MEDIA AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

INTRODUCTION

Communications always was critical in the conduct of International Relations

(IR), but it receives more attention today. Media and Information Technology (IT) has

taken us to the door of a future that promises amazing new opportunities in the

relationship between states. This may have been said many times before, but it is a

statement that holds as true today than as ever before.

The aim of this paper is to analyze the impact of media and IT on IR. This paper

will start off by briefly analyzing the revolution of the media and IT, and IR. Following

to that, the paper will analyze the impact of the media and IT revolution on IR. Finally,

this paper will argue along the line that the advances in the media and IT had not make

the relations between states better than it was.

REVOLUTION OF THE MEDIA, IT AND IR

General

Media is the various means of mass communication thought of as a whole,

including television, radio, magazines, and newspapers, together with the people

involved in their production.1 The word media or medium comes from the Latin word

1 Encarta® World English Dictionary © & (P) 1999,2000 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Developed for Microsoft by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

1
medius, meaning middle or between. It is a channel or path for sending a message

between communicators.2

IT is the processing of data via computer. Basically, it is the use of technologies

from computing, electronics, and telecommunications to process and distribute

information in digital and other forms.3 MIT defined IT as “to consists of hardware,

software, networks, workstations, robotics and smart chips”4, Hence, media and IT is

inter-related. The evolution of the media has a direct relationship with the evolution in

IT.

IR is the term used to identify all interactions between state-based actors across

state borders.5 It is the study and practice of political relationships among the world’s

nations, especially their governments. IR may also refer to the interactions between

nongovernmental groups, such as multinational corporations (companies that operate in

more than one country) or international organizations such as the Red Cross or the

United Nations (UN).6

2 "Communication."Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2001. © 1993-2000 Microsoft

Corporation. All rights reserved.
3 Encarta® World English Dictionary © & (P) 1999,2000 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Developed for Microsoft by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.
4
Darnton G and S Giacoletto, “Information in the Enterprise: Its more than Technology”, Digital Press,
USA, 1992, p. 157.
5
Graham Evans and Jeffrey Newnham, The Dicitionary of World Politics, Harvester Wheatsheaf,
London, 1994, p. 194.
6 Encarta® World English Dictionary © & (P) 1999,2000 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Developed for Microsoft by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

2
The Revolution of Media and IT

The revolution of media started with the knowledge to use and the invention of paper

as early as few years BC. It was followed by the first truly electronic medium, the telegraph,

around 1837. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell was the first to patent and produce a telephone.

Radio technology was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864, and Guglielmo Marconi

was the first person to invent a true wireless radio around 1895.

By the first decade of the 20th century, the basic ideas of television technology were

understood. But the greatest revolution of media and IT is perhaps the invention of the

computer. Computer technology was finally applied to printed communication in the 1970s

when the first word processors were created. Today the Internet is the foundation of computer

networks. They are inter-connected by both wire and over-the-air microwave, and satellite

telephone lines.

The Revolution of IR

The study of IR as a distinct discipline is a relatively recent development,

although antecedents as diplomatic history and international law have long traditions.7

The starting date that is usually given for the development of the discipline of IR is the

period immediately following the First World War; yet this is rather misleading since it

implies that there was no study of the subject before then.8

7
Ray Maghroori and Bennet Ramberg, ed., Globalisation Versus Realism: International Third Debate,
Westview, Boulder Colorado, 1982, p. 9.
8
Hugh C. Dyer and Leon Mangasarian, The Study of International Relations, Macmillan Press Ltd,
London, p. 4.

3
 Until the 1970s the study of international relations centered mainly on

international security studies; that is, questions of war and peace. Scholars believed a

nation’s military power was the most important characteristic in determining how that

nation would relate to others. As a result, scholars focused on the relative military

strength of one nation compared to others, alliances and diplomacy between nations,

and the strategies nations used to protect their territories and further their own interests.

Since the 1970s the importance of economics in international relations has

grown and the study of international political economy (IPE) has received increased

attention. Scholars in this field believe that the primary force driving the interaction

between nations is economic, not military.

After the Cold War, a new security environment emerged. IR has covered a

wider scope of security matters that covers politics, economy, social, environment and

hosts of other factors, on top of the military.

THE IMPACTS OF MEDIA AND IT ON IR

There is no slightest doubt that the revolution of the media and IT had brought

some impacts on IR in all aspects. However, this paper’s discussions will analyze the

impacts that can be divided into three components: the collection and analysis of

information and intelligence, the process of decision-making, and the waging of war.9

9
John Baylis and Steve Smith, ed., The Globalization of World Politics, Oxford University Press,
Oxford, 2001, p. 553.

4
The Collection And Analysis Of Information And Intelligence

The world society in general and IR in particular can only be understood through

a study of the messages and communication facilities that belongs to it.10 The revolution

of the ‘means’ (the media) and the processing of data via computer (IT) had a tremendous

impact on the collection and analysis of information and intelligence. The amount of

international flow of information11 has increased manifolds over the years. This is due

to12:

• Modern information and communication technologies.

• Increased awareness of nation states, groups and individuals in the

importance of information flow.

• Increasing number of international and transnational actors in almost all

aspects: political, social and economics.

• The growing interest in comparative cross-cultural as well as public

opinion and image studies.

Although the means to collect and to store can be done mechanically using

available technologies, the analytical part of the process lacks useful tools. It is this part

of that process that requires human interface. Hence, the availability of the large amount

of information may result in information overload. Towards this end, it is still less clear

that more information and intelligence can be processed will translate into better policy.13

10
Hamid Mowlana, Global Information and World Communication, Sage Publications, London, 1997. p.
xi.
11
Defined as the movement of messages across national boundaries among two or more national and
cultural system. Ibid. p. 26.
12
Hamid Mowlana, p. 23
13
John Baylis and Steve Smith, ed., p. 554.

5
Decision-Making Process

The revolution of the media and IT had also brought an impact on the process of

making decision. Global networks allow government to centralize their decision-making

apparatus, giving more influence to a narrow range of top-level leaders.14 Ambassadors

are merely ‘puppets’ of the states but decision-making lies at home by the highest

possible authority. This is also applicable in war and conflicts where directive control

was once the order of the day. However, the centralization of political or military

decision-making authority does not automatically translate into sound, efficient choices

emanating from capitals.

The availability of timely required information may assist the decision making

process. However, in a highly democratic society, an informed citizen may get involved

in the process thus making decision making an elaborate and painstakingly slow process.

This may be the reverse in highly autocratic countries.

The Waging Of War

The revolution of the media and IT had also brought an impact the way war is

waged. Taking the Vietnam War for instance, the waging of the war was brought to the

America’s living room. Following the citizen’s displeasure about the war, the US

government had to systematically withdraw from the loosing war it was waging. During

the Gulf in 1990, a wide use of IT was demonstrated. The US forces were able to gain

14
Ibid.

6
specific information about enemy activities through use of AWACS (Airborne Warning

and Control System) and sent targeting data to allied forces.15

The revolution in IT had also given rise to ‘new war’.16 For armed networks

around the world, like Al Qaeda, improved information and communications technology

offer the means for these groups to organize across borders or from different corners of

the world. It is based on these global communication systems that some groups can raise

money through illegal trading in drugs, illegal immigrants, illicit remittances from

members of the networks throughout the world, etc. It is also through IT and the global

media that these networks can gain strategic information about countries like the US that

was not so accessible in years past.

However, heavy reliance on IT can be disastrous. In the new age of "virtual war",

hackers could attempt attacks on anything that relies on IT to function - from water

supplies to banking systems - potentially wreaking havoc in a given country. The

question remains whether terrorist networks possess the high level of expertise necessary

to commit these acts.

15
Ibid.
16
New War?, http://www.ssrc.org/sept11/essays/teaching_resource/tr_new_war.htm, Accessed on 10
August 2002.

7
 MEDIA AND IT VIS-A-VIS THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STATES

The fundamental question in this paper is whether the revolution in media and IT

had improved the relationship between states. A bunch of authors who tackled the

question of whether communication technology improves the quality and quantity of

political discourse have their answer as simply `no’.17 This paper will argue along the

same line that despite the advances and the revolution in the media and IT, it had not

make the relations between states better than it was for the following stated reasons.

Continued War and Conflicts

Despite the revolution in the media and IT, wars and conflicts continued to be

waged throughout the world. The fact is that the wars and conflicts do not only involved

undeveloped or developing countries but also highly developed countries like the US.

(For lists of Wars and Conflicts from 1900 – 1995 see Annex A). The presence of ‘mass’

media in highly democratized and developed countries has not been able to prevent war

despite one of the roles of the media in war and conflict is intervention.18

17
Philip Howard, ‘Can Technology Enhance Democracy? The Doubters’ Answer’,
http://lilt.ilstu.edu/gmklass/ITPnews/fall00/howardf00.htm, Accessed on 8 August 2002. See Anthony
Wilhelm, Democracy In A Digital Age: Challenges To Political Life In Cyberspace, Routledge, New York.
18
Loretta Hieber, Media as Intervention, http://ccrweb.ccr.uct.ac.za/two/7_4/p16_intervention.html,
Accessed on 10 August 2002.

8
 The developed countries tried and fully used high-tech IT equipment to gain

advantage over the less equipped enemies. The coalition forces war against Iraq in the

Gulf is a classic example of a modern warfare. Due to high technological revolution, any

future war will have some resemblance to that of the Gulf War with added use of long

range precision guided weapons, unmanned aerial vehicles, unmanned vehicle systems

and robotics. As large slow moving forces would be too vulnerable, the new concept of

warfare would be swift, non-linear with employment of small, agile and stealthy unit.19

The ‘new war’ much spoken by the US20, too, will be IT based.

Media and IT: Weapon of Two Sides

Media and IT is a weapon of two sides. All parties in war or conflict will try to

capitalize its usage to their advantage. However, a misemployment of the media and IT

may give a grave repercussion. A good example of a misemployment of media and IT

was in the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War is known as the first ‘America’s living-room

war’. Journalists were allowed to travel throughout Vietnam to report whatever they saw.

As a result, the US lost the war at the home front. Even as recent as the September 11

incidents, as the US-led retaliation was building up, various news media were reporting

the ‘propaganda battle’ on both sides,21 until the US capitalized on it. The Persian Gulf

War however is a good example whereby the media and IT were fully capitalized by the

US who has the higher capability. Some even opined that the Gulf war did not take place:

19
Michael J. Mazar, Don M. Snider, and James A. Blackwell Jr, Desert Storm The Gulf War and What We
Learned, Westview Press, Colorado, 1993, pp. 98-99.
20
New War?, ibid.
21
War, Propaganda and the Media, http://www.globalissues.org/HumanRights/Media/Military.asp, Accessed on 19
August 2002.

9
the war was a phenomenon of media.22 Hence it can be seen that media and IT are

weapons. In war and conflict situation, the aims of the media and IT are not primarily

meant to make the relations between states better than it was, but to achieve the political

objectives of the states or non-states.

Imbalance Rate of IT Revolution

It is an accepted fact that the rate of development between countries especially

that of the West and the Third World countries is different. The priorities for

development in Third World countries also are different than those of the West. While

the Third World countries are developing on basic infrastructures, the Western countries

are developing their IT. The continued imbalance rate of growth will persist, and the gap

between the West and the Third World countries will remain constant. Therefore,

technologically, it is very difficult for both the West and the Third World countries to be

able to communicate on an even playing field. Hence, the imbalance growth in IT

revolution could not make the relations between states better than it was.

Man Over Machine

There is no doubt that the revolution in the media and IT has brought together a

large volume of information to be shared between states at a relatively fast speed.

Leaders of states can communicate between each other any time at their own

convenience. However, communication through such media is very impersonal. More

22
Martin Shaw, ‘Crystallizations of Media in the Global Revolution’,
http://www.martinshaw.org/crystal.htm, Accessed on 13 August 2002.

10
often than not, it is unable to express feelings and emotions. There is still need for leaders

of states to visit or meet each other in conferences either bilaterally of multilaterally. No

matter how far IT has evolved, it cannot overwrite the relationship between men who

represent the actors (states). Hence, IT by itself could not make the relations between

states better.

Globalization Increases Competition

Globalization increases competition in all aspects: political, economic, military

and social. Two of the more important aspects are political and economics. In the

political arena, some political scientists argue that globalization is weakening nation-

states and that global institutions gradually will take over the functions and power of

nation-states. Other social scientists believe that while increased global inter-connectivity

will result in dramatic changes in world politics, particularly in IR, the nation-state will

remain at the center of international political activity.23 When state remains the important

actor, the realist paradigm of power relationship will still prevail. There are still good

thinking that 21st century will still be a realist century.24 No matter how advance the

media and IT could be, the relations between states better may not necessarily be better.

Economic activity will become more globally oriented and integrated. Some

economists argue that it is no longer meaningful to think in terms of national economies;

international trade has become central to most local and domestic economies around the

23
Globalization, http://www.ssrc.org/sept11/essays/teaching_resource/tr_globalization.htm, Accessed on
10 August 2002.
24
John Baylis and Steve Smith, ed. ibid. p. 159.

11
world.25 The recent focus on the international integration of economies is based on the

desirability of a free global market with as few trade barriers as possible, allowing for

true competition across borders. When there is competition, there is winner and looser.

The winners on one end would be the developed countries, and the looser on the other

end would be the undeveloped and developing countries. Obviously, this would not help

build better interstate relationship.

Impact on Democracy

Wilhelm's Democracy in a Digital Age26 has the most thorough and sensible

review of contemporary thought on the social construction of technology and the

technological construction of society. He and his authors offer a concise grouping of the

ways public communication may be facilitated or inhibited by conducting politics online.

First, public communication will be affected by the skills and resources people bring to

the process of engagement. Second, it will be affected by the distribution of computing

resources across familiar categories of social inequality - race, gender and class. Third,

people will have to commit to a deliberative process that involves subjecting one's

opinions to public scrutiny and validation. Finally, the technical design of software

applications, network architecture and hardware devices will affect the quality and

quantity of political engagement online.

25
Globalization, ibid.
26
Anthony Wilhelm, Democracy in a Digital Age: Challenges to Political Life in Cyberspace, Routledge,
New York, 2000.

12
 Wilhelm's conclusion, in line with his peers, is that political communication

online is unraveling the democratic character of the public sphere because:

• Barriers to entry into the digitally-mediated public sphere are high;

• the online public does not represent or reflect the public;

• the speed of the networked democracy undermines the useful slow pace of

democratic decision making;

• and the public sphere itself is giving way to market pressures, pay-per-use

services and privately owned media environments.

Although the barriers to entry of public communication are actually dropping

because of market pressures and the online public is becoming demographically

representative, the speeding up of the deliberative process may weaken the political

power of social elites. This will cause domestic disorder that will eventually transform

into international disorder.

CONCLUSION

The evolution of the media and IT has taken place a long time. However, the

revolution of IR as a field of study has been relatively recent. The invention of computer

and internet has caused a dramatic change and made the media `mass’. There are some

positive and negative impacts of the media and IT on IR as had been elaborated above.

But, nevertheless the advances in the media and IT had not make the relations between

states any better than it was.

13
 Despite the media and IT advancement, wars and conflicts are still being waged

throughout the world that involved both developed and developing states. All parties

involved use the media and IT as their tool to achieve their states’ or organizations’

political objectives. The imbalance in the rate of revolution, coupled with the negative

impacts of globalization resulted by the IT revolution, in many ways causes unfair

competitions between the Western and Third World countries.

Machine has no emotions. Thus, when dealing with relation between states,

technology is unable to replace visits, meetings and conferences where views, feelings

and emotions can be expressed. It may however complement them. Finally, it was argued

that the technological advancement has some negative impacts on the democratic politic

online. The speeding up of the deliberative process by the technological advancement

may weaken the political power of social elites. As a result, there will be domestic

disorder that will eventually be transformed into international disorder.

With that note, this paper ends the argument that, despite the advances in the

media and IT had not make the relations between states better than it was, maybe, not yet.

14
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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JOURNAL

Darnton G and S Giacoletto, “Information in the Enterprise: Its more than Technology”,
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15
INTERNET

Botes, Jannie, ‘Dialogue of the Deaf’,

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16