BY:

ZAINAB ARIF FAROOQUI (A7065109001)

JYOTI SRIVASTAVA (A7605109004)
SECTION A
E&CE
What is a Signal
We are all immersed in a sea of signals. All of us from the smallest living
unit, a cell, to the most complex living organism(humans) are all time time
receiving signals and are processing them. Survival of any living organism
depends upon processing the signals appropriately. What is signal? To define
this precisely is a difficult task. Anything which carries information is a signal.
In this course we will learn some of the mathematical representations of
the signals, which has been found very useful in making information processing
systems. Examples of signals are human voice, chirping of birds, smoke
signals, gestures (sign language), fragrances of the flowers. Many of our body
functions are regulated by chemical signals, blind people use sense of touch.
Bees communicate by their dancing pattern.Some examples of modern high
speed signals are the voltage charger in a telephone wire, the electromagnetic
field emanating from a transmitting antenna,variation of light intensity in an
optical fiber. Thus we see that there is an almost endless variety of signals
and a large number of ways in which signals are carried from on place to
another place.
In this course we will adopt the following definition for the signal: A signal
is a real (or complex) valued function of one or more real variable(s).
When the function depends on a single variable, the signal is said to be
onedimensional.
A speech signal, daily maximum temperature, annual rainfall
at a place, are all examples of a one dimensional signal.When the function
depends on two or more variables, the signal is said to be multidimensional.
An image is representing the two dimensional signal,vertical and horizontal
coordinates representing the two dimensions. Our physical world is four
dimensional(three spatial and one temporal).

Classification of signals

Continuous signal
A continuous signal or a continuous-time signal is a varying quantity (a signal) whose domain, which is often
time, is a continuum (e.g., a connected interval of the reals). That is, the function's domain is an uncountable set.
The function itself need not be continuous. To contrast, a discrete time signal has a countable domain, like
the natural numbers.

The signal is defined over a domain, which may or may not be finite, and there is a functional mapping from the
domain to the value of the signal. The continuity of the time variable, in connection with the law of density of real
numbers, means that the signal value can be found at any arbitrary point in time.

A typical example of an infinite duration signal is:

A finite duration counterpart of the above signal could be:

and f(t) = 0 otherwise.

In many disciplines, the convention is that a continuous signal must always have a finite value, which makes more
sense in the case of physical signals.

Any analogue signal is continuous by nature. Discrete signals, used in digital signal processing, can be obtained
by sampling and quantization of continuous signals.

Continuous signal may also be defined over an independent variable other than time. Another very common
independent variable is space and is particularly useful in image processing, where two space dimensions are used.

Discrete signal

Discrete sampled signal

A discrete signal or discrete-time signal is a time series consisting of a sequence of quantities. In other words, it
is a time series that is a function over a domain of discrete integers. Each value in the sequence is called a sample.

Unlike a continuous-time signal, a discrete-time signal is not a function of a continuous argument; however, it may
have been obtained by sampling from a continuous-time signal. When a discrete-time signal is a sequence
corresponding to uniformly spaced times, it has an associated sampling rate; the sampling rate is not apparent in
the data sequence, so may be associated as a separate data item.

The discrete trigonometric functions are defined as follows. n is the sequence index and ω is the angular
frequency. ω=2πf, where f is the digital frequency.

DISCRETE SINE:
x(n)=sin(ωn)

DISCRETE COSINE:
x(n)=cos(ωn)
 Figure 2: A discrete sine with digital frequency 1/20.

Impulse Signal
An impulse function is a special function that is often used by engineers to model certain
events. An impulse function is not realizable, in that by definition the output of an impulse
function is infinity at certain values. An impulse function is also known as a "delta function",
although there are different types of delta functions that each have slightly different
properties. Specifically, this unit-impulse function is known as the Dirac delta function. The
term "Impulse Function" is unambiguous, because there is only one definition of the term
"Impulse".

In signal processing, the impulse response, or impulse response function (IRF), of a dynamic system is its
output when presented with a brief input signal, called an impulse. More generally, an impulse response refers to
the reaction of any dynamic system in response to some external change. In both cases, the impulse response
describes the reaction of the system as a function of time (or possibly as a function of some other independent
variable that parameterizes the dynamic behavior of the system).

Mathematical considerations
Mathematically, how the impulse is described depends on whether the system is modeled
in discrete or continuous time. The impulse can be modeled as a Dirac delta function for continuous-
time systems, or as the Kronecker delta fordiscrete-time systems. The Dirac delta represents the limiting case
of a pulse made very short in time while maintaining its area or integral (thus giving an infinitely high peak).
While this is impossible in any real system, it is a useful idealisation.

Dirac delta function

Schematic representation of the Dirac delta function by a line surmounted by an arrow. The height of the arrow is usually used to
specify the value of any multiplicative constant, which will give the area under the function. The other convention is to write the
area next to the arrowhead.

The Dirac delta or Dirac's delta is a mathematical construct introduced by theoretical physicist Paul Dirac.
Informally, it is a generalized function δ(x) that has the value zeroeverywhere except at x = 0 where its value is
infinitely large in such a way that its total integral is 1. In the context of signal processing it is often referred to as
the unit impulse function.

The Dirac delta is not strictly a function, because any real function that is equal to zero everywhere but a single
point must have total integral zero. While for many purposes it can be manipulated as a function, formally it can be
defined as a distribution that is also a measure. In many applications, the Dirac delta is regarded as a kind of limit
(a weak limit) of asequence of functions having a tall spike at the origin. The approximating functions of the
sequence are thus "approximate" or "nascent" delta functions.

The graph of the delta function is usually thought of as following the whole x-axis and the positive y-axis.

Despite its name, the delta function is not truly a function, at least not a usual one with domain in reals. For
example, the objects f(x) = δ(x) and g(x) = 0 are equal everywhere except at x = 0 yet have integrals that are
different The Dirac delta is used to model a tall narrow spike function (an impulse), and other
similar abstractions such as a point charge, point mass or electron point. For example, to calculate the dynamics of
a baseball being hit by a bat, one can approximate the force of the bat hitting the baseball by a delta function. In
doing so, one not only simplifies the equations, but one also is able to calculate the motion of the baseball by only
considering the total impulse of the bat against the ball rather than requiring knowledge of the details of how the bat
transferred energy to the ball.
Definitions
The Dirac delta can be loosely thought of as a function on the real line which is zero everywhere except at the
origin, where it is infinite,

and which is also constrained to satisfy the identity

[4]

Kronecker delta
In mathematics, the Kronecker delta or Kronecker's delta, named after Leopold Kronecker (1823-1891), is
a function of two variables, usually integers, which is 1 if they are equal, and 0 otherwise. So, for example,

δ1,2 = 0, but
δ3,3 = 1

It is written as the symbol δij, and treated as a notational shorthand rather than as a function.

Alternate notation
Often, the notation δi is used.

Similarly, in digital signal processing, the same concept is represented as a function

on (the integers):

The function is referred to as an impulse, or unit impulse. And when it stimulates a

signal processing element, the output is called the impulse response of the element.
We can define this rectangle in terms of the unit step function:

Now, we want to analyze this rectangle, as A becomes infinitesimally small. We can

define this new function, the delta function, in terms of this rectangle:

We can similarly define the delta function piecewise, as such:

1. .

2. δ(t) is undefined for t = 0.

 3. .

Although, this definition is less rigorous then the previous definition.

[edit]Integration

From its definition it follows that the integral of the impulse function is just the step
function:

Thus, defining the derivative of the unit step function as the impulse function
is justified.

[edit]Sampling Theorem
Furthermore, for an integrable function f:

This is known as the sampling theorem, because it effectively samples

the value of the function f, at location A.

The delta function has many uses in engineering, and one of the most
important uses is to sample a continuous function into discrete values.

The sampling theorem is written as follows:

Using this theory, we can extract a single value from a continuous

function by multiplying with an impulse, and then integrating.

Heaviside step function or Unit Step Function

The Heaviside step function, in CTS

The Heaviside step function, H, also called the unit step function, is a discontinuous function whose value
is zero for negative argument and one for positive argument. It seldom matters what value is used for H(0),
since H is mostly used as a distribution. Some common choices can be seen below.

The function is used in the mathematics of control theory and signal processing to represent a signal that switches
on at a specified time and stays switched on indefinitely. It was named after the English polymath Oliver Heaviside.

The Heaviside function is the integral of the Dirac delta function: H′ = δ. This is sometimes written as

although this expansion may not hold (or even make sense) for x = 0, depending on which formalism one
uses to give meaning to integrals involving δ.

Discrete form
An alternative form of the unit step, as a function of a discrete variable n:

where n is an integer. Unlike the usual (not discrete) case, the definition of H[0] is significant.

The discrete-time unit impulse is the first difference of the discrete-time step

This function is the cumulative summation of the Kronecker delta:

where

is the discrete unit impulse function.

(a) Unit step function, no delay.

(b) Unit step function, delayed by 5.

 Figure 1: Two unit step functions.

Unit Step Function

The unit step function and the impulse function are considered to be fundamental functions in engineering,
and it is strongly recommended that the reader becomes very familiar with both of these functions.

Unit Step Function

Shifted Unit Step function

The unit step function, also known as the Heaviside function, is defined as such:

Derivative
The unit step function is level in all places except for a discontinuity at t = 0. For this reason, the
derivative of the unit step function is 0 at all points t, except where t = 0. Where t = 0, the derivative of
the unit step function is infinite.

The derivative of a unit step function is called an Impulse Function. The impulse function will be
described in more detail next.

Integral
The integral of a unit step function is computed as such:
 In other words, the integral of a unit step is a "romp" function. This function is 0 for all values that
are less than zero, and becomes a straight line at zero with a slope of +1.

Other Properties
Here we will list some other properties of the unit step function:

Other Properties
Here we will list some other properties of the unit step function:



 u(t) + u( − t) = 1

Ramp function
The ramp function is an elementary unary real function, easily computable as the mean of its independent
variable and its absolute value.

Definitions

Graph of the ramp function

The ramp function ( ) may be defined analytically in several ways. Possible definitions are:

 The mean of a straight line with unity gradient and its modulus:
this can be derived by noting the following definition of max(a,b), , for
which a = x and b = 0

 The Heaviside step function multiplied by a straight line with unity gradient:

 The convolution of the Heaviside step function with itself:

 The integral of the Heaviside step function:

DISRETE TIME RAMP SIGNAL

(c) Unit ramp

This is a divergent signal (amplitude goes to ∞ as n goes to ∞)

R[n]= n,  n≥0
   0,  n<0 

Continuous Time Complex Exponential and

Sinusoidal Signals
Exponential and sinusoidal signals play an important role in signal
analysis, as we can express many other signals in terms of these signals.
Part 1: Real Exponential Signals
General continuous time complex exponential functions have the form
x(t) = Ceαt
where C and α complex numbers in general. When both C and a are real,
x(t)
becomes a real function.

Real exponentials with positive and negative a values are called

growing and decaying exponentials respectively.

Figure 3: Real exponential

IN DTS
IN CTS
Part 2: Periodic Complex Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
When the parameter a in equation (6.1), i.e. in the expression of the
general continuous time complex exponential function, is purely imaginary, then
the exponential signal will be periodic. We can show this as follows.
Let a = jw0, then x(t) defined as Ceat becomes
x(t) = Ce jw0t , (6.2)
and x(t+T) becomes
+
x(t + T) = Ce jw0 (t T ) = Ce jw0te jw0T . (6.3)
For the last expression to be equal to x(t), e jw0T must be 1, which
implies that
.
This way, we have shown that the well-known general cosine or sine
functions or signals are real and imaginary parts of a complex exponential signal
with a purely imaginary exponent, respectively.
Both cosine and sine
signals go under the name sinusoidal signals.
(decaying exponential envelope).
Signum Function

.
Signum function y = sgn(x)

In mathematics, the sign function is an odd mathematical function that extracts the sign of a real number. To avoid
confusion with the sine function, this function is often called thesignum function (from signum, Latin for "sign").

In mathematical expressions the sign function is often represented as sgn.

Definition
The signum function of a real number x is defined as follows:

Properties
Any real number can be expressed as the product of its absolute value and its sign function:

From equation (1) it follows that whenever x is not equal to 0 we have

The signum function is the derivative of the absolute value function (up to the indeterminacy at
zero): Note, the resultant power of x is 0, similar to the ordinary derivative of x. The numbers
cancel and all we are left with is the sign of x.

The signum function is differentiable with derivative 0 everywhere except at 0. It is not

differentiable at 0 in the ordinary sense, but under the generalised notion of differentiation
in distribution theory, the derivative of the signum function is two times the Dirac delta
function,

The signum function is related to the Heaviside step function H(x) thus:

sgn(x)= 2H(x)-1
ANNEXURE 1
ANNEXURE II