add to its reliability when compared to a shell and tube exchanger.
No gaskets are required for the tube side of the Heliflow. Aggressive
fluids are often placed tube side for this reason. No gaskets on the tube side
will minimize the chance of leakage. The spring-like coil of the Heliflow
reduces stresses caused by thermal expansion of the tube material.
Heliflow can do the job for you in a fraction of the space required by
typical straight shell and tube exchangers. With higher heat transfer
efficiencies, the surface area required is normally less than a straight shell
and tube. Smaller surface requirements, and the coiled tube design result in a
very compact unit. Access space required for maintenance or inspection is
very small compared to straight shell and tube exchangers. The only space
required for a Heliflow is to remove the casing, which allows inspection of
both the entire tube bundle and shellside of the exchanger. You can mount a
Heliflow on columns, nozzles, walls, ceilings, or in-line; certain sizes
require no support.
A Heliflow is easy to maintain. The casing of the unit can be removed
without disturbing any of the piping connections. Once the casing is
removed, the entire tube bundle is exposed for inspection. With the casing
removed, the shellside of the unit can easily be cleaned in place.
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7.7.2 Fluidized bed heat exchanger (10)
Fig. 37(A) Self cleaning heat exchanger with Fig. 37(B) Self cleaning heat exchanger with
Cyclone widened outlet channel
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Table: Comparison of self cleaning heat exchanger v/s conventional heat exchanger (10)
Principles of Operation
The principle of operation with respect to the original configuration of
the self-cleaning heat exchanger employing an external down comer is
shown in figure 1. The fouling liquid is fed upward through a vertical shell
and tube exchanger that has specially designed inlet and outlet channels.
Solid particles are also fed at the inlet where an internal flow distribution
system provides a uniform distribution of the liquid and suspended particles
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throughout the internal surface of the bundle. The particles are carried
through the tubes by the upward flow of liquid where they impart a mild
scraping effect on the wall of the heat exchange tubes, thereby removing any
deposit at an early stage of formation. These particles can be cut metal wire,
glass or ceramic balls with diameters varying from 1 to 4 mm. At the top,
within the separator, connected to the outlet channel, the particles disengage
from the liquid and are returned to the inlet channel through a downcomer
and the cycle is repeated. Figure 2 shows an improved configuration. Now,
the particles disengage from the liquid in a widened outlet channel and, then,
are again returned to the inlet channel through an external downcomer and
are recirculated continuously. For both configurations, the process liquid fed
to the exchanger is divided into a main flow and a control flow that sweeps
the cleaning particles into the exchanger. By varying the control flow, it is
now possible to control the amount of particles in the tubes. This provides a
control of aggressiveness of the cleaning mechanism. It allows the particle
circulation to be either continuous or intermittent.
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offers great flexibility in selecting the optimum helix angles to maintain the
desired flow velocities and temperature profiles to keep the conditions below
the “fouling threshold”.
In a Helixchanger heat exchanger, the quadrant shaped baffle plates
are arranged at an angle to the tube axis in a sequential pattern, creating a
helical flow path through the tube bundle. Baffle plates act as guide vanes
rather than forming a flow channel as in conventionally baffled heat
exchangers. Uniformly higher flow velocities achieved in a Helixchanger
heat exchanger offer enhanced convective heat transfer coefficients. Helical
baffles address the thermodynamics of shell – side flow by reducing the flow
dispersion primarily responsible for reducing heat exchanger effectiveness.
Least dispersion (high Peclet numbers) achieved with the helical baffle
arrangements approach that of a plug flow condition resulting in high
thermal effectiveness of the heat exchanger.
In a Helixchanger heat exchanger, the conventional segmental baffle
plates are replaced by quadrant shaped baffles positioned at an angle to the
tube axis creating a uniform velocity helical flow through the tube bundle.
Near plug flow conditions are achieved in a Helixchanger heat exchanger
with little back-flow and eddies. Exchanger run lengths are increased by two
to three times those achieved using the conventionally baffled shell and tube
heat exchangers. Heat exchanger performance is maintained at a higher level
for longer periods of time with consequent savings in total life cycle costs
(TLCC) of owning and operating Helixchanger heat exchanger banks.
Feedback on operating units, are presented to illustrate the improved
performance and economics achieved by employing the Helixchanger heat
exchangers.
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Helixchanger heat exchangers have demonstrated significant
improvements in the fouling behavior of heat exchangers in operation. In a
Helixchanger heat exchanger, the quadrant shaped shellside baffle plates are
arranged at an angle to the tube axis creating a helical flow pattern on the
shellside. Uniform velocities and near plug flow conditions achieved in a
Helixchanger heat exchanger, provide low fouling characteristics, ordering
longer heat exchanger run-lengths between scheduled cleaning of tube
bundles.
Fig. 38
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Fig. 40 Performance of segmental bundles
Although it may be observed from the graphs that the HELIX bundles
show marginal improvement in the drop in overall heat transfer coefficient
with time in the initial stages, it has since achieved and sustained an
asymptotic level of performance much higher than the performance level
achieved in the earlier segmental bundles. The HELIX bundles are
reportedly expected to achieve more than three years of continuous
operation, thus increasing the run-length by three times.
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Earlier segmental bundles required two to three times cleaning in this
time period. The HELIX bundles have achieved significantly enhanced heat
transfer performance and have sustained this performance for a long period
of time. Three to four times longer run-length has already been achieved
with these bundles.
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8
CONCLUSION
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9
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. G. Walker – Industrial Heat Exchanger
McGraw Hill, 2002, Pg. no. 45 – 75, 213 – 271
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